COLUMBIA SCIENCE REVIEW Vol. 4, Issue 1: Spring 2007
Inside: Global Warning?
The Medicinal Properties of Orchids
Faculty Profile: Professor Scott A. Snyder
HIV in a Muslim Context Credit
The Columbia Science Review The Columbia Science Review strives to increase knowledge and awareness of science and technology in Columbia community, by presenting engaging and informative approaches to contemporary science and technology that include, but are not limited to:
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Editorial Board Representatives Christopher O’Conor Niccola Perez Charles Ekstein Shelly Zhu Daniel Brujis
Special Thanks to Student Development and Activities Office of Undergraduate Admissions Activities Board at Columbia Cynthia L. Jennings Melissa Ewing Dominic McClure Allison G. Fortune Angela Kou Keith E. Hernandez
Columbia Science Review Credit
Shelly Zhu is a freshman in Columbia College, possibly majoring in psychology. She currently serves as the Chair of Reviewers for CSR.
Sweta Agrawal is a sophomore in Columbia College majoring in Neuroscience. She loves to experiment on brains. In particular, she hopes to someday be a university professor working on glial cells or the science of smell. Until then, she’ll settle for working in Dr. Siegelbaum’s lab, analyzing dendritic trafficking.
Umara Saleem is a senior Psychology major and Biology minor at Barnard College. She conducts research in the Department of Genetics and Development at the Columbia Medical Campus. To her, science exploration is both a passion and a hobby. Her article on the “Medicinal Properties of Orchids” is on page 26.
Mason Jiang is a freshman at the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, studying Applied Physics.
Ying Li is a freshman from Hong Kong thinking about majoring in Neuroscience. She also enjoys eating tropical fruit.
Duncan Kluwak is a junior in the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Sciences. He is majoring in Mechanical Engineering with a minor in Economics.
Sara Stream is a freshman in Columbia College. She has written an article for the AMSA Bioethics Newsletter and one for the Special Features section.
Stanimir Rachev is a junior in Columbia College, majoring in Biochemistry. His interest in the life sciences was catalyzed by a course he took freshman year after having been seriously involved with Physics in high school. His first acquaintance with climate change was through a scientist he knows at home, who is studying the influence of the Sun on planetary atmospheres.
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. Call for Articles Columbia Science Review
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Questions? Comments? Article Submissions? Please visit us at www.columbiasciencereview.org Table of Contents COLUMBIA SCIENCE REVIEW
Columbia Science in the News 6
Book Review: Next 6
Columbia AMSA Biothics Newsletter Submissions 8
Peeling the Layer: A Look at Single Carbon Planes 10
Egypt Veiled From the Truth: HIV in a Muslim Context 14
Panda News 15
Global Warning 20
Book Review: The God Delusion 1
Invesitgating the Medicinal Properties of Orchids
Faculty Profile: Professor Scott A. Snyder 4
Anti-Angiogenic Drugs: A Replacement for Chemotherapy 6
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. Book Review: Next by Micharl Crichton Columbia Science in the News by Sara Stream research team. The ultimate goal of the researchers is to develop stem cell transplantation methods that will either cure or treat Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), commonly known individuals with ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases, such as Lou Gehrig’s disease, results in the death of motor neurons, as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Approximately which leads to decreased voluntary muscle activity. As ALS 30,000 individuals in the US currently are living with ALS and progresses, muscles that do not receive messages from the brain approximately 5,600 individuals are diagnosed with ALS each weaken and begin to twitch as they are wasting away. When year. Most die from respiratory failure within 3 to 5 years after muscles in the diaphragm and chest wall fail, individuals die of the onset of symptoms. The Columbia University researchers’ respiratory complications. In 2002, Columbia Health Science stem cell research provides new hope for effective treatment and a researchers used embryonic stem cells from mice to identify the possible cure for ALS. cells that differentiated into motor neurons. First, the Columbia scientists stimulated embryonic stem cells Works Cited to develop them into motor neurons. They photo by Daniel Brujis House OKs Stem Cell Research found 30% of the cells had developed Bill, Time Magazine, 1/11/07 into motor neurons. In addition, the http://www.time.com/time/nation/ researchers devised a method of genetic article/0,8599,1576894,00.html tagging, allowing them to identify the cells that differentiated into motor neurons. Project ALS Opens Privately- Dr. Hynek Wichterle, of the Columbia Funded Stem Cell Research lab, research team, inserted these motor Columbia Motor Neuron Center neurons into a chick embryo’s spinal cord press release, June 2006 and found that they behaved as normal http://columbiamnc.org/pdf/news/ motor neurons. This discovery signified PALS_press_release_june06.pdf that embryonic stem cells could develop into and function as the motor neurons Custom-made Motor Neurons, that are destroyed by ALS. Susan Conova, Columbia In 2005, President Bush vetoed University Health Sciences, 2002 a congressional bill aimed at providing http://www.cumc.columbia.edu/ federal funding for stem cell research. In response to this veto, news/in-vivo/Vol1_Iss15_sept25_02/index.html the privately funded Project ALS/Jenifer Estess Laboratory for Stem Cell Research was formed in May 2006. Columbia About ALS, ALS Association, last updated 2004 University researchers and clinicians joined with Project ALS http://www.alsa.org/als/default.cfm?CFID=3296118&CFTOKE in this laboratory that focuses on stem cell research involving N=292143 ALS and other motor neuron diseases. The laboratory is located in New York and allows Columbia’s researchers, as well as Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis Information page, National researchers from other New York based institutions, to study Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, last updated embryonic stem cells without government interference. Dr. November 30, 2006 Thomas Jessell serves as the research advisor, while Dr. Hynek http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/amyotrophiclateralsclerosis/ Wichterle and Dr. Christopher Henderson, both of whom amyotrophiclateralsclerosis.htm serve as senior scientific advisors, lead the Columbia University What is Next... by Jonathan L. Mo known for his novels Jurassic Park (1990) afterward author’s comments, a critique and Andromeda Strain (1969), he is also the of the current “debate” surrounding global Harvard educated physician creator of the television series ER. warming and climate change. Many people Michael Crichton is one of the most Recently, Crichton made news felt he sought to weaken the scientific noted modern day science-fiction authors, in the scientific community with his book argument supporting the dangers of as well as a proponent of controversial State of Fear (2004) in which he presented, human-caused global warming, and that he scientific opinions in his own right. Best via both a fictional story and his trademark attempted to use his scientific background as
Columbia Science Review Book Review: Next by Micharl Crichton a vehicle to discredit true climate scientists. confuse the story rather than When he gave testimony before Congress enrich it, and the dialogue requesting that climate science be required simply lacks all emotion. to show more specific proof for its claims, The numerous chapters, he was decried by many in the scientific often quite brief, follow no less community for purposely damaging a than seven subplots, and in the true scientific argument through both his end they are resolved rather fictional stories and his comments to the unsatisfactorily, a deus ex machina public and the government. that, while not surprising for Even as early as Jurassic Park, Crichton readers, in this case Crichton’s formula has always seemed akin fails because of the complexity to that of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, full of the plot. All the while I of warnings and moral questions about the was under the impression that future of unregulated scientific advances. a great concluding symposium It was perhaps this controversial attitude of the characters and subplots to his “techno-thriller” novels, along would have saved the novel with a very rapid storytelling pace and a from mediocrity, but such a meticulous attention to scientific detail, Dickens-esque consolidation even when fictional, that led to his great did not occur. Rather each novelistic success. Indeed, having read all complicated subplot is resolved of his writing, including those few works independently, with a few of of non-fiction, I must admit, his work is them tying together rather highly impressive, particularly because so weakly as the story wraps up. few authors write truly in-depth science- Once it’s over, the reader realizes fiction, where true science is so unbelievably that not only are there very few well blended with fiction. of the thrilling or disturbing But unfortunately, his latest conclusions that Crichton is endeavor is severely lacking the rather known for, but that there aforementioned elements of his former was little conflict to begin with, that as a huge long-time fan of Crichton’s success. Next, published in 2006, concerns meaning there is little to resolve. The work and the films based on his novels, modern genetics, the field he has been most message imparted at the conclusion of Next is certainly the worst of them. It associated with given his success with Jurassic almost every other Crichton science-fiction has a mess of characters, conflicts, and Park and The Lost World (1995). Crichton, as work has always been a powerful one, a interconnections that hardly comprise a usual, critiques genetic research, warning us true warning about science, and those who meaningful plot, and it necessarily concludes about the control of current biotechnology would seek to rush its advance, or to utilize in a twisted, unsatisfactory way. While the and research involving genetic science. it for their own corrupt agendas. At the scientific aspects are characteristically well end of Next though, one does not get this developed, once one reads the author’s His warning is perhaps merited; sense. Since Crichton does not develop message, which contains his brief warnings biotechnology is often reputed as one of an impending sense of danger or scenes about biotechnology gone astray, one the most nascent, yet fastest growing, areas of horrible science gone awry, he has little wonders why they didn’t just read that and of scientific research, and one of the most material with which to conclude. The novel skip the novel altogether, since it does little controversial. He essentially makes the then becomes fundamentally flawed, and to impress upon the reader the true urgency point that unregulated genetic research and while certainly entertaining at times, not and threat posed by such science Crichton legal ambiguities have the potential to allow very satisfying in its conclusions. seems worried about. corporations, governments and institutions That being said, Crichton’s I would still recommend the book to not only own and patent human genetic attention to scientific detail is well to anyone who is a Crichton fan, and who material, but also create genetic hybrids. recognized, as usual. It is nice to know he has already read all of his other novels. It Yet besides this simple warning about is reliable in some sense at least, even if he is worth reading solely to appreciate his an altogether complicated problem, the could not deliver his usual exciting plots. other masterpieces. If you are a newbie fictional story itself is poorly crafted. The This novel’s science though, is not nearly as to Crichton, I personally recommend twisted plot abounds with so many different complex as that of say Timeline (1999), my Timeline, Jurassic Park, State of Fear and The subplots and their own hosts of characters personal favorite, or as detailed as that of Great Train Robbery (1975). Other than that one might want to diagram the story to Airframe (1996). Nevertheless, the science that, one can only wait and hope that his keep track of all of them. However, while does not save the book, making it instead next book will be better than Next. the events discussed are clearly negative, rather disappointing since one can tell Next is in no way a thrilling read. There they are reading Michael Crichton, but are The novel has a companion website that is is nary a thrilling moment in this book, looking for his usual storylines only to find satirically meant to resemble the website leading the reader to strongly question its them absent. of a fictional biotechnology firm: http:// claim as a “thriller.” The few plot twists On the bottom line, I would say www.nextgencode.com/
