ARAM, 21 (2009) 193-213. doi: 10.2143/ARAM.21.0.2047093

The Maintenance of Modern Syriac in , After the Flight of Assyrians from Urmi in 1918, to 2007

Dr. Robert Paulissian (Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies)

Background

The Syriac1 language was the official and liturgical language of the propagated from the Near East to the Far East and Southeast Asia. This was not only the language of the church but also the spoken language of a large number of Assyrian Christian communities spread throughout that evangelized area. With numerous massacres, continuous persecutions, and forced conversions the Church of the East lost a significant number of followers and many of those Syriac speaking communities disappeared or became isolated. Perhaps the fatal blow came at the end of 14th century (1390–1400) AD with the rising power of Timur Lang (known in the West as Tamerlane). This sworn enemy of Chris- tianity, called the “Scourge of God” decimated the Christian communities in his path and in the process destroyed all the churches, monasteries, libraries, and Christian educational institutions. A small number of Assyrians taking refuge in the inaccessible mountains of the Hakkarri region of southwestern Turkey survived the massacres and near-total annihilation. This supposed “refuge” proved to be not very secure, placing Assyrians under constant pressure from the Kurdish tribes and their Ottoman masters. For over 400 years, these people lived in relative isolation, regressing cultur- ally toward illiteracy. However, these mountaineer tribes had a certain advan- tage of being semi-independent because of their isolation. In contrast, life for the Assyrians living in the plains of Urmi2 and Salamas, existing as “dhimmis” under fiefdom rules was intolerable. A description of these deplorable living conditions is beyond the scope of this treatise, but has been documented else- where by Western travelers and missionaries.

1 In this presentation, Assyrian and Modern will be used interchangeably. 2 The name Urmi has been spelled and pronounced differently as , Urmiah, Urumia, Uroomieh, Ooroomiah and Urumiyeh. Here the name Urmi, as used by Assyrians will be used. In 1934 Reza Shah Pahlavi changed the name Urumiyeh to Rezaiyeh after his own name. The Assyrians never adopted this new name and thus, retained the name Urmi in all their writings in Syriac. After the revolution and establishment of Islamic Republic, the name officially was changed back to Urumiyeh.

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Fortunately, the sad plight of the Assyrians was destined to somewhat improve. The arrival of Western missionaries and their selfless dedication to bringing educational and spiritual enlightenment to the Assyrian communities halted the decline and caused a revival in these communities. American missionaries arrived in Urmi between 1834–1835 followed by Catholics, Anglicans, Russian Orthodox and various Protestant missions. At their first arrival, the American missionaries reported that among the approxi- mately 125,000 Nestorians (Church of the East adherents), only 40 males and one female were able to read Classical Syriac. There was no writing in ver- nacular dialect, there were no books, no schools, and the majority of people did not understand the church services performed in Classical Syriac. One of the first tasks undertaken by the American missions was to reduce the vernacular dialect to writing, set up a printing press, establish elementary/ intermediate schools and later charter a college and medical school. The first periodical in Iran “Zahrira d}Bahra,” was first published in the Assyrian lan- guage in 1849 and continued until . Other missions also organized schools, managed printing presses and published periodicals (i.e., the Catholic “Qala d}shrara” and Russian Orthodox “Urmi Ortodoxetta”). The first Assyrian school (and also the first modern school of any kind in Iran) was established on January 18, 1836 with seven students.3 By 1906, the secular and independent Assyrian bi-weekly periodical “Kokhva”4 reported a total of 201 schools in the plains of Urmi and Salamas with 5084 students enrolled. This educational progress caused the Assyrians to become the most highly literate group among all the majority and minority populations in Iran.5 According to Charles Issawi, “An estimate made by Soviet observers in 1920’s shows that the Assyrian community had a highest rate of literacy (80% both men and women) among all the ethnic groups in Iran.”6 In comparison as late as 1977 only about 37% of the adult population in Iran was literate.7 Further information regarding the contribution of missionaries to Iran, particularly to Assyrians, is available elsewhere.8

3 John Elder, History of the American Presbyterian Mission to Iran, 1834-1960 (: Literature committee of the Church Council of Iran, n.d. 1962?), 11. 4 Kokhva, vol. 1 no. 10 (November 1906): 85-86. 5 elder, 96. 6 charles Issawi, The Economic : 1800-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 24. 7 Richard F. Nyrup, Iran: A Country Study (Washington DC: American University Press, 1978), 98. 8 Arthur Judson Brown, “One Hundred Years: A history of the Foreign Missionary Work of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., With some Account of Countries, Peoples, and the Policies and Problems of Modern Missions” (New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1936); John Joseph, The Modern Assyrians of the : Encounters with Western Christian missions, archeologists, and colonial powers (Leiden: Brill, 2000); John Elder, History of the American Presbyterian Mission to Iran, 1834-1960 (Tehran: Literature committee of the Church

