Notes 1 Introduction to the Study: Unveiling the Problematic 1. For examples of movement writing, see LeFrançois, Menzies, and Reaume (2013) and Burstow and Diamond (2010). 2. The term “archeology” comes from the philosopher Michel Foucault (1969/1989 and 1980), and it refers to the activity by which you arrive at the various statements that are made possible or refused by a specific discourse. 3. In most jurisdictions, the signatures of two psychiatrists suffice to commit someone involuntarily. See, for example, Mental Health Act (1990), R.S.O. 4. To be clear, I am in no way questioning that there are significant differences between the different schools of psychiatry. The point is, however, they all believe in men- tal illnesses, use the same diagnoses, enjoy the same powers, and draw on the same resources. 5. For an important analysis that unpacks and critiques the concept of committing suicide as well as other psychiatric concepts, see Smith (1990). 6. Polypharmacy is the prescribing of many drugs at once. 7. The full interview is available in my transcripts. For parts of it, including the statement quoted in the main text of this chapter, see Burstow (1994). 8. For an intricate look at these and attending problems, see Chapter Four, which is itself wholly dedicated to the DSM categories. 9. For one of the early thinkers who attributed mental illness to brain disease, see Meynert (1885). For the book that first convinced the public that mental illnesses were brain diseases, see Andreasen (1984). For an example of a psychiatrist who vehemently asserts that schizophrenia is a brain disease just like multiple sclerosis, even while acknowledg- ing the “lack of an abnormality in brain structure or function which is pathognomonic for schizophrenia,” see Torrey (2002). For more general elucidation on the lack of proof, see Szasz (2007/2010), Colbert (2001), and continue reading this book. 10. An example of a conference is PsychOut. See, in this regard, Burstow and Diamond (2010) (http://individual.utoronto.ca/psychout/). For the magazine on whose editorial board I served, I would refer readers to Phoenix Rising, which can be found on the Psychiatric Survivor Archives of Toronto website (www.psychiatricsurvivorarchives. com). 11. For these hearings, see Ontario Coalition against Electroshock (1984), Burstow et al. (2005), and Weitz (2005). 12. Maximum variation is a sampling procedure intended to maximize the amount of varia- tion in the sample; stratified purposeful sampling allows for categories that can be 266 M Notes easily compared (e.g., “survivors” and “practitioners”). A case is “critical” when it has the potential of substantially moving theory forward. Opportunistic sampling occurs when you take advantage of the fortuitous. For a discussion of these and other forms of purposive sampling in qualitative research, see Patton (2000, p. 171 ff.). 13. An IE study that illustrates this well is Adam (2011). Significantly, while this excellent IE work scrupulously traces how it is that seniors receive inferior hospital care, within a year of the completion of the research most of the documents on which it rests were no longer in use, albeit the problems persist. 14. For an example of a book of Foucault’s in which such ethical judgments are evident, see Foucault (1961/1988). 15. Facticity is what might be described as the “givenness” of things, what is “already there.” For an elaboration on this existential concept, see Sartre (1943/1956). 16. Labeling theorists were a tour de force in the 1960s and 1970s and to this day profoundly influence current sociological accounts of institutions like psychiatry and prisons. They hold that designations like “not normal” are attributes projected onto people, often at the behest of and in the hands of experts—not something inherent in the person per se. For a particularly helpful account of labeling theory, see Becker (1963). 17. Having obtained permission to unchain the “lunatics” at Becêtre and Salpêtrière, French psychiatrist Phillipe Pinel proceeded to “liberate” several male patients only—an act now seen as the freeing of “the mental patients” and emblematic of psychiatry’s lib- eratory nature. For a critique of this depiction, see Chapter Two. For an example of a leading male theorist not “noticing” that something inherently gender-specific was happening, see Foucault (1961/1988). 2 The Evolution of “Madness”: A Journey “through Time,” Part One 1. For further details, including the selling and buying of the rights to control the prop- erty of the insane, see Kittrie (1971) and Penfold and Walker (1983). 2. Once again, physical treatment is being used to address imbalances that cannot be detected. For a detailed discussion of the claims of neurotransmitter imbalance, see Chapters Three and Seven. 3. For later understandings of hysteria and for other “female maladies,” continue reading this chapter. See also Showalter (1987). 4. For details, see Southworth (1998). 