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. Columbia AMSA Bioethics Newsletter Submissions Columbia AMSA Bioethics Newsletter Submissions
New York Attempts to Ban The Risks of Egg Donation Trans Fat by Jennifer Gillman by Sara Stream In recent years, the demand for Trans fat results when hydrogen donated ova used by infertile women as is added to vegetable oil, creating partially well as stem cell researchers, has increased. hydrogenated oil. Hydrogenation and trans Researchers are currently developing a fats are important to the food industry new cloning technique called somatic cell because they increase the shelf life and nuclear transfer, which replaces the nucleus flavor stability of foods such as vegetable of the unfertilized egg with that of a body shortening, margarine, cookies and snack cell. Due to the high demand and the foods. Although the food industry benefits scarce number donors, renewed controversy from the use of trans fats, they are harmful has come up regarding the health risks to humans. Trans fats raise low-density associated with the drugs used for multiple lipoprotein (LDL) levels, referred to as egg extractions (Norsigian, 6). “bad cholesterol.” Increased consumption In order to have the donor of foods with trans fat can lead to the risk produce numerous egg follicles, she is first of coronary heart disease. Since January required to take a drug such as Lupron, 1, 2006, the FDA has required trans fat which temporarily halts the production of contents to be included on all food nutrition eggs, prior to hyperstimulation. Although the FDA has approved Lupron, it has labels, allowing people to make healthy presence of trans fats and be able to make not been approved for the specific use in choices when purchasing and consuming their own choices concerning consumption. the egg extraction process. There is a long packaged food. One of the main sources for A public hearing is scheduled for October list of possible side effects associated with trans fat, however, is oil that is used to fry 30 and a vote in December will decide this drug including headaches, nausea, and bake food in restaurants. whether this proposal will be passed. Recently, the New York City depression, and amnesia. Other drugs taken to stimulate the ovaries could cause board of health has proposed a ban on Works Cited Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome, a trans fats in all restaurants within New Baron, Mike. “Trans Fat Ban.” The Post condition that leads to the development of York City. The board believes that the ban Chronicle October 19, 2006 ovarian cysts and fluid build-up in the body. will decrease deaths due to heart attacks, http://www.postchronicle.com/news/ Although this condition may be rare, it can and furthermore will increase the overall original/article_21245098.shtml be potentially fatal (Norsigian, 6-8). health of New Yorkers. The ban also aims Mason, Michael. “A Dangerous Fat and Many women who undergo these to decrease the burden on taxpayers to its Risky Alternatives.” New York Times procedures aren’t adequately informed support treatment for obesity and heart October 10, 2006. http://www.nytimes. about these potential risks. Some studies disease. Dr Walter Willett, a leading com/2006/10/10/health/nutrition/10cons. suggest that the fertility drugs may cause nutrition researcher at Harvard University, html?ex=1161403200&en=c5363db168cb cancer (Papadimos 56). In order to verify believes that this proposed ban in New 6eb4&ei=5070 such results, researchers have to study the York could prevent 500 deaths a year. “Revealing Trans Fats, US Food and long-term effects of this cocktail of drugs. Yet, opponents of the ban point out that Drug Administration.” FDA Consumer In addition to the issue of many many New Yorkers have been consciously Magazine, September 2003. participants not completely understanding consuming less trans fat and that banning it http://www.fda.gov/fdac/ the possible risks, when egg donation in restaurants would not make a significant features/2003/503_fats.html programs provide large monetary incentives impact on overall health. Many consumers Wood and Hefler, Sam and Jan. “The Trans for their donors, they compromise the are opposed to this ban because they see it fat is in the fire.” Philadelphia Inquirer policy of informed consent. As a result of as the government interference with daily October 13, 2006. http://www.philly. aggressive egg donor recruitment strategies, lifestyles and personal decision-making. com/mld/inquirer/news/local/states/new_ many advertisements in magazines and Opponents would rather be aware of the jersey/15745397.htm
Columbia Science Review Columbia AMSA Bioethics Newsletter Submissions newspapers are aimed at healthy college The catalyst for decisive change students. With women facing financial in medical ethics came in the form of the problems, such as high tuition debts, Second World War. Physicians had played their need for cash could undermine their a significant role in many of the greatest concerns about the health risks involved in atrocities of the Holocaust, and medicine donating their eggs (Papadimos 56). itself was clearly at the point of crisis. So, when the General Assembly of the World Works Cited Medical Association met in 1948, they Norsigian, Judy. “Egg Donation Dangers.” issued the Declaration of Council for Responsible Genetics. Geneva as a revision September 2005, 18.5, 6-8. 20 October and modernization 2006.
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. Carbon Planes Peeling the Layers: A Look at Single
http://physicsweb.org The structural scheme of a single graphene layer with hexagonal cells Carbon Planes card analogy. Professor Geim’s group cells that strongly bond carbon atoms in by Mason Jiang first published a copy of its innovative each layer of the material eventually force techniques in isolating graphene through a graphite to, rather than connect its individual If you pick up a full deck of supplement to one of its papers. layers with strong covalent bonds, actually playing cards, you hold 52 individual layers Geim’s group began with widely hold each layer together with significantly of cards in your hand. If you then deal out available pieces of highly-oriented pyrolytic weaker Van der Waals forces. In effect, this 51 of those cards, one layer at a time, from graphite (HOPG), a pure form of graphite makes graphite fragile between layers and top to bottom, you will unsurprisingly end without other substances mixed in, as is causes the slippery feeling induced when up with an individual playing card. The the case with pencil lead.5 Taking HOPG, rubbing pencil lead between your fingers as simplicity in this scenario fools no one, but the group subsequently etched a pattern of carbon atomic planes easily slide past each amazingly, researchers recently found that uniform square bumps, called “mesas,” and other. this elementary principle can produce a then covered the sample with a photoresist With this principle in mind, single layer of carbon atoms called graphene. layer meant to aid in the chemical portion of Geim’s group then applied it to shrink Described by Professor Andre Giem’s the patterning process. Ensuing baking of the HOPG mesas previously formed. group, which first prepared it in2 004 at the the entire HOPG sample forced the mesas Interestingly enough, the group used University of Manchester (UK), “Graphene to stick to the photoresist layer and allowed ordinary scotch tape and repeatedly peeled is a monolayer of carbon atoms packed into the group to mechanically “cleave” the off layers of graphite from the mesas until a dense honeycomb crystal structure that mesas off for the following step, definitely little HOPG was left on the photoresist. can be viewed as an individual atomic plane a most exhilarating one and encapsulating As the group then wanted to examine extracted from graphite.”6 At this atomic some of the most interesting characteristics the thin and nearly visible graphite flakes thickness, measurements lie in the range of graphite. but without the photoresist, they placed of 3 to 4 Angstroms, about 250,000 times For some background, graphite the entire sample in a strong solution of smaller than the thickness of this page! is very stimulating in structural terms. acetone, which pulled the flakes off and left Isolating a material so unimaginably thin, Quite distinctive of graphite, the hexagonal them floating in the acetone. To capture strong, (due to the stable hexagonal cells of carbon atoms patterning the graphene), Geim, A, K., K. S. Novoselov, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos, I. V. Grigorieva, and A, A. Firsov. and electrically conducive, becomes very “Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films.” Science, 306, 22 Oct. 2004 fascinating to scientists, especially those hoping to apply these properties to high- speed electronics and sturdy materials. As Geim optimistically puts it, graphene “is full of surprises and shows far greater promise than one could reasonably hope for in a new experimental system.”3
The Simpler, The Better The unique structural aspects of graphene endow researchers with much excitement about future practical applications. At the same time, much of the interest generated by this extraordinary material evolves from its “bench-top” methods of preparation. In fact, the initial A scanning electron microscope capture of an experimental device made of preparation of graphene does not stray graphene strips by Manchester University too far from the aforementioned playing