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This educational and literary prosperity was short-lived, coming to a tragic end with the outbreak of World War I. In July of 1918, Assyrians were forced to leave Urmi caused by factors including: jealousy and hostility of the local population, a Jihad declared by Ottoman Turkey against Christians, continual persecution and massacres by Kurdish warlords encouraged by their Ottoman masters. Assyrians left their homes, villages, churches and schools and fled on foot. Dr. Richard Cottom, professor of political science at the University of Pittsburgh who served as a political officer in 1950’s at the American Embassy in Iran, eloquently described the event: “Because of their location on the Turkish border and in the midst of Kurdish vil- lages, the Assyrians suffered even more from the Turkish and Turkish – inspired Kurdish raids than did the . Their suffering became so severe that they despaired of ever again living in peace in Urmia, and a large number fled toward Iraq and British protection. More than one-half are said to have perished on the journey. The story of their flight is one of those human tragedies that cries for a great novelist to record.”9 The majority of Assyrians walked over 700 kilometers on inhospitable roads with the enemy in pursuit to Hamadan, Iran to gain the protection of the British Army. The able-bodied men were recruited as militias or served in support of military actions. The older men, women and children were put to the task of grinding rocks to surface roads from Hamadan to Kermanshah, Iran and from there to Ba{quba northwest of Baghdad in Mesopotamia, where they were settled in tent camps. (See Figure 1) The period to be discussed in the remainder of this treatise covers a period of approximately 90 years between 1918 and 2007 and is divided into three historical stages: 1. The flight of Assyrians in July 1918 to the time of the forced abdication of Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1941. 2. The period of the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (1941 to 1979). 3. The revolution and establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the present (1979–2007). In each of these periods, socioeconomic and political factors significantly affected the opportunities for educational instruction in the Assyrian language, literature and cultural activities. The specific areas of educational activities needed to maintain the language included:

Council of Iran, n.d.); Robin E. Waterfield, Christians in Persia: Assyrians, Armenians, Roman Catholics and Protestants (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1973); J. F. Coakley, The Church of the East and the Church of England: A History of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Assyrian Mission (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); and H. L. Murre-Van Den Berg, From a Spoken to a Writing Language: The Introduction and Development of Literary Urmia in the Nineteen Century (Leiden, 1999). 9 Richard W. Cottom, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979), 82.

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1. Schools or private classes for instruction of Classical or mainly Modern Syriac 2. Printing and publication of books in Modern Syriac 3. Periodicals published in Syriac or bilingually in Syriac and the (Farsi) 4. Music, Theater and Art In covering these three periods the situation in relevant cities will be dis- cussed separately.

First Period, 1918–1941

The years between 1918 and 1941 were the most difficult period with regards to political, economic, social and educational welfare of the in Iran. Assyrians became a nation of refugees for a period of time, losing every- thing and becoming completely dependent on the charity and welfare of others. They moved from town to town and country to country, each time with a loss of their meager assets. This continued displacement and struggle for survival did not allow the Assyrians to gain the resources to regroup, establish schools, and pub- lish books or periodicals for many years. Despite these socio-economic hardships, a number of dedicated men and especially women became proactive, struggled to organize orphanages, schools and offered private classes to teach the Assyrian language in the various cities where Assyrian refugees found temporary shelter.

Tabriz

All Assyrians could not escape from Urmi in July of 1918. Several thousand who had remained with the hope of protection by their Muslim friends and neighbors were massacred in exchange for their trust. Those who had taken refuge in the Catholic Mission compound along with few French missionaries were slaughtered. Only eight hundred who escaped to the American mission- ary compound survived the pogrom. A number of Assyrian intellectuals and scholars including Mar Touma (Thomas) Audo, Bishop of the Catholic Church, and Youkhanan (John) Mooshi, the editor of the periodical “Kokhva” who were ill with typhus and typhoid fever were brutally murdered while bedridden by the . An Assyrian woman named Judat (Judith) David, with the American Relief Fund sent from , is remembered for her care given to the survivors of the massacre. These Assyrians, who were mostly orphans, were rescued by the American Consul and transferred to Tabriz in 1919.10

10 Mary Lewis Shedd, The Measure of a Man: The Life of William Ambrose Shedd Missionary to Persia (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1922), 273-275.