5. Bridewells were houses of correction for “minor offences”—a response to the widespread poverty caused by social restructuring. For details, see Kittrie (1971), MacDonald (1981), Conrad and Schneider (1980), and Southworth (1998). 6. In testifying against the women, it should be noted, the doctors likewise rid themselves of competitors (for a discussion of this other side of the equation, see Mies, 1999). The point is, opposite though the positions were on the face of it, such were their construc- tions that whichever one doctors took, they were increasing their own power. 7. For Pinel’s account, see Pinel (1801/1962). 8. Following tradition, both Whitaker (2002) and Foucault (1963/1973), it should be noted, begin here. While Foucault focuses on major problems with moral management, Whitaker, by contrast, tends to theorize moral management as the ideal. 9. For these and related details, see Hunter and MacAlpine (1963). 10. I include Foucault here because his critique is important. A cautionary note, nonethe- less: In what is at best sloppy scholarship, he quotes Samuel Tuke’s famous statement about fear out of context such that Tuke appears to be asserting the very position that he is opposing (see Foucault, 1961/1988, p. 245). 11. For these and other details on Conolly, see Showalter (1987). Notes M 267 12. For highly informed commentary on the Virchow criterion and its significance, see Ackerknecht (1953) and Szasz (1976/1988). 13. “Dysaesthesia Aethiopis,” it is significant, was “identified” as overwhelmingly con- tracted by “free Negroes”—that is, Blacks who had no benevolent white master to care for them. The implicit message is—emancipation is to be avoided at all costs. For fur- ther analysis, see Szasz (1987, p. 307 ff.). 14. “Psychiatry” or “psychiatrie” is a German word coined by Reil in 1808. For more details, see Szasz (2007/2010, p. 90). 15. For details on the matrons, see Showalter (1987, p. 55 ff.). 16. For details on these “diseases” overall, see Showalter (1987). For the eventual “discov- ery” of “male hysteria,” see p. 167 ff. 17. For Kraepelin’s articulation of schizophrenia and his classification more generally, the reader is directed to Kraepelin (1907); for Bleuler’s articulation, see Bleuler (1911/1950). For Szasz’s highly insightful account of the introduction of “schizophrenia,” see Szasz (1976/1988). 18. The “fly in the ointment” of course—and psychiatry tends to ignore this—is that they would not then be “mental” illnesses. For further discussion, see Chapter Six. 19. For these activities, see Chapters Three–Eight. 3 Modernity (1890–2014): A Journey through Time, Part Two 1. See Freud (1953/1974). I am highlighting only Freudian psychoanalysis here, I would clarify, because it was the only institutionally dominant form of psychoanalysis. 2. It is somewhat arbitrary, note, to distinguish between psychiatric research that is eugenic and other psychiatric research of a biological nature, for as Maudsley exempli- fies, there is no clear differences in the explicitly biological claims per se—only in the social claims. Correspondingly, while not all biologically oriented psychiatric research is intended to support a eugenics vision, all lends itself to eugenics. 3. Actually, no other high courts ever ruled on this. 4. To clarify, negative eugenics (eradication of the “undesirable”) was contrasted with posi- tive eugenics (raising the birthrate of “Aryans”). For overviews of both, see Hillel and Henry (1976), Lifton (1986), Friedlander (1997), and Proctor (1988). 5. The IQ test was used to identify “candidates for sterilization.” Today, psychologists continue to administer these, and other such tests, have made a business of “testing.” 6. For a particularly good critique, see Whitaker (2002, p. 73 ff.). 7. Far from correcting this mistake in later years, the Nobel Foundation compounded the injury by justifying it—see Szasz (2007/2010, p. 163). 8. For a detailed account of Rosemary’s story, see Szasz (2007/2010, p. 152 ff.). 9. The wife in question is Velma Orlikow, partner of David Orlikow. 10. For this and other details on Paracelsus, see MacDonald (1981, p. 188 ff.). 11. While the early 1950s marks the beginning of the massive use of psychiatric drugs, to be clear, there were a number of earlier psychiatric drugs, many of which remained in use (e.g., lithium and the barbiturates). For details, see Breggin (1991a) and (1983), Whitaker (2002), and Szasz (2007/2010). 12. Phenothiazines were compounds in use in the 1930s as an insecticide, also as an animal tranquilizer. For details, see Breggin (1991a). 13. Dyskinesias are disorders involving involuntary movements. “Hyperkinesia” refers to an increase in muscular activity culminating in an increase in “abnormal” move- ments. “Parkinsonianism” is a category of neurological disorders characterized by involuntary movement and slowness of movement. For further clarification, see Breggin (1991a). 268 M Notes 14. The three prominent dopamine pathways are the nigrostriatal, the mesolimbic, and the mesocortical systems.