10 Columbia Science Review Carbon Planes the tiny flakes and place them on a surface researchers interested in exploring graphene. that with graphene, not only do electrons capable of closer inspection, it was apparent As more experimentalists recreated Geim’s move quickly through the material, which to the group to dip silicon wafers with thick method with their own trials, more efficient is the case with many other conductors, but silicon oxide layers on top into the solution techniques soon sprouted. For instance, they actually “mimic relativistic particles and pick up the thin graphite. After using one interesting process introduced by a with zero rest mass and have an effective ultrasound cleaning to remove the larger pioneering group from Georgia Institute ‘speed of light’ c [effective] = 106 m/s,” just flakes on the graphite-populated silicon of Technology led by Professor Walt de 300 times slower than the speed of light in wafers, the group was ready to narrow down Heer exhibits the heating of silicon carbide a vacuum.6 This means that these electrons, the samples. wafers to “drive silicon atoms from the given the technical term “massless Dirac For the purpose of viewing very surface, leaving a thin continuous layer of fermions” by Geim to indicate their distinct tiny samples, it is natural to rely on the graphene.”1,9 Another, more recent method, relativistic properties, tend to move through aid of microscopes. To start, the group devised by a group from Northwestern graphene with behavior comparable to used optical microscopes to purely identify University led by Professor Rodney Ruoff, waves, rather than the behavior of typical “graphitic films thinner than 50 nm.” features a more chemical approach in which particles. Through this comparison, it is Typically films this size are not visible in “converting graphite into graphite oxide highlighted that electrons in graphene direct lighting, but on top of violet-blue in an aqueous solution” leads the “bulk do not lose energy, but rather they move silicon oxide surfaces, the films tend to graphite [to be] completely separated into undisturbed, as if with no mass, allowing shift the color of the surfaces to longer single sheets” through repelling forces.4,8 for far greater speeds than the standard in wavelengths, thus creating a reference color While it is apparent that future other materials. In addition, Geim’s group for the graphite flakes. This means that methods will become even more systematic, found that “graphene’s conductivity never thicker pieces of graphite on the surface efficient, and prolific, Geim’s group’s falls below a minimum value…even when shift the color of the silicon oxide to bluer original process still stands out for its sheer concentrations of charge carriers tend to shades. So under an optical microscope, simplicity. Whereas other techniques rely zero.” A testament to graphene’s exclusive one can see where flakes of different sizes on a thorough understanding of chemical electrical properties, Geim stated, “this is lie. For Geim’s group, graphite flakes of interactions and behavior and often involve completely counterintuitive because in all interest were very thin and extremely close longer processing, this pioneering process other systems, the conductivity disappears to the original color of the silicon oxide requires minimal technical knowledge in its if no charge carriers are present.”3 The idea surface. The faintest graphite flakes found practice. To be able to isolate a material, so of having a constantly conductive material could then potentially be characterized promising in its uses and characteristics, with becomes understandably amazing in by monolayer thickness and identified such relative ease reinforces the interest on applications. as graphene. As Geim observed, these graphene and prompts more independent Although Geim’s Manchester “graphene films [were] no longer visible research. It is this first method that opened group provided the first clues into the even via the interference shift as it becomes the doors to more detailed and technical mystery of graphene, much research was too small.” Upon pinpointing and marking studies on the features of graphene. still needed. Following Geim’s initial potential pieces of graphene on the sample, efforts, a group led by Professor Philip the group proceeded to take advantage of An Electric Highway Kim and Professor Horst Stormer of the highly versatile atomic force microscope As astonishing as the structure Columbia University soon conducted (AFM). Arguably the most remarkable of graphene has proven to be, it would not similar experiments to explain why feature of the AFM is its ability to detect mean much without its equally exciting electrons in graphene exhibit such distinct very weak deflection forces between its own characteristics. Since the isolation of conduct.10 Initially running experiments, probe and a sample under investigation in graphene, Professor Geim’s group, a group which confirmed the results reached by order to map out the surface of the sample from Columbia University led by Professor Geim’s group, the Kim/Stormer group later and create a topographic image. For Geim’s Philip Kim and Professor Horst Stormer, discovered further information regarding group, the AFM was key for not only and Professor de Heer’s group have all had the peculiar behavior of electrons traveling identifying pieces of graphene through the major contributions to current experimental in graphene. First, the group found that AFM’s capacity to measure vertical features knowledge about the material. electrons in graphene obey the rules of the in a sample, but also for creating vivid To begin, when Professor Geim’s quantum Hall effect, meaning that when images of graphene. Eventually, the group group at the University of Manchester electrons are exposed to high magnetic fields, used the AFM to discover actual graphene established graphene, it did so with the hopes they move only in designated quantum flakes and confirmed that they were indeed of having “the ability to control electronic routes. Instead of moving in continuous monolayers of graphite by measuring that properties of a material by externally motion, electrons actually “jump” from one the thickness of those flakes were around applied voltage” in mind.5 Consequently, location to another, resulting in very quick 3 to 4 Angstroms, in agreement with Geim’s team ran many experiments in movement. Building on this point, the “the interlayer distance in bulk graphite order to determine exactly how graphene, Kim/Stormer group then determined that [at] 3.35 Angstroms” and ideal for both an inherently good electrical conductor, electrons in graphene follow a phenomenon experimentation and proof-of-principle behaved with an applied voltage. Geim’s called “Berry’s phase,” explaining that with tests. group’s experiments provided amazing the condition of an electron moves in a The method discussed here observations describing how electrons travel complete route in a high magnetic field, its served merely as a starting point for other through graphene. First, the group found wavefunction will rotate a full 180 degrees.
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 11 Carbon Planes
This translates to the idea that electrons in graphene will scatter backwards less and spend more time moving forward to their desired destinations. In effect, this finding paid tribute to the aforementioned quantum nature of the electrons in graphene, and helped to explain why those electrons could move as if they were massless without losing energy. The quantum tendencies of electrons in graphene now clarify much about the substance’s unique properties. While many of the fundamental characteristics of graphene can be attributed to the Courtesy Michigan University, www.sciencemag.org work of the groups from Manchester and An optical photo of graphite over a wafer with a silicon oxide layer. One can assume the relative Columbia, much of thickness of each graphite flake by judging its color the current movement towards applications in many researchers have already devised operate at substantially higher speeds, is graphene has stemmed from the labor of potentially impacting technological ideas. the “ballistic transistor,” a considerable Professor Walt de Heer’s group at Georgia For one, graphene’s very robust upgrade from the current transistor, 7 Tech. A long-time researcher of carbon structure has generated speculation that allowing extremely quick electrical flow. nanotubes, de Heer took the discovery the material can be used as the basis for A transistor is a small electronic device of graphene as a serious step towards the “incredibly strong, flexible, and stable typically made of semiconductor material 7 applications often dreamt of - using more materials” in the future. Because graphene that functions to change, amplify, or efficient and less restrictive nanotubes.1,9 planes are the results of many carbon atoms oscillate the flow of current in electronics Through their studies, de Heer’s group bonded together in established honeycomb and computers. Usually in semiconductor especially found interest in that, abiding by structures, but only in one atomically transistors, electron movement is functional, “quantum confinement…graphene ribbons thin dimension, they enjoy the privilege but not completely efficient. For instance, act as electron waveguides.” Explaining, “The of being strong yet elastic at the same through the various semiconductor width of the ribbon controls the material’s time. This quality is quite comparable to materials, usually silicon and germanium, band-gap,” de Heer’s team highlighted the the behavior of a single sheet of paper in currently used for transistors, electrons ease with which electron mobility could which trying to rip it in half by pulling on often experience frequent collisions, which be manipulated in graphene. Along with its ends in opposing directions will prove cumulatively impede their movements. the previously mentioned properties of to be very difficult, but allowing it to flop In addition, due to the structural natures graphene, de Heer’s group’s findings paved around vertically is without effort. The of most semiconductors, transistors can the way for many promising technologies. aforementioned group from Northwestern only be made to a certain size before University led by Professor Ruoff “believes utility is completely lost. Professor Geim Striving for Quickness and Strength [graphene], which is light but stiff and prophetically stated, “As the semiconductor The advantages that graphene tough, could be used to make fuselages industry is nearing the limits of performance can bring to the world of technology are for aircraft…and potentially in paint and improvements for the current technologies 4 endless to say the least. From applications coatings” based on these properties. dominated by silicon, there is a constant 5 in microelectronics to tough polymeric Beyond its use in materials, search for new, nontraditional materials.” materials, graphene will indubitably become graphene has even bigger promise in the field The versatility of graphene comes at this a larger focus in the research of scientists of microelectronics. One specific example, crucial point of transition. First, both in the near future. Building directly off of which has excited many researchers with graphene’s innate structure and excellent graphene’s unique characteristics, though, the prospect of having electrical devices conductivity, allow it to be molded into
12 Columbia Science Review Carbon Planes smaller than conventional transistors Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films.” Sonbinh T. Nguyen, and Rodney S. Ruoff. capable of performing all of the functions of Science, 306, 22 Oct. 2004: 666-669. “Graphene-Based Composite Materials.” traditional transistors. Already, this makes Nature, 442, 20 July 2006: 282-286. graphene-based transistors more efficient Novoselov, K. S., A. K. Geim, S. V. purely due to size since “smaller transistors Morozov, D. Jiang, M. I. Katsnelson, I. Toon, John. “Carbon-Based Electronics: mean the distances electrons have to travel V. Grigorieva, S. V. Dubonos, and A. A. Researchers Develop Foundation for become shorter, meaning faster speeds.”7 To Firsov. “Two-Dimensional Gas of Massless Circuitry and Devices Based on Graphite.” add to this size adjustment, the realization Dirac Fermions in Graphene.” Nature, 438, Georgia Tech Research News 14 Mar. that electrons move through graphene 10 Nov. 2005: 197-200. 2006. 12 Feb. 2007
Works Cited Berger, Claire, Zhimin Song, Xuebin Li, Xiaosong Wu, Nate Brown, Cecile Naud, Didier Mayou, Tianbo Li, Joanna Hass, Alexei Marchenkov, Edward H. Conrad, Phillip N. First, and Walt A. De Heer. “Electronic Confinement and Coherence in Patterned Epitaxial Graphene.” Science, 312, 26 May 2006: 1191-1196.