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They were added to a small number of Assyrians who were living in Tabriz before World War I and those who had fled there in 1918 during the flight from Urmi. Under the direction of Ms. David, an orphanage for 700 and a school was established in Tabriz. After the war, many of the orphaned children were reunited with their parents or relatives who had fled to different cities and countries. Eventually, most of the Assyrians in Tabriz relocated to other cities or migrated to Amer- ica; only a small number remained in that city. Thereafter the Assyrian school in Tabriz was closed. However, the closure of the school and significant decrease in Assyrian community did not diminish literary activity there. A total of 18 books were printed in Modern Syriac in Tabriz. These included a lan- guage instruction book in 1922 and a hymnal book in 1925, both printed via a lithographic print process. Later, the Presbyterian mission press’ printing types were sent from Urmi to Tabriz. Between 1927 and 1936 an additional 16 books were printed with these printing types. Some of these books were reprints of books published earlier in Urmi, in addition to a few newly published ones. The Iranian government did not allow the publication of Assyrian language books after 1936; thus, the printing types were sent to Tehran and stored in the Presbyterian mission compound.

Hamadan

The American Presbyterian mission in Hamadan was established in 188111 and a school was started in 1885 for Armenian, Jewish and a small number of Muslim students. With the arrival of Assyrian refugees in 1918, a significant number of Assyrian children enrolled in that school. Rabi (teacher) Ishaq Urshan, an author of educational books in Urmi and a former teacher in the Qalla Col- lege became the principal of that school. For the first few years instruction was given in the Assyrian language. Later, when the Iranian government imposed restrictions on schools, the teaching of Syriac was stopped. There were alternative classes organized independently for teaching the Assyrian language to students who were not enrolled in the mission school and the adults. Because of the scarcity of books and teaching material in the Assyrian language, books were sent from school to school or from city to city. For example in an original copy of Mar Tooma Audo’s grammar printed in Urmi in 1911, the first owner has a note that he finished teaching the book in Tabriz in 1920, another man purchased the book and his note indicates that in 1922 he donated the book to be used in the school for Assyrian refugees in Hamadan.

11 Waterfield, Christians in Persia, 136.

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Despite a large Assyrian community living in the Hamadan area, by 1929 teaching of the Assyrian language was non-existent in that city.12 During the 32 year period between 1929 and 1961, there were no further attempts at teaching the Assyrian language in any form in that city. Between 1961 and 1963 while serving in the American Mission Hospital, I started an Assyrian language class for beginners in Hamadan. A large number of youth and adults eagerly participated, some were able to learn the Syriac language proficiently. After my departure to the United States, the class was discontinued and there were no further attempts made for teaching the lan- guage.

Urmi

In Urmi, the Iranian government, established law and order and expelled the Kurdish squatters who had occupied Assyrian villages and properties. In 1922 the government began on a selective basis, allowing some Assyrians to return to their homes. Assyrians immediately began the rebuilding process of their homes, churches, and schools with the financial assistance of their relatives who had emigrated to America. The American missionaries were allowed to return to Urmi in late 192313 and quickly reopened their schools and hospitals. The Fisk Seminary and Qalla Col- lege were opened with 300–350 students each and with dormitory facilities for boys and girls. A number of other schools started within the city and in the sur- rounding Assyrian villages. All these schools followed their former curriculum as before the flight, teaching all subjects in the Syriac language. The government prohibited missionaries from using their printing press and no publications were allowed in Urmi, therefore, the printing types were sent to Tabriz. In a Persian language periodical “Habl al-Matin” published in Calcutta, India on date November 17, 1925, a reporter named Mohammad Tammadon from Urmi, quoted the lamentations of the principal of a government school (Ahmadiyah School): “… not counting the Catholic schools, there are 45 Christian Protestant schools in Urmia and its surrounding villages compared to the two government schools which are incomplete and inadequate. [He] complains that in addition to the shortcomings of the government schools, the Christian schools have dormitories, multiple sports, gymnastic and football clubs. Further [he] states that these educational institutions of Christians are not new but were established 90 years ago.”14

12 baba Bet-Lachin, Ator, (May, 1974). 13 H. L. Murre-Van Den Berg, From a Spoken to a Writing Language, 82.; Waterfield, 141. 14 Mohammad Tammadon, Owza}e Iran dar Jange Awwal Ya Tarikhe Rezaiyeh (State of Affairs in Iran During WWI or History of Rezaiyeh), (Rezaiyeh, Iran: Moasseseh Matboo}atee Tammadon, 1971), 419.