Biello, David. “Graphite Found T Exhibit Quantum Effects.” Scietific American 10 Nov. 2005. 12 Feb. 2007
Dume, Belle. „Electrons Lose Their Mass in Carbon Sheets.“ Physics Web 9 Nov. 2005. 12 Feb. 2007
Dume, Belle. “New Look for Graphene.” Physics Web 20 July 2006. 12 Feb. 2007
Geim, A, K., K. S. Novoselov, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos, I. V. Grigorieva, and A, A. Firsov. “Electric Field
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 13 HIV in Egypt Egypt Veiled From the Truth: HIV in a Muslim Context by Marina Zeltser modes of transmission and protection and policy makers began to take a deep interest A 39-year old man, to provide proper support and medical care in battling HIV head on, rather than casting unmarried, was hospitalized because of fever to HIV-positive patients. it off as a foreign phenomenon. The budget and cough for more that six months. Then, The global evolution of the public for AIDS prevention was increased almost he was moved to another hospital and was approach to HIV/AIDS over the past 20 20-fold to $44 million in 1993. A massive diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis and years has proven that the spread of HIV public information campaign was launched bronchopneumonia. He was treated with can be slowed and that the debilitating to air anti-AIDS messages every hour on ethambutol, rifampicin and antibiotic, but effects of the disease can be minimized. the country's 488 state-owned radio and the medicine did not reduce his fever and The world’s model of epidemic overturn television stations. Repressive polices like cough. A hematologist suspected AIDS, is Thailand’s battle against HIV/AIDS, the mandatory reporting of the names and and the result of a blood where aggressive anti-HIV policies have addresses of AIDS patients were repealed test was positive. Anti- to protect these people. retroviral and anti-fungal In addition, every school drugs were added to the was required to teach treatment. After 21 days AIDS education classes. of hospitalization, the Most importantly, a patient was able to go ‘100% condom program’ home. His family did not was instituted to enforce come to the hospital to consistent condom pick him up for a week use in all commercial because they were afraid sex establishments, that they could get AIDS Thailand’s highest-risk from him. In another group. case, the patient’s family According to built a wall inside of their a study of HIV/AIDS house as a barrier, as they in MENA, Carol A. thought that was the Jenkins writes, “societies best way to prevent them cope with HIV and from getting AIDS. In a prevent its spread best third case, the patient’s where governments are Photo courtesy of American University wife rented a separate open about the issues, provide information and house for herself, also to A sunset view of Cairo, Egypt prevent getting AIDS. services, and partner (Djoerban, Zubairi. with organizations Nenden) reduced the number of new infections representing affected communities.” In The above example was taken from 140,000 in 1991 to 21,000 in 2003. Thailand, the government did just that. They from a report on the stigmatization of HIV Initial response to HIV in the 1980s was became open to discussion about HIV, and infected people, presented at the Jakarta that the epidemic would not significantly partnered with the media, the schools, and HIV/AIDS Regional Workshop of Islamic spread in Thailand because "Thai-to-Thai with many other institutions to provide the Religious Leaders in 1998. The stories transmission is not in evidence." In keeping population with accurate information from epitomize the widespread ignorance that with this view, the government spent only many angles. exists about both HIV transmission and $180,000 on HIV prevention in 1988, One of the reasons that diagnosis. Despite common misconception, primarily for the testing of all foreigners ignorance pervades Muslim societies is AIDS cannot be transmitted by casual before being admitted to the country. It is that governments unlike Thailand under contact associated with sharing a home. not uncommon for countries to cast off the Panyarachun’s rule make it difficult to Infection is spread only through sexual blame for HIV infection on foreigners, but openly educate its people on the risks of intercourse, blood, or prenatal transmission. in Thailand, the government eventually took such behaviors as extramarital sex, injecting The evident ignorance of people towards the matters into their own hands, choosing to drug use, and unprotected sex. In countries thriving HIV epidemic is a major challenge confront HIV as a national problem. of the Muslim world, it is primarily the to its eradication. Strategic actions must In 1991, with new Prime Minister openness of the governments that needs be taken to improve societal knowledge of Anand Panyarachun, AIDS prevention to be targeted as a first step to addressing and control became a national priority, and the HIV epidemic. We will consider Egypt
14 Columbia Science Review HIV in Egypt as a case study of the interactions between divine retribution for Western decadence, try to cross the forbidden borders made Muslim culture and a nation’s HIV and urge strict adherence to Islam as the by Allah, it is a guarantee that the one will protection, highlighting the prevailing only means of prevention.” not be transmitted by the HIV/AIDS.” denial that sexual transmission of disease The early 1990s saw a steady Such a false statement, disproved by the permeates devout Muslim societies, and increase in government response in Egypt, scientific community and purported by observe the effects of Egypt’s widespread but this period was, of course, not free of a religious leader, has huge ramifications hesitancy to publicly discuss HIV. social and religious hurdles. In 1992, the both as a reflection of popular belief and Because the state of Egypt has Egyptian AIDS Society was founded, the as an influential message that further its government deeply rooted in Islamic first nongovernmental organization in spreads misconception. A similar message Law, issues of homosexuality, premarital Egypt concerned with the prevention of was conveyed in Al-Liwa-Al-Islami, the sex, adultery, and injecting drug use HIV and support for AIDS patients. Since Egyptian weekly newspaper. Under the – all risk behaviors associated with HIV then, the government formed the Ministry headline, “To Follow the Path of Islam transmission – are prohibited by Islam, of Health and Population, and within that is the Best Way Not to Get Infected,” a and thus they are shunned from public ruling body, the National AIDS Program reporter writes, “AIDS is God’s punishment discourse. Due to social stigma surrounding (NAP) was founded to handle HIV/ for all those who pollute the country with these issues, few citizens are aware of how AIDS prevention. In 1996, UNAIDS, their sins.” HIV is being transmitted through such the Joint United Nations Programme on Echoing the temptation to behaviors, leaving marginalized populations HIV/AIDS, was formed to support HIV discount HIV as a foreign problem is the stigmatized and made too fearful to come prevention and treatment in low- and temptation to ignore the necessity for forward for help. While the current HIV middle-income countries, and since their education. Some Muslim officials worry prevalence rate is lower than 1% in Egypt’s inceptions, UNAIDS has played a major about education that promotes the use of general population (UNAIDS), reporting role in Egypt’s response to the epidemic. condoms or that offering clean needles is considered unreliable in this region Despite the institution of new may condone and even encourage practices because many Egyptians are afraid to get governmental infrastructures devoted to that the country holds sinful. Inevitably, tested or are unaware that they could be AIDS prevention, at risk for HIV. As of December 2003, religious leaders and 1,838 cases of HIV/AIDS have been the media were still reported to the Ministry of Health and perpetuating major
Population. However, at the end of 2001, m i s c o n c e p t i o nAfrica North and East Middle the in HIV/AIDS s ORIENT AT IONS IN DEVELOPMENT SERIES experts (UNAIDS and the World Health throughout the Organization) estimated that Egypt has population by the about 8,000 HIV-positive individuals. The year 1998. That year, HIV/AIDS in the stark difference between this estimate and the first HIV/AIDS the number of actual reported cases suggests ASEAN regional Middle East and that considerable obstacles to testing and to workshop of Islamic North Africa proper documentation exist. Religious Leaders National attitudes towards HIV/ took place in Jakarta. The Costs of Inaction AIDS prevention may stem, in part, from During the workshop, Carol Jenkins and David A. Robalino the history of the HIV onset. In most leaders expressed their Muslim countries throughout the Middle views and presented East and North Africa (MENA), the first research on the HIV/ cases of AIDS discovered in the mid-1980s AIDS problem. In were detected in hospitals among patients his paper entitled receiving blood transfusions. Screening of Islamic ApproachRobalino and Jenkins blood supplies in the early 1990s has nearly in combating HIV/ eliminated this form of transmission in AIDS, Zakiah Darajat Egypt, but the fact that the HIV virus may writes, “The way of have been introduced to Egypt by imported transmitting the virus contaminated blood has facilitated the mostly is through non Egyptian mentality that AIDS is a foreign healthy [bold added] disease and that the main means of sexual relationship, transmission in the West – homosexual or such as zina extramarital sex and injecting drug use – do [fornication], liwath not exist in Muslim societies. A 1989 WHO [homosexuality], and Middle East Report states, “Islam often sets rape…Allah warned Courtesy of the World Bank the boundaries of debate about AIDS and mankind not to go the sexual practices that spread it, especially near by to zina…if The cover of a World Bank study about the spread of HIV in the conservative Gulf. Religious leaders any body can conduct in the muslim world and some governments portray AIDS as himself and does not
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 15 HIV in Egypt this kind of hesitation leads to widespread straight from Riyadh, Jeddah or Kuwait Egyptian pharmacies, many IDUs choose ignorance. According to BBC Arab Affairs City in their white dishdasha robes are to share needles because of a superstition Analyst Magdi Abdelhadi, “the concept of sometimes solicited directly at the airport that “getting new needles jinxes the chance safe sex is alien to this [Egyptian] culture, with offers of ‘special furnished flats.’” These of scoring drugs.” A UNAIDS survey where sex per definition is safe, because it flats, usually rented out on a per-night basis, indicated that more than half of IDUs had is between a husband and wife.” Nasr Al- come complete with a prostitute referred to shared a needle within the past month, Sayyed, founder of the Cairo AIDS Hotline, as a “housemaid,” who can come at any time typically more than once. In 2004, Kharrat confirms the lack of an understanding of of the day or night. The enterprise relies on was asked to institute an HIV awareness safe sex: “If we go to universities and tell a series of private arrangements including program for drug users at Freedom. As of them that condoms can protect against a hush-money payment to the doorman March 2005, 40 drug users have gone for infection, most students ask, What is a and a commission for the flat-broker. El- anonymous testing, and Kharrat hopes condom?” Gawhary claims that “news of flats rented to reach 5,000 more within the next 3 to While it is true that widespread by the day or week spreads among the 4 years. He indicates that the situation is adherence to Islamic tradition could mean pimps, and the prostitutes stream in—like escalating and will be difficult to control: that the disease will rarely pervade the ants.” “I’m pretty much scared that we’re sitting general population, this false notion of HIV transmission is rarely a on a ticking time bomb.” Egypt being completely “immune” to HIV/ consideration for prostitutes and their AIDS leaves vulnerable populations in the clients in these encounters: “Asked if most Men Who Have Sex with Men shadows and without proper public support. Gulf men use condoms, Aisha [a 20-year Another group with concentrated The truth is that not all citizens of Egypt old prostitute in Cairo] burst out laughing. HIV infection rates is homosexual men. In abide by Islamic Law. Theologian Farid She herself gives no thought to the possible a small sampling of men who have sex with Esack says, “I think the religious factor is risk.” Although these encounters clearly other men conducted by NAP in 1994, 67% overplayed in the low prevalence rate in pose a great threat to the spread of disease, of the men admitted to having more than Arab countries. Real Muslims are…having Egyptian authorities rarely intervene. El- five male partners concurrently, though only sex outside of marriage regardless of what Gawhary claims,“Egyptian authorities 21% ever used condoms, with fewer than the Q’uran says. And somebody has to habitually close their eyes to it because of 2% using them consistently. This group is deal with the real consequences.” Similarly, diplomatic embroilments…not to mention at a very high risk for HIV infection, but Dr. Emanuel Kamel, medical director of the lucrative prospects for hard currency.” A