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This educational prosperity came to an abrupt halt when the Iranian govern- ment, first in 1932, sent a general order that prohibited Persian subjects of any ethnic or religious group from attending any primary school (up to 6th grade) administered by “foreigners.” Thereby 75% of the schools teaching the Assyr- ian language, were closed.15 In Hamadan, the Evangelical Church took over the schools and ran it under government regulations. However, the Assyrian Evangelical Church in Urmi was not financially strong enough to take over and run more than fifty schools, therefore all of them were closed. Arthur Judson Brown tried to justify the Iranian government’s action by commenting: “The government policy is not motivated by opposition to mission schools, but by nationalistic policy to promote unity and patriotism by eliminating instruction in Armenian, Kurdish, Syriac and Turkish elementary schools and requiring that all teaching be in the Persian language by Persian teachers.”16

I strongly believe, that besides the reason mentioned above, Reza Shah was motivated to close the Christian schools with the intent to appease and silence his critics in the religious Shiite hierarchy. Later in 1934, the government requested all foreigners to leave Azerbaijan and ordered all the missionary schools and hospitals there to close immediately.17 This brought a century of the work by the Presbyterian mission in Urmi to an end.18 Unfortunately, the worst was yet to come. In 1939, the government ordered all foreign-owned, or schools receiving funds from abroad, to be closed. Thereafter, the government demanded that all mission schools should be surrendered within 7 days. With some effort, a one year grace period was negotiated.19 In 1940, all the Catholic and Presbyterian-supported schools teaching the Syriac language were taken over by the Iranian government and the teaching of the Assyrian language was prohibited. The burden of teaching the Assyrian language fell on the shoulders of the private classes conducted in churches or private homes. The Christian Endeavor group in the Assyrian Evangelical Church was an impetus for teach- ing the Assyrian language in Urmi after the closure of the schools.

15 elder, 74. 16 brown, One Hundred Years, 531. 17 Reza Shah who was a dictator and a savvy politician, after his official trip to Turkey and meeting with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, in 1934 began enforcing his social reforms. His forced policy of emancipation of women from wearing “hejab” or veil, aroused virulent opposition from the Muslim clerics. Expelling Christian missionaries and closure of their institutions, much needed schools and hospitals, was a way to placate and minimize the clergies antagonism. For a discussion of other political reasons for the expulsion of Western missionaries see, John Joseph, The Modern Assyrians, 209-210. 18 Waterfield, 141. 19 Ibid., 143; Elder, 77.

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Kermanshah

Another group of Assyrian refugees settled in Kermanshah. The economic opportunities associated with oil industry attracted many Assyrians to that city. Specifically, construction of an oil refinery by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company offered employment opportunities to a large number of Assyrians, many of whom were well versed in English. In 1926 the Assyrian Evangelical Church was established in Kermanshah and an immediate need for starting a school for Christian children was real- ized. Assyrians raised the needed funds themselves20 and a primary school, kindergarten to six grades for boys and girls was started in the 1927. Virtually all the students were Assyrians. Since names including the words Assyrian or Christian were unacceptable to the Ministry of Education, the school was named “Sa{di” after a famous Persian poet. Rabi Lucy Shahbaz was appointed as principal; she was a graduate and former teacher at the Fisk Seminary in Urmi and an exceptionally capable woman. Under her direction, instruction in and of the Assyrian language became an important part of the school’s cur- riculum. From the onset, there was continuous conflict between the Sa{di School administration and Ministry of Education about teaching the Assyrian language in the school. Current law prohibited the teaching of the Assyrian language, and thus, the principal was continually harassed by inspectors and officials of the local board of education. An eye witness accountof this conflict is detailed below. To preface, according to governmental educational laws, teaching the Islamic religion was a requirement in all the schools. In minority schools, the time set aside for religious teaching could be used for their own religious classes. In Kermanshah, the Assyrian language was taught during this time instead of religious instruction. Inspectors from the Ministry of Education tended to arrive for surprise inspections at that hour to ascertain whether the Assyrian language was being taught. As a matter of course, the Assyrian stu- dents were instructed to hide their Assyrian books, each time in a different place, when the inspector arrived. After many warnings, the principal was threatened with the closure of the school if any Assyrian language instruction books were found within the school. After this final notice, students were instructed to bring their Assyrian language Bibles to the class and in that way the Assyrian language could be taught using Bible lessons. These diversion- ary tactics only served to inflame the situation and eventually resulted in the arrival of a special inspector from Tehran. The inspector finding a Bible in a class, grabbed and trampled on it, then ordered that this “rubbish” should not

20 brown, 510.

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be taught in the school. He announced that the presence of any Syriac books, including Bibles was prohibited in the school. Future instruction in the Assyrian language continued, but the venue changed. On Sundays (which is not a holiday in Islamic countries and schools are held on that day), the Assyrian students during lunch break were sent to attend Sunday school classes in the Presbyterian (Evangelical) Church where the lan- guage instruction classes were continued. In this manner the government could not interfere in the teaching of religion in the church. This arrangement was continued until 1941. With arrival of Allied forces and the fall of autocratic and ultranationalist regime of Reza Shah Pahlavi, the restrictions for teaching the minority languages were lifted. Teaching the Syriac language in Kermanshah was not limited to the children or to the school itself. Rabi Lucy Shahbaz organized and directed meetings of the Christian Endeavor Youth Groups from 1929 to 1962. These activities combined Assyrian language instruction and Christian education.

Anvari School

As the Assyrian population in Kermanshah increased in mid 1930s, the Sa{di school could not accommodate additional students. Therefore, in 1935 another Assyrian school was established under the administration of Rabi Amma (Emma) Ayoobkhani who was also a graduate of Fisk Seminary and a well educated woman. The school included grades one through six for boys and girls com- bined. The Assyrian language also was taught in a similar manner as in the Sa{di school. This School closed in 1946 when the principal moved to Tehran due to familial obligations. In addition to the educational and religious activities to maintain Assyrian language and culture, Kermanshah had a small choral group organized by the well-known Assyrian poet and composer William Daniel. Between the years of 1935 and 1941, Mr. Daniel’s choir promoted Assyrian music to the delight of audiences.

Other Cities

There were Assyrian communities in other cities but their numbers fluc- tuated and were usually small, making it impossible to organize and estab- lish official schools. Teaching the Assyrian language was limited to private homes where parents taught their own children or small private classes in churches.

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Publication of Periodicals and Books

Periodicals

In this period, 1918-1941 publication of periodicals was not permitted in the Assyrian language.

Books

The books published in this period were those printed in Tabriz mentioned earlier which are listed below: 1. (Ktava d}hujaya: qiryana qamaya), Assyrian Primer: book one, by: Shamasha Gouriel Bar Yosip, lithographed, 1922. 2. (ktava d}zmaryatee qadishee), Hymnal book, litho- graphed, 1925. 3. (Haqyatee qa Yalee s{ore), Stories for children by: Rabi Shushan Malek-Yonan, 1927. 4. (Ktava d}hoogaya: Qiryana qamaya), Assyr-

ian Primer: book one, 1927, Pharos printing press. 5. (ktava d’zmaryatee qadishee), Hymnal book, 1927 Pharos printing press. 6. (Pasiqatee d}lishana suryaya swadaya), Concise Vernacular Syriac Grammar, by: Yokhannan Mooshi, reprinted in 1928. 7. (Ktava d}wajeebooyatee), The Book of Duties, printed in 1929 by the donations of the Assyrian Evangelical Church of Urmi, Pharos printing press. 8. (Darsee {al pasiqatee d}khayee d}Mshikha), Brief lessons on the Life of Christ, translated by: Rabi Aprim Urshan, printed in 1929 by the donations from the Assyrian Evangelical Church of Urmi, Pharos Printing Press. 9. (Moreesha b}moreesha), Morning by Morning, translated from Charles Spurgeon’s, paid by the Assyrian Evangelical Church of Urmi, 1930 printed by Sharq printing press. 10. (Darsee }al pasiqatee d}tarikh d’diatiqee }atiqta), Brief lessons on the History of Old Testament, by: Yukhanan Mooshi, 1930, Pharos Printing Press. 11. (Khda Sheeta {am Ktavee Qadishee), A Year with Holy Bible, 1930, Iran Printing Press. 12. (Moodiy iylah Haymanoota Christianeta), What is the Christian Belief? By: Qasha Polous Saada, 1930, Pharos Printing Press.

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13. (Madkhoore l}yoma d} 1900 Sheenee d}pandaqoste), A reminder of 1900th year of the Pentecost Day, by: Dr. Coan, 1930, Pharos Printing Press. 14. (Shabta Kolanneta d}Sloota), The prayer week, 1931. 15. (Darsee qa madrasa d}khosheeba), Lessons for Suday School, 1931. 16. (Sirr Tla Taqe d}Rookha d}qoodsha), trans- lated to Assyrian by: Qasha Sepan Khoobyar, 1931, Pharos printing press. 17. (Ktava d} Rubaiiat d}Omar khayyam {am Mushkhati d}Baba Tahir Loraya) Rubaiiat of Omar Khayyam and Poems of Baba Tahir, Translated by: Mesrop (Nesto- rius) Karam, printed by Sa{diyeh printing press, 1933 (Assyrian and Farsi). 18. (Ktava d}hoogaya: Qaryana qamaya), Assyr- ian Primer: book one, by: Rabi Shushan Malek-Yonan, 1936 printed by the Aboonoota Printing Press.