more than any other group, homosexuals Refuge Egypt, says, “Good Muslims, good representative of Egypt’s vice squad declined are extremely fearful of being tested for Christians. Yes, our religion says no and El-Gawhary’s request for any off-the-record HIV. They are concerned not only with no and no. But are we sure everyone is commentary about Egypt’s sex tourism stigma associated with a potential positive committed? ... HIV doesn’t come to us. We industry. Some officials simply don’t give diagnosis, but also that getting tested may go to HIV.” credence to the existence of a sex industry in publicly identify them as gay. In the above Underscoring this notion of denial Egypt. Sausan al-Shaikh, the spokeswoman NAP survey, 30% of the men were married, to the spread of HIV in Egypt is the low of the Egyptian AIDS Society, claimed that perhaps to conceal their sexual orientation, HIV prevalence rate, which blinds officials “illegal sexual encounters are not common, and 44% were bisexually active, posing a to the need for intervention. In Egypt, thanks to Islamic teachings.” Clearly, denial threat of infection to their wives or female this statistic is particularly misleading is a major obstacle to overcome. If policy partners as well. because HIV rates are highly concentrated makers cannot acknowledge the presence This fear of “coming out” in Egypt in vulnerable populations. Such groups of a commercial sex industry, they cannot is a grave one, particularly since the “Queen include commercial sex workers, men who effectively protect clients and workers from Boat” incident in May 2001, when 52 gay have sex with men, injecting drug users, infection. men were arrested on charges related to and people who have sex outside their homosexual sex at the Queen Boat, a floating marriages. These populations play a major Drug-Injecting Users discotheque along the Nile often frequented role in Egypt; Cairo is known for its vibrant Interviews and sex industry and high drug use, and Egypt statistics reveal that has one of the largest sexually active gay drug-injecting users in communities in the Middle East. However, Egypt are similarly at “Needles are inexpensive and readily these activities are kept very private, and risk. Egypt has about a there is limited public knowledge of where half million “hardcore” available in Egyptian pharmacies, they are and how they operate. Thus, high- drug addicts, of which risk groups are often difficult to target. about 300,000 are drug- many IDUs choose to share needles injecting users. Dr. Ehab Commercial Sex Industry Kharrat, who works because of a superstition that ‘getting In describing the commercial with drug addicts in sex industry in Cairo, Karim el-Gawhary Cairo, found that even new needles jinxes the chance of describes a summer season of established though syringes and sex tourism: “Every year Gulf men revitalize needles are inexpensive scoring drugs’” the prostitution business in town…men and readily available in
16 Columbia Science Review HIV in Egypt by homosexual men. While under arrest, chance of being resettled in a western Development Program coordinator in the the men were beaten and tortured using country, where they are offered treatment region, on the need to act quickly to prevent electric shocks until they confessed guilt for their infections. However, HIV-positive further spread. to the police. Within a week of the arrest, people who have not gained refugee status Recognizing the urgency of a several Egyptian newspapers published the are not so lucky. “If you have a closed file possible epidemic, the United Nations men’s photos and places of employment, an and are diagnosed with HIV, then you are Development Programme organized a more act of public embarrassment, which would a real tragedy,” said Refuge Egypt’s medical recent conference of religious leaders from make it difficult for them to ever return to a director Dr. Eman Kamel. Because these both Muslim and Christian faiths to reach a normal existence within their communities people are illegally residing in Egypt, they consensus on the prevention and treatment and workplaces. While homosexuality is are not offered any medication or other of HIV/AIDS. The Cairo Declaration, a not explicitly outlawed in Egypt, the men assistance. Unrecognized refugees who live product of three days of heated discussion, in this case were accused of “practice was signed by 80 major Arab religious of habitual debauchery,” “contempt for leaders from 19 nations, including religion,” and “exploitation of Islam Egypt. “The walls came down with to promote deviant ideas.” The trial “The number of people living a crack. It was amazing, in many mandated medical examination of the ways a breakthrough…Shiites sat defendants to determine whether they with HIV in North Africa and down with Sunnis, with Protestants had engaged in anal sex. “Egypt has not the Middle East rose 13% in and Catholics, which is not usual and will not be a den for the corruption in our area of the world,” said Ehab of manhood, and homosexuals will 2004 to an estimated 540,000 El Kharrat of the Kaasrel Dobara not establish themselves here,” said (0.3% of the population). Presbyterian Church in Egypt. prosecutor Ashraf Helal, addressing the The document these leaders courtroom and a cage of defendants in Although that is low compared generated shows evidence of a more September of 2001. At the conclusion of progressive discourse on HIV/ the trial, 29 of the men were acquitted, to the global average of 1.1%, AIDS than in the past. The Cairo but the rest received jail sentences of this region has the world’s third Declaration emphasizes basic human up to five years. It is no surprise, then, rights and freedoms of marginalized that this case instilled deep fears in the fastest rate of increase in new populations, “notwithstanding their gay community. “If the government infections” situation, background, or medical wants this trial to be a deterrent, they condition.” The documented will succeed,” says a European diplomat recognition of illicit behaviors like monitoring the case. “This trial is sure commercial sex and homosexuality to drive gay foreigners away and gay in Egypt is a revolutionary step in Egyptians underground.” without treatment may contribute to the HIV prevention, and a written contract further spread of HIV, but this population of commitment towards supporting such Refugees goes unnoticed in national records of rights proves even more momentous. Another concern about possible infection rates. “Everyone started by trying to prove he is the increase in HIV infection in Egypt is the * * * * * * * * * * most stern defender of virtue,” El Kharrat prevalence of HIV in the neighboring Each of these high-risk groups, continues, “but together, eyes were opened country of Sudan. Sudan accounts for more although constituting a small percentage of to new meanings of virtue, compassion…of than 80% of all infections in North Africa the total population, poses a considerable action rather than silence.” and the Middle East. Although the country threat to the spread of infection. The Nevertheless, there is a sustained is presently war-ravaged and cross-border number of people living with HIV in doctrinal tone, which implicates infections travel is limited, once the political situation North Africa and the Middle East rose as occurring “according to God’s sovereign is stabilized, cross-border travel may spread 13% in 2004 to an estimated 540,000 (0.3% choice.” This point seems to mirror the the virus – which afflicts 2.3% of Sudan’s of the population). Although that is low idea of disease as a punishment from population – to neighboring Egypt and compared to the global average of 1.1%, God, and aligned with this concept is an Libya. this region has the world’s third-fastest rate inherent discrimination: “Although we do At present, Cairo has an estimated of increase in new infections. And while not approve of such behaviors [homosexual 300 Sudanese sex workers. In addition, risks are increasing, the health knowledge sex, injecting drug use, etc.], we call on thousands of refugees from Sudan and of the people is still limited. From 2002 them [members of vulnerable groups] other troubled African nations with high to 2004, new infections have increased to repent and ask that treatment and HIV rates flood the Egyptian borders 26%. Once infection rates reach 5% of rehabilitation programs be developed." The seeking asylum. There are an estimated the population, it is believed that the virus Cairo Declaration indicates that leaders 50,000 African asylum-seekers in Egypt, of starts to spread very quickly—increasing are accepting more responsibility to take who about 64% have not been recognized as much as tenfold in five years—as it did action, but they are inherently limited by with refugee status by the UN Refugee in southern Africa. “There is only a small their conservative beliefs in regard to how Office. Recognized refugees in Egypt window of opportunity to stem the tide of much support they can offer. Reluctance to who test HIV-positive stand an excellent HIV/AIDS,” says Khadija T. Moalla, UN broach taboo topics is still present in the
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 17 HIV in Egypt
vague language of some statements: "We conferences to institute comprehensive sex such programs cannot possibly eradicate reiterate that abstinence and faithfulness education programs in schools. However, it the social complexities of seeking help are the two cornerstones of our preventative will likely take years before an appropriate about HIV in Egypt. Fears and stigma strategies but we understand the medical program is fully integrated into these inevitably flood these establishments. “It’s call for the use of different preventive countries to target regional problems and not anonymous [testing], don’t believe that,” means to reduce the harm to oneself and misconceptions. warned one gay Egyptian who asked not to others." In effect, this conference espouses Some of the most effective be named: “The first thing they do is call the true nature of the situation: progressive initiatives toward HIV prevention are the cops.” It is this panic which forces many but contradictory in stance, and lacking in those which offer affected individuals affected people into hiding. One interview concrete initiatives. access to specific information and private, follows the story of an Egyptian gay man In recent years, such conventions non-judgmental consultation. In 1996, the who wanted to track down an infected have become a common drive for HIV Ministry of Health established the AIDS acquaintance to offer help. He couldn’t prevention initiatives, but effectiveness and Hotline in Cairo to answer any questions find the man, and the man’s family had no outcomes of these meetings are not yet clear. about HIV/AIDS and to direct at-risk information as to his whereabouts. “Either In May of 2005, representatives of 12 Arab people to anonymous testing. Within two they disappear or they stop having sex with nations, including Egypt, met in Tunisia years, the hotline had been called 17,000 people because they are too scared or the for a four-day conference on prevention of times, with questions ranging from modes leave the country to get treated,” he said. the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, of transmission to places to get anonymous Besides, “it’s becoming very, very difficult including HIV/AIDS. The conference testing, safe sexual practices, contraception, for any AIDS patient or HIV-positive was arranged by the Federation of Family and treatment. The implementation of such person to go and seek medication [in Planning and the United Nations to support a service is a first step towards breaking social Egypt]. There have been too many horror heightened awareness of the prevention taboos surrounding these topics. Recent stories lurking around.” Well-warranted, and treatment of STDs, and to break down years have also shown that more and more these fears of being publicly identified as taboos surrounding such discussion in Arab confidential testing sites have opened up HIV-positive can only be eliminated by nations. In February of 2005, UNAIDS in Egypt, promising anonymity to patients a massive cultural revolution of attitudes and the Jordanian government sponsored who are worried about the powerful stigma towards HIV. a three-day conference on the increasing attached to AIDS in this country. These Conservative culture will likely incidence of HIV/AIDS among women. sites not only provide an HIV Antibody continue to intensify the difficulty of UNAIDS Associate Director, Dr. Suman Test, but also offer counseling sessions properly educating the population. It is Mehta, said that HIV/AIDS continues to where people are provided with accurate clear by the prevalence of at-risk groups be a problem among women because they information about the course of HIV and that much of Egypt's modern society have a lower social status than men, and how it is transmitted. Such efforts will limit does not hold to conservative Islamic they often experience rape or are unable to ignorance about HIV and also increase beliefs about sex and drug use. The stark negotiate safe sex with their partners. As a reporting so that institutions can more increases in recent infection model those result of these conventions, governments readily assess the HIV/AIDS situation. of previously epidemic-prone countries have been urged by health officials of the However, the implementation of and suggests urgency for major action.