Second Period 1941–1979 during the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi

This period offered a singular opportunity for Assyrians to advance their lan- guage and culture, repair some of the damages and regain some of their rights, which were denied in the first period during the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi. Despite the relative freedom of minorities to pursue the teaching of their language and publication of books and periodicals, an intelligence service later known as SAVAK was established, which affected all areas of civil liberties inside and of outside Iran. Every published manuscript in languages other than Farsi were required to be translated and presented to the authorities for inspec- tion (this practice has continued to the present time). This put quite a burden on both authors and publishers of the Assyrian language. Sometimes after the books or other materials were printed, they were confiscated and destroyed by the SAVAK agents.

Tehran

The Assyrian population in Tehran with the arrival of Allied forces in August 1941, and availability of economic opportunities, increased significantly. With this economic prosperity, Assyrians quickly regrouped and decided to resurrect the educational and cultural prosperity that they had enjoyed prior to the First World War. In 1942, a prestigious club was organized which was frequented by Iranian and foreign dignitaries. This club became a forum for Assyrian intellectuals to demand their civil rights. An educational and literary

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committee was organized, which broadcasted an Assyrian radio program for about one-half hour on the only radio station in Iran, “Radio Tehran.” This program encouraged Assyrians to unite and help to promote and preserve their language and culture. After the closure of the club, the educational and literary committee contin- ued its activity. It was decided that the time was right for starting a secular Assyrian school. The funds were collected and a committee was elected from all religious denominations. At the same time, the Catholic Church purchased a large piece of land for building an Assyrian-. The Catholic Church offered a portion of this land for construction of this non- denominational school. The school committee accepted the offer and using donations from Assyrians of all denominations the school was built and it was named “Nsibin School” as a reminder of the famous “Nesibis School.” A steer- ing committee consisting of the Catholic and Protestant clergies and community leaders was empowered to direct the school activities.21 Applications for the per- mit were submitted and the school opened in 1951. After two years, the Ministry of Education, for unknown reasons, continued refusing to approve the official permit for the school.22 Quite soon afterwards the school was taken over by the Catholic Church. Finally the official permit was granted but the name of the school was changed from “Nsibin” to “Behnam.” Under directorship of Rev. Youkhanan Issaiy, within a few years this school became both primary and high school for both genders. The Assyrian language was taught 6 hours/week. With the Behnam School taken over by the Catholic Church, the Assyrian National Council of Tehran in 1952 was organized with the initiative to start a new Assyrian secular school. At this time, however, political and economic crises in Iran made it financially impossible for Assyrians to build another school. To solicit funds the Council assigned the Assyrian university students to visit every single Assyrian home in Tehran to solicit a monthly donation from each family. The plan succeeded and the school started in a rented building in 1955 as a preschool.23 The application for a permit for the school with the name of “Nsibin School” was bluntly rejected by the Ministry of Education.24 Finally the name “Shushan” (or “Sussan” in Farsi) was adopted for the school. The “Shushan School” became very successful and ranked as one of the top schools in Tehran. In a short time it included preschool through 12th grade;

21 Hnnibal Gevargis, “Adabiyate Kudakane Ashuri, Literature for Assyrian Children” in Tarikhe Adabiyate Kudakane Iran (The History of the Literature for the Iranian Children), editors, Mohammad Hadi Mohammadi and Zohreh Qaiini, (Tehran, 2003), 1062. 22 Ibid. 23 “Gilgamesh Journal,” no. 40 (1955), See new reprint, Gilgamesh Literary Journal (By Daniel Benjamin and published by Youel A. Baaba Library, El Sobrante, CA 1992), 898. 24 Personal interview with one of the school’s committee member who said, “in the meeting to request the permit for the school with name of ‘Nsibin School’, the official of the Ministry of Education with an irate tone responded and said ‘we have tried for decades to minimize and eliminate that part of the history from our books and now you want to resurrect it again’?”

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1400 students with the exception of a few were all Assyrians. Every morning before classes, students assembled in the school yard for the recitation of the Lord’s Prayer in Syriac, followed by the reading from the Gospel in Assyrian and Farsi. The Assyrian language was instructed 6 hours/week. The Assyrian language courses were included in the curriculum and recorded in the report card. In addition to the language classes, the Christian religious instruction also was conducted in the Assyrian language.

Church of the East School

In late 1960s the Assyrian Church of the East built a small school in Tehran. Here also the Assyrian language was taught in a similar manner to the other schools. Assyrian language education was not restricted to the formal classroom in schools. The Assyrian National Council and all the Assyrian churches offered language and grammar classes conducted on a weekly basis for adults and the Assyrian students who were not enrolled in Assyrian schools.

Urmi

After the closure of the schools in Urmi in 1934, there were no Assyrian schools in Urmi until 1951 when the Catholic Diocese started the “Pishdad” School for boys25 and later the “Maryam” School for girls, both with dormi- tory facilities. Assyrian language instruction was conducted in these schools on daily basis. Gilgamesh Journal in 1954 reported that in addition to above schools, there were Syriac language classes in Urmi and surrounding villages organized by different churches, Catholics 29, Evangelical churches 11, and Nestorian churches 10 classes.26 In addition, in 1976 in Urmi, a one hour radio program in the Assyrian lan- guage was started on the official government radio station, which still continues to the present time (2007).

Kermanshah

The Sa{di School, was able to purchase a building and “enjoyed the rep- utation of the best primary school in Kermanshah.”27 After the Islamic revolution most Assyrians migrated from that city and the school was taken over by Government in 1979.

25 gevargis, 1063. 26 Gilgamesh Journal (reprint), 886. 27 elder, 80.

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Abadan

The Assyrian National Council in Abadan also started a “Shushan School” in 1959 as a preschool and quickly six primary grade classes were added. Later, a junior high school to ninth grade for girls named “Nineveh School” was added. In these schools, the Assyrian language was fully integrated into the official curriculum and taught for six hours/week.

Ahvaz

In this city, the Assyrian National Council was organized and in 1978, a center was built for educational and cultural activities. Assyrian language classes were organized, a large number of children as well as adults enrolled in the classes. The plans for a school building were in the planning stages when they were interrupted and abandoned with the start of the revolution and later the Iran-Iraq conflict.

Folkloric Music and Art

In this period folkloric art blossomed among the Assyrians in Iran. In Tehran, William Daniel’s choral group started in 1942 and continued until 1952. This tradition was followed by another choral group headed by Nebu Issabay which lasted to the 1970s. A folkloric music and dance group headed by Lily Tai- moorazi performed in various Iranian cities and even traveled and performed in European countries. Some of these Assyrian compositions were performed by the Iranian National Choral and Symphony Orchestra. In Abadan, Polous Khof- fri, a poet and composer formed another successful choral group and orchestra. This group performed widely in Iran, promoting the folkloric Assyrian music. Both in Tehran and Abadan these choral groups performed benefit concerts to financially support Assyrian schools and other literary and cultural programs.

Publication of books and Periodicals

After the occupation of Iran by Allied forces, the severe restrictions on printing in minority languages were lifted. The Assyrian Literary Committee of Tehran “Si{ta Sipretta” in 1942 purchased a printing press with printing types and sent it to Urmi in an attempt to revitalize the printing process there. For unknown reasons (possibly financial or interference of local government officials) only a calendar was printed. There was no further printing in the Syriac language out of Urmi.

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In 1944 a periodical named “Sniy Fashist” (Hate the Fascist) was started by Dr. Luther Karam in Tabiz; only one issue was published. The first book published in Tehran was a collection of Assyrian folkloric musical creations named “Zahrira d}Umanuta” (The Ray of Art) by William Daniel, poet and composer. It was handwritten and printed by lithographic method in 1944.

Khonein printing press

The Khonein printing press was established in 1952 by two brothers Addi Alkhass and John Alkhass, both distinguished scholars in Assyrian language and literature. Beside editing and publishing the prominent, monthly “Gilgamesh Journal” (70 issues), they published 24 valuable Assyrian language books on a variety of subjects, four calendars and other literary material. This printing operation lasted until 1969.

Assyrian Youth Cultural Society Printing Press

The Assyrian Youth Cultural Society was established in 1950 by a group of dedicated, intellectual young men. It was the most active and prolific producer of books and literary material. No group in the post-World War I era has sacrificed and contributed so much to the maintenance of Assyrian language, literature, and culture. Overall, they published 78 books and booklets, 23 calendars, 42 issues of “Kerkha” magazine and periodicals for the Assyrian Universal Alliance.

Other Printing Presses

There were a number of books published by non-Assyrian printing presses; seven of these books were printed using lithographic techniques and 46 with the type set printing method. The books printed in the second period cover a wide variety of subjects, including teaching the language and grammar, literature, poetry, history, novels; and stories for children; music and folkloric songs and translations from other languages.