18 Columbia Science Review HIV in Egypt
The only way to significantly reduce HIV Works Cited 1995): 26-27 prevalence is to eliminate the resistance 1. Jenkins, Carol & Robalino, David. 13. Shannon and Pyle. “On The Origin to open public discourse. The successes HIV/AIDS in the Middle East and North and Diffusion of AIDS.” Annals of the of the anti-HIV campaign in Thailand Africa. Washington D.C.:The World Bank, Association of American Geographers, Vol. demonstrate that aggressive interventions 2003. 80, No. 2 ( June 1990): 300-304 can reverse the spread of infection: "Every 2. Roesin, H. Runizar. Islamic Approach on 14. Ingram, Simon. “New HIV/AIDS segment of Thai society played a role in HIV/AIDS: Report on the first HIV/AIDS counseling and testing centers open in AIDS prevention. Everyone was involved- ASEAN regional workshop of Islamic Egypt.” UNICEF Egypt, October 18, from the medical community to teachers, to Religious Leaders. Jakarta: Indonesian 2005. monks, to prostitutes and to drug addicts. Council of Ulama, Nov. 3 –Dec. 3, 1998. 15. Smucker, Philip. “A clash of cultures The government committed funds for 3. Srikameswaran, Anita. “Egypt in Egypt.” The Christian Science Monitor, research and backed private organizations Confronting HIV.” Pittsburgh Post- September 18, 2001. that attempted to spread the world about Gazette 15 March 2005. 16. Lenton, Cliff. “Will Egypt escape the how to stop AIDS. " 4. Srikameswaran, Anita. “Egypt’s fearful AIDS epidemic?” The Lancet, April 5, A similar union of forces can gays shy from HIV testing.” Pittsburgh 1997. Cairo Declaration prevent the oncoming epidemic in Egypt. Post-Gazette 14 March 2005. 17. “Arab Religious leaders convene to Religious leaders, political officials, and 5. Srikameswaran, Anita. “Refugees see break the silence on HIV/AIDS and to the media need to cooperate with non- HIV as pass to treatment.” Pittsburgh Post- define their role in an AIDS-free future” governmental organizations to educate the Gazette 14 March 2005. Cairo, December 11, 2004 public on modes of transmission and safe 6. Srikameswaran, Anita. “Needle sharing 18. “Arab Religious leaders agree alternatives to risk behavior. Mainly, this by drug users dangerous sign.” Pittsburgh unanimously to respond to HIV/AIDS by action needs to be on the level of public Post-Gazette March 13, 2005. signing the progressive Cairo Declaration” governance; in particular, this applies to 7. “Compassion and AIDS in the Arab 19. Howard, Susanna. “UN Seeks to ‘Break societies whose governments are rooted in World.” Al-Ahram Weekly, October 20- the Silence’ On AIDS in Africa and their religion because people can look to 26, 2005 (Issue No. 765). Mideast.” The Wall Street Journal February the government for not only a legal code 8. “Not just the Queen Boat.” Al-Ahram 2, 2005 of living, but also for a social code. Thus, Weekly , March 4-10, 2004 (Issue No. 20. “The Lazarus Foundation: Egypt the nature of legislation needs to be shifted 680). Country Profile.
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 19 photo illustration by Stephanie Sun
Global Warning Photo illustration by Daniel Brujis
by Stanimir Rachev gas emissions are probably the only fact by experts and probably rightly so. But beyond any doubt. Many Columbia College let’s look at it from the other side as an Recently, global warming has become a students that didn’t sleep through the apparent consequence instead of a cause. topic of increased media attention and, even Frontiers of Science class might remember In the minds of many policy-conscious
seeming personal experience. The release of the graph of CO2 concentration from city-dwellers, the warmer winters might the Working Group I Fourth Assessment Hawaii. present strong evidence to their agenda. Report of The Intergovernmental Panel Yet, when it comes to temperature, and Indeed, New York’s mean temperature has on Climate Change followed a winter risen about 5 degrees Fahrenheit in the break in which those of us that stayed in last 120 years (2). Albany has a more New York experienced record-breaking moderate increase of about 2 degrees. temperatures. One could easily make Without questioning the While the current direction of climatic the connection and conclude that this trends is clear, there is significant suspiciously warm weather was indeed integrity of the scientists local variability and even areas that a consequence of global climate trends. involved, I simply can’t believe became colder. There is also an idea I would not be so quick to draw a link well entrenched in the imagination of and will take a more skeptical view. that they can avoid bias the public by poorly made Hollywood As a start, let’s take apart the term knowing the source of their movies that somehow global warming “anthropogenic global climate change” is also the cause for cold weather where that is what most people probably mean funds. Instituting the equivalent it happens. The confusion arises from today by “global warming”. First of all, the scientifically sound concept of an climate is not weather, but is statistical of double blind clinical trials abrupt switch in the climatic mode of description over a long enough period seems quite necessary. the planet, one that is speculated to of time, a standard defined by the arise as the melting of freshwater ice World Meteorological Organization caps disrupts the ocean thermohaline being thirty years. It is a bit surprising then especially global averages, there is a lot of circulation. that predictions about climate get updated room for argument. The way raw data is This particular example seems to be one so often to be relevant to the current state handled can grossly influence the final result. of many scenarios that environmentalists of the climate system. A key conclusion of Even the same result can convey a different and policy-makers use to scare the general the above-mentioned report is that “most impression upon visual presentation. And population. While I do support their of the observed increase in globally averaged here a well-established phenomenon agenda, which is mostly to cut dependence temperatures since the mid-20th century may be hidden from the unacquainted on fossil fuels, I believe the science behind is very likely due to the observed increase in observer. The so-called “urban heat island it is very dubious at best. Numerous anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations”. effect” accounts for elevated temperatures computer models are trying to predict the (1) This might sound like a reiteration of an in metropolitan areas as compared to temperature increase in the next centuries already-known truth, but how did we arrive countryside. It is however, dismissed as a and the rise in ocean levels associated with at this truth? The human-made greenhouse negligible factor towards global warming it, but those models suffer from inherent
20 Columbia Science Review Global Warning
limitations. For a moment just consider a greatly enhanced. However, the natural the source of their funds. Instituting the different problem of predicting the folding driving force of solar radiation is just as equivalent of double blind clinical trials of a protein molecule from its structure. relevant. But let’s leave the distant future; seems quite necessary. Secondly, as much as That is at the forefront of research and even if the most pessimistic predictions I trust science to lead humanity to progress, the current computer simulations are still are true, it is still a gradual process. Much I always stand humble in front of nature orders of magnitude away from success. closer to us are all the news reports of and its dynamic forces. The idea of global Now scale up to an incredibly complex destructive hurricanes and tsunamis. Yet, warming is one that actually brings comfort system such as climate, and think if these despite media speculations, IPCC admits to our minds, since it suggests that, despite models are reliable. In addition, all that they reluctantly that there is no significant the negative effect so far, we humans are in give as a result assumes certain parameters correlation between those disastrous events control and could, with good will, build our representing the different driving forces. and global warming future in a predictable way. I really wish it The only control is that they fit within In summary, there are a couple of points I was true, but I am not arrogant enough to some very wide margin with data from want to make even if my arguments won’t accept it. the last century. There are simple high dissuade the ardent environmentalist. school physics experiments that would give Firstly, I am appalled at the abuses to Works Cited misleading results under such wild means the scientific method that constitute the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate of extrapolation, let alone the whole climate expert panels drawing conclusions with Change, system on Earth. One concept that often such far-reaching implications into public Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science comes across in the frightening scenarios policy. Without questioning the integrity Basis - Summary for Policymakers Photo illustration by Daniel Brujis that we keep hearing is “feedback”, the idea of the scientists involved, I simply can’t United States Historical Climatology that small changes in some factor can be believe that they can avoid bias knowing Network Dawkins Picks Up Five Smooth Stones by Duncan Kluwak anger. For example, r e p e a t e d l y The God Delusion is not a polite book. Its author, the criticizing Mother esteemed Oxford biologist Richard Dawkins, has written it with Teresa, regardless the explicit goal of ending faith in God. To this end, he discards of whether or not the usual delicacy with which the issue of religion is handled, and those criticisms subjects it instead to the rigors of scientific analysis. Essential are warranted, is to his argument is that the realms of religion and science are in all likelihood not mutually exclusive. Some will inevitably be offended by his not the best way conclusions, and especially by the way in which he supports them. to convince readers Ultimately, however, Dawkins’ offenses can be forgiven because of that a world his passionate advocacy of rationalism, humanism, and science as without belief in forces of enlightenment. God would be a Richard Dawkins is first and foremost a scientist, thus better place. it is not surprising that he is most effective when discussing his W h a t area of expertise. He has spent a lifetime studying the intricacies Dawkins does do of Darwinian natural selection, and his knowledge of the subject remarkably well in and the eloquence with which he discusses it are quite impressive. The God Delusion This becomes particularly important when Dawkins confronts the is contend that theory of intelligent design. Rationally and thoroughly, he explains science can not why the argument of irreducible complexity is untrue. The eye is a only objectively commonly cited as an example of irreducible complexity, but with improve the overall considerable care Dawkins provides a convincing explanation for condition of its development over the millennia. His science leaves little room human life, but can also provide nourishment for the human spirit. for argument. Gaps in knowledge once filled by ignorance are being consistently Dawkins’ rhetoric, however, seems almost designed to replaced by science and eventually, he argues, there may be no room invite confrontation. He has an unfortunate habit of quoting people left for God. Dawkins may not resolve what will probably be an directly, and then interpreting their words in wildly subjective eternal debate. Nevertheless, as a concerted work of honest atheism ways. This severely undermines some of his most important points. The God Delusion’s light is sharply focused and shines brightly. Though Dawkins’ writing is sharp and often funny, his absolute refusal to compromise over the validity of his central thesis The God Delusion (namely that “there is almost certainly no God”) creates a tone that 406pp, Bantam, $27.00 occasionally drifts from one of reasoned insight to one of outright
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 21 Orchids Investigating the Medicinal Properties of Orchids
photos by Daniel Brujis
by Umara Saleem pair of testicles (Bulpitt, 2005). Recently, such as those from East and South Asia it was discovered via DNA analysis that the that emphasize naturopathic medicine, Lush, vibrant, and beautiful, your orchid family is part of the asparagus group, which relies on the body’s natural capacity newly purchased orchid sits happily in closer in kin to these vegetables than other to heal. Native Americans in North and your window. What you may not know is flowering plants with which they had been South America have also used orchids in that orchids might one day be able to cure placed before (Yoon, 2003). A particular medicine, for example in the relief of mouth cancer, help in heart relaxation, or even be detail about orchid pollen is that it is very and gum sores, and curing eye infections taken as an aphrodisiac, among many other delicate and leaves no fossil record. Thus, (Kong, 2003). Cross culturally, the petals uses. orchids have been mis-categorized several and the roots of orchids have been used Orchids, or as they are scientifically times before in history. Orchids have most frequently. Interesting uses of these known, the Orchidaceae, compromise one mostly been investigated by the Chinese, parts include the bulbs of the species of the largest families of flowers in the who were the first to describe the medicinal Diuris maculata for emergency food, their Plant Kingdom, with over 30,000 different uses of orchids, as well as write books on dry tuber roots as an anti-aphrodisiac, and species (Kong, 2003). Orchids were first them (Bulpitt, 2005). In one of the earliest their petals as skin allergy soothers (Bulpitt, noticed for their unusual reproductive records, Shen-nung, the “father of Chinese 2005). In another species, Cyrtorchis organs (Bulpitt, 2005). The Greeks refer to agriculture,” described species of orchids in arcuata, the whole orchid is dried and testicles as orchis, and Theophrastus (372- his 28th Century BC text Materia Medica powdered to treat diabetes; while leaves 286 BC), Aristotle’s successor, named the (Bulpitt, 2005). of the species Bulbophyllum maximum and orchid after that part of the male anatomy Orchid species are notable for Tridactyle tricuspis are used by the Malawi because the underground tubers of many their numerous medicinal uses and are used peoples in Southeast Africa to treat against European terrestrial orchids resemble a all over the world, especially in cultures sorcery and madness (Bulpitt, 2005).
22 Columbia Science Review Orchids
Traditionally, orchids were used Dendrobrium; these species have been in crude form and as whole plant parts. as a whole or part-wise in herbal medicine. commonly used in traditional Chinese Scientists can now localize a particular With the advent of advanced biotechnology medicine as a tonic to maintain a healthy chemical and investigate that. Another today, scientists can now isolate chemical stomach, to increase body fluid, to reduce point of interest is that almost all studies components from an orchid’s internal fever, and as a natural anti-platelet agent of orchids are being performed in East and structures and specifically determine the (Ho & Chen, 2003). It has also been South Asia and South America. Scientists functions of these organically synthesized demonstrated as a remarkable anticancer are taking the medicinal history of these molecules. Recent advances such as these agent that has mutation-causing properties widely used plants in their abundant local are highly significant for medicine, because in cancer cell lines derived from different environments and performing chemical orchid molecules are found to have a role in tissue organs (Kong, 2003). Moscatilin has assays on them. The United States, also, is reducing fevers, serving as anti-impotence been previously known to be a natural anti- slowly incorporating plant chemicals into aids, increasing the white blood cell platelet agent extracted from the stems of its medical pharmacology. One prominent count, curing eye diseases, treating fatigue the flower (figure3 ). Its anti-cancer effects example is Taxol ®, a chemical derived from and headaches, and most importantly, were demonstrated in a Taiwanese study a Pacific Northwest yew, that is currently functioning as anti-cancer agents (Bulpitt, where 16 cell lines from different tissue being used in the treatment of breast and 2005). origins, such as from the placenta, liver, ovarian cancer (Foster). In contrast to the lungs, stomach, and other organs, were used US’s slow incorporation of plant chemicals In one study conducted in into its pharmacology, China leads in the a botanical research institute in India, use of medicinal plants as an important part scientists evaluated the species Vanda of public heath care, where approximately Tessellata (figure 2) and discovered its role 500 species are source plants for official as a potent aphrodisiac and fertility booster. drugs in the Chinese pharmacopoeia The species is grown in abundance locally, (Foster). Additionally, there are over 5,000 and also has a long history of use by the species used as traditional medicine or folk native population for its anti-inflammatory and local medicines in various parts of the properties (Kumar, et al, 2000). country (Foster). In the study, it was found Herbal remedies are the most that, compared to mice that had not been and cultured with moscatilin (Ho & Chen, popular health supplements today. In 1994, given an orchid extract, male mice that 2003). Mutagenic activity was displayed in The US Food and Drug Administration’s received it showed more mounting (sexually the study, but not uniformly across cell lines; Dietary Supplement Health and Education active) behavior, and the females paired it was found that 100% of the lung, 75% of Act provided regulatory parameters for with these mice gave birth to larger litters the stomach, and 0% of the liver carcinoma herb products in dietary supplements and more male offspring. As scientists cell lines were responsive to the cytotoxic (Foster). Interestingly, in Germany, plant increased the concentration of the serum, a effect of moscatilin (Ho & Chen,2 003). It materials are labeled as drugs with detailed direct relationship between these outcomes can be concluded from the study that the uses, side effects, dosage information, and was observed. Perhaps these results can be role of moscatilin from the Indian orchid a reasonable safety and efficacy based on extrapolated to humans and preliminary does indeed expresses antiproliferative historic use of the plant along with scientific tests can be done to see if researchers can effects against various types of cancers, facts (Foster). In the US, about 25% of develop another drug like Viagra ®. including those from choriocarcinoma prescription drugs sold contain at least one A study last year performed in (cancer of germ cells), lung cancers, and ingredient derived from a flowering plant, Mexico on mice evaluated two complex stomach cancers, but is ineffective against but this figure hasn’t changed significantly organic chemicals from the orchid species hepatocellular carcinomas (liver cancers) since 1959 despite the fact that a few new Scaphyglottis livida as a potential relaxer of (Ho & Chen, 2003). This present study drugs have come from plants since then heart contractions caused by the excitatory was especially crucial to Taiwan for many (Foster). hormone noradrenaline (Soto, E. S. et al. predominantly suffer from the evaluated Wouldn’t it be revolutionary to find 2006). Results showed that both of the cancers (Ho & Chen, 2003). the cure for cancer in a dandelion growing organic compounds, called Stilbenoids, The different species of orchids in Central Park? Perhaps the US will one inhibited aortic contractions provoked by also have been used in treatments of day expand its research field and open- noradrenaline, and caused vasodialation, the epilepsy, as sedatives and flavor enhancers, mindedness towards plant pharmacology. relaxation and widening of blood vessels in against flatulence, rheumatism, spasms, Due to the incredible diversity of orchids, the body (Soto, E. S. et al. 2006). Again, the and everything from cramps to increased research on them is full of potential. implications of these chemicals for usage virility. (Kong, 2003). In Africa, an amulet Perhaps these medicinal orchids hold the in human models may be promising in made from the leaves of the species Ansiella key in the form of organic chemicals under cardiology, pending further examination. Africana infused with a paste made from investigation in international labs right Many studies have been conducted the bulbs of the same plant is even said now. So as you observe your pretty window investigating the role of the promising to function as a short term contraceptive orchid bloom through the seasons, keep chemical moscatilin, which is derived (Bulpitt, 2005). in mind that the cure to a life-threatening from the stems of the orchid species In the past, orchids were used disease may be right under your nose.
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 23 Scott A. Snyder
Ill-Defined Biology in a Natural World: The Work of Professor Scott A. Snyder by Shelly Zhu insight into his inner self. “I love to cook,” he If you go north on Route 80 smiled, and leaning back in his into upstate New York and continue west, arm chair in contemplation, onto one of those burned-out stretches of he added, “and history. I arterial road that cut across the state, you definitely love history.” pass patches of farmland, decrepit barns, When asked why history Laundromats, diners, and miles of corn, intrigues him so much, he until you reach the Canadian border. Here, stated simply, “History helps at the edge of the country, lies the city of you understand the origin of Buffalo, New York, home to the second an idea and what amount of largest population in the state of New York. travail led to the powerful Amidst the suburbs of this friendly city, tools that we have in science named third cleanest in America, stands today.” the first home of Professor Scott Snyder. If you ever take Since his father first introduced him to a Professor Snyder’s class, you lab at the tender age of five, Snyder has will find him integrating history into all time doing it, do it right.” Together, they made much headway into the pathways of that he teaches, because it is important to showed him the importance of perseverance, chemistry. Today, aside from teaching as an him not only to know that theories exist, a value that made key contributions to assistant professor at Columbia University, but also why they exist. Snyder’s later successes. Professor Snyder is working on research Besides the integration of history Having always been interested in that is based on “ill-defined biology,” into the teaching of the sciences, Professor the sciences, particularly chemistry, Scott synthesizing unique molecules obtained Snyder also prefers to tie in real-life Snyder knew what he wanted to do with his from different natural sources and trying situations. “Eyes always light up when I life at an early age. “Chemistry just made to understand their biological mechanisms. bring in current-day issues, such as the sense to me,” he said, taking a sip from his Stated simply, Snyder’s research seeks to toxicity of Vioxx, into classroom discussion. cleverly designed beaker-shaped mug. elucidate what these natural chemicals This element is important because even if Helping to augment his incipient do at the molecular level, to improve students are only interested in fulfilling interest in science was an inspirational high upon or change their behavior, and then, their science requirements, they need to school chemistry teacher, who showed him to find real-world applications for these make informed decisions when voting as the fun in science. chemicals, particularly as medicines. For members of a democratic society, and a “It was the class during the day example, Snyder is beginning a series of strong background in chemistry and the that I most enjoyed going to,” Snyder collaborations with labs in California and scientific issues of today will help them recalls. Boston to determine more specifically what do that.” Snyder’s passion for chemistry Snyder’s ambition and intelligence chemical in red wine causes people to live can easily be traced back to his family. The set him apart from his peers early on. Not longer. Another of his notable discoveries elder of two sons, Scott Snyder was born only did he excel in his classes but also is his identification of the mode of action of to a pair of well-educated intellectuals, a at the age of eighteen, he became one of toxins created by sea sponges, which might biochemistry researcher and a math teacher. the select few to compete for the honor actually help to cure cancer in humans. As a child, his father always let him play of representing the United States in Although there is nothing with the equipment in his lab, fostering in the International Chemistry Olympiad, remotely pompous about Snyder in person- him an appreciation for the world around perhaps the most prestigious high school he is modest and low-key- he is clearly a him. competition in the field of chemistry. Every scientific genius with acuity of mind that “He let me touch beads of summer, the adolescent Scott could be found can be easily discerned from the first few mercury,” Snyder laughed. “At that time on the campus of SUNY Buffalo, where he seconds of conversation with him. Sparsely people didn’t know of its dangers.” worked as a volunteer research intern in a decorated, his desk contains only a few His mother, on the other hand, biochemistry lab. On those lazy summer textbooks and scattered papers, forcing one instilled in him the importance of precision days, Snyder toiled away indoors, working to look carefully in order to discover any and the idea “that if you’re going to spend tediously to perfect his lab techniques.
24 Columbia Science Review Scott A. Snyder
After high school, Snyder one-size-fits-all medical paradigm in favor Though not all future chemists continued to chase his dreams of success, of a more personalized form of medical will be as successful as Professor Snyder pursuing a chemistry major at Williams care in which each patient is treated based has been, one hopes that they will share his College in Williamstown, MA. Here, he on his unique genetic makeup. boundless enthusiasm for the field. This once again was blessed with an amazing This future that Professor Snyder enthusiasm is made abundantly clear when faculty that supported him, challenged him hopes for rests on the shoulders of the Snyder describes what it is that makes him and encouraged him to solve problems. current generation of aspiring chemists for love his job so much. Once again he immersed himself in the whom Professor Snyder has no shortage of “It’s the mystery [of it], combined chemistry labs, this time exploring different advice. with the unraveling of this mystery by aspects of the field, including its physical, “Try not to judge something from figuring out what these chemicals in nature organic, heterocyclic, and medicinal sub just one experience,” he answered finally. do. Couple that with the opportunity to disciplines. During the summertime, “And enjoy the problem of having a difficult teach the next generation of synthetic Snyder continued to work as a research problem. Always be curious- never think chemists and there is no better job on intern, this time for the Bristol-Myers any question is stupid. Always have belief earth.” Squibb Pharmaceutical Company (formerly in your own thoughts. Be willing to listen. known as Dupont-Merck). Recognition And, most importantly, let the data give the for his genius was quick to follow, as his answer, not you.” work garnered him several publications and numerous awards, such as a Pfizer Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship, the Barry M. Goldwater Fellowship in Science and Engineering, and a National Science Foundation pre-doctoral fellowship. He went on to earn his Ph.D. at The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, California, and did postdoctoral research as a National Institutes of Health fellow in the laboratory of a Harvard University Nobel Laureate. What key traits contributed to his astounding success in chemistry? In addition to being well read and persistent, Professor Snyder believes that there are two primary qualities that all good chemists must possess. “First, a chemist must have what are called ‘good hands,’ or the ability to execute an experiment properly.” “More importantly thought,” he continued, “is how you handle the first major problem you encounter in a research program, i.e. when your initial idea does not succeed. This moment is what makes or breaks a chemist. Some people become frustrated and simply give up. However, it is those who see this moment as an exciting challenge and fight to solve that problem who succeed.” Looking ahead, Professor Snyder is excited by what he envisions as the future of chemistry. He sees the future of synthetic chemistry as a “Star Trek” mission, one whose ultimate goal is efficiency, via an emphasis on one-step processing, 100% yield, and the elimination of waste. In this quest, he maintains, “We are, at best, Christopher Columbus.” He also envisions advances in nanotechnology and medicine, which will help scientists move way from the current
Volume 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 25 Anti-Angiogenic Drugs
Anti-Angiogenic Drugs: A Replacement for Chemotherapy? by Srinivas Chivukula of impaired taste receptors on the tongue several other modes of “cell assassination” after being treated with chemotherapy. One have come into play. One such mode Although the ultimate goal of all of the more complicated and devastating of treatment is anti-angiogenetic drug cancer therapy is to rid the body of malignant side effects of chemotherapy is impaired therapy. Angiogenesis is a physiological tumors, the side effects can be devastating. memory and/or cognitive ability. This is process by which new blood vessels develop This is easily seen in chemotherapy. Since its often referred to as chemo brain. from preexisting vessels. This is similar to inception, chemotherapy has been the norm, Tim Ahles, a researcher at the neovascularization, or the formation of the most reliable cancer fighter. It works by Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical School, functional microvascular networks with red killing rapidly dividing cells. The problem studied 57 people who underwent surgical blood cell perfusion,2 and to intussusception, with it, however, also lies in this simplistic treatment for cancer and 71 who underwent or the splitting of blood vessels to form new mode of action: rapidly dividing cells are chemotherapy. Through a standardized ones.1 Angiogenesis is a vital physiological not only found in tumors but also in parts test conducted 5 years later, he showed function, mostly because it allows body of the body that are functioning normally, that those who underwent chemotherapy growth, whether in the cervix after regular like bone marrow, hair follicles in the exhibited greater brain damage when menstrual cycles, in the embryonic stage gastrointestinal tract, and the reproductive compared to those who were treated with where it gives rise to stem cells, or in adults system organs. Rapid cell proliferation is surgery. This finding clearly demonstrates where it helps heal wounds. In certain cases seen in the mammary and prostate glands the negative effects of chemotherapy on such as fetal development, it is the sole as well. In addition, rapid cell division the brain. Ahles confirmed that this brain source of growth. Because it feeds rapidly is important in many healing processes damage was not related to depression dividing and growing cells, cancerous cells throughout the body. Since chemotherapy but rather, has an important biological use angiogenesis in their own growth and targets all rapidly dividing cells and has component. His recent research suggests replication processes. no way of distinguishing healthy cells that people with a particular gene are more Cancerous cells divide in an from cancerous cells, it can seriously harm likely to suffer cognitive defects in response uncontrolled fashion and group together the body. This article is a review of recent to chemotherapy. According to Christina to form tumors. There is a high rate of research on a mode of cancer treatment Meyers, a professor of neuropsychology mutation in tumors, and particular DNA that evades the risks of chemotherapy: at the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in mutations in cancerous cells modify cell anti-angiogenic drug therapy. Houston, TX, brain chemotherapy causes nature in a manner similar to that shown by In most cases, chemotherapy the cancerous cells to release cytokines, Lederberg et al. in the famous Lederberg drugs are administered along with proper which enter the brain and impair cognitive Replicating Experiment.,3 giving these medication to ensure that the affected functioning. Interestingly, in treatment, cells resistance to drugs and therapies. normal tissue’s ordinary functioning chemotherapeutic drugs also release these Once these tumors transgress the primary is regained. However, sometimes the cytokines. It is the cytokines that need to immune system’s defense mechanisms, they medications still fail to save the life of the be eliminated. Sedatives and steroids given begin to develop into larger tumors. This patient. Even those who survive cancer along with the drugs only exacerbate the growth is allowed because of the formation often suffer from the negative effects of situation, making cognitive impairment of their own new blood vessels. This is how chemotherapy. People suffer symptoms even worse.1 angiogenesis allows the spread of cancer. such as mouth dryness, loss of hair, loss Through continued blood vessel formation, of appetite, and problems with sense Angiogenesis and Tumor Growth the small cluster of cells grows into a perception, something that can be affected Given the potential damage that much larger tumor. This is made possible by malfunctioning cells. Some people, for chemotherapy can cause, it is no wonder that by nutrients such as growth factors like example, think pepper tastes sweet because
26 Columbia Science Review Anti-Angiogenic Drugs the Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor which is anti-angiogenic in nature, targeted angiogenetic drugs pose no risk of chemo (VEGF) which is secreted by the tumor at endothelial cells rather than the tumor brain and subsequent brain damage or of itself. The newly-formed blood vessels serve cells. Angiogenesis is carried out by these the Alzheimer’s that almost always follows a double purpose: they both feed the tumor endothelial cells. There are several stages in such brain damage. As research goes on, nutrients and secrete waste materials to the the development of endothelial cells that, maybe the best thing we can do is to urge outside of the tumor. when impeded by antiangiogenesis, can all cancer patients not to give up hope. Once the tumor grows in prevent proliferation of the tumor. Perhaps the savior is on its way! size, individual cells also begin branching According to the American out of the tumor. They travel through the Cancer Society, this new technique of Works Cited blood stream, and the lymph, and dock anti-angiogenesis is a safer technique than at different sites in the body. Here, they chemotherapy. The society explains simply, 1 http://dartmed.dartmouth.edu/ anchor and again begin to divide and form “Anti-angiogenesis is a form of targeted summer05/html/disc_chemobrain.php new tumors called secondary tumors. This therapy that uses drugs or other substances process of breaking off and spreading to to stop tumors from making new blood 2 “Neovascularization.” Wikipedia, The other parts of the body is called metastasis. vessels. Without a blood supply, tumors Free Encyclopedia. 17 Nov 2006, 23:03 The original tumor is now called a primary can’t grow.”4 But currently, Herceptin is the UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 10 Jan tumor. Recently, tumors are considered as only drug on the market which has FDA 2007
Based on preclinical research, HERCEPTIN is proposed to have up to 3 different types of activity.
HERCEPTIN
HER2+ Cancer Cell
1. May block tumor cell growth 2. May target the cell for 3. May work with chemotherapy HERCEPTIN binds to HER2+ destruction by the Along with chemotherapy immune system cancer cells and may block (paclitaxel), HERCEPTIN may them from dividing and HERCEPTIN attaches to the work to destroy HER2+ cancer growing. HER2+ cancer cells and cells. may signal the body’s own immune system to destroy the cell. Diagram courtesy GeneTech, inc.
HOW DO YOU TAKEVolume HERCEPTIN? 4. Issue 1: Spring 2007. 27
HERCEPTIN is given through an intravenous (IV) infusion at your doctor’s office or clinic. The first infusion usually takes about 90 minutes but may be slowed or stopped if you have discomfort from side effects. Infusions after that will only last about 30 minutes, as long as the prior infusion was well tolerated.
When you receive the first dose of HERCEPTIN, you may have chills and fever as well as nausea, vomiting, pain, headache, dizziness, shortness of breath, low blood pressure, rash, and weakness. These side effects were usually mild to moderate in severity. Serious and fatal infusion reactions have occurred infrequently. The rate of HERCEPTIN administration may be slowed or stopped due to side effects during infusions. Your doctor may need to stop HERCEPTIN if you are experiencing serious infusion reactions.
Please see accompanying Safety Information on the reverse side. COLUMBIA SCIENCE REVIEW www.columbiasciencereview.com