Periodical Publications in second period

Between the time of the flight of Assyrians out of Urmi in 1918 until 1950, there were no Assyrian periodicals published in Iran. The following is a list since 1950:

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1. Da{tid Bahrana (Enlightened Future) 1951-1953, bi-weekly, Tehran, bilingual. 2. Elayme Aturaye (Assyrian Youth) 1952-1953, bi-monthly, Tehran, bilingual. 3. Gilgamesh 1952-1961, monthly, Tehran. 4. Surgada Umtanaya (National Calendar) yearly 1954- 1978, Tehran. 5. Mar eita, Catholic periodical, monthly 1958 (six issues were pub- lished), Urmi. 6. Kerkha Yarkhaya (The Monthly Digest) monthly 1962-1969, Tehran, bilingual. 7. Ator () 1968-1979, monthly, Tehran, trilingual (Assyrian, English and Farsi). 8. Assyrian Universal Alliance, Asian branch, 1971- 1972, Tehran. 9. Shvila (The Pathway) 1977-1979, Tehran, bilingual. 10. Shrara (Truth) January 1978, Tehran.

Third Period, 1979–2007

This period brought a reversal of many freedoms and privileges that were given to ethnic and religious minorities, including Assyrians.

Schools

After the departure of the Shah and establishment of a temporary govern- ment in 1978, a new Islamic constitution was adopted in 1979. In this constitu- tion the rights of religious minorities to practice their religion and teach their language was emphasized. Despite these constitutional guarantees, education became a most difficult issue for minorities in Iran.28 From 1979 to 1981, minority schools operated as they always had. In the first year both genders were mixed in classes. After Islamists take over of the revo- lution, the government in 1980 ordered the separation of schools by gender. Despite these changes the program and curriculum of the schools remained as before. The pressure of Islamic government on minority schools started in 1981 and intensified in 1983.29

28 Sanasarian, 76. 29 Ibid.

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The Shushan School was assigned to be a school for girls only. The name was changed to “Maryam School” and Behnam School was designated for male students. In 1980 when the edict came to separate male and female students, the size of the building of the Church of the East School could not accommodate two separate schools. Therefore, it was closed and students were transferred to either the Maryam or Behnam schools. In 1983 a new edict from the Ministry of Education and Training stipulated that the principal of all schools, including private minority schools must be of the Muslim faith. This was to conform to the law forbidding non-Muslims to serve as head administrators of any organization.30 Ominously, Muslim clerics, teachers, and radical Islamic elements were appointed as principals to the reli- gious minority schools.31 Other policies forced on these schools were the elim- ination or reduction in teaching the languages other than Farsi. This effort to eliminate teaching the minority language was strongly protested on all levels, starting with the Iranian Parliament down by both Assyrians and Armenians until it was abrogated.32 The most problematic issue was the direct interference in the teaching of the which was ordered to be in Farsi. This issue had a double effect on the Armenian and Assyrian Christians schools, as their teaching of the religion was traditionally in their own tongue. All minorities protested these policies with no success and religious classes are currently conducted in Farsi only.33

Maryam (Shushan) School

In October 1983, the female Assyrian principal of the Maryam School was called to report immediately to the office of the school district where she was informed that from that moment she was no longer the principal of the school. At the same time, a new Muslim headmistress arrived to take over the manage- ment of the school. On the first day, she ordered that an American flag be painted on the ground at the entrance to the school so that the students on entering and exiting the school would walk over the flag. She immediately discontinued the morning recitation of the Lord’s Prayer and Bible readings. Within a few days, the Assyrian assistant principal was dismissed and a Muslim assistant principal was assigned to the school. The protests of the students and parents were totally ignored and rejected. Gradually most of the Assyrian teachers were transferred

30 eden Naby, “Ishtar: Documenting the Crisis in the Assyrian Iranian Community,” The Middle East Review of International Afaires, vo. 10, no. 4 (2006). 31 Sanasarian, 77. 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid.

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to other schools or dismissed and replaced by unqualified fundamentalist Muslim teachers and administrators. The quality of education has deteriorated and many Assyrian parents are no longer sending their children to that school. Of 500 students currently enrolled, only 100 are Assyrians. Assyrian language still is taught in the school, however, with much less emphasis on the quality of instruction.34

Behnam School

The Assyrian female principal of the Behnam School also was replaced by a fundamentalist Muslim. The same restrictions were applied as other Assyrian schools. The Assyrian language still is taught in the school similar to the Maryam School. During a personal interview with a former teacher of the Assyrian language in that school, she complained that her classes were frequently interrupted by the playing the tapes of recitation of the Qur}an on the loud-speaker system of the school. Sometimes the fundamentalist Muslim teachers or administrators disrupted the Assyrian language classes, intimidated the teacher and the students and used the time for proselytizing students about Islam. She and other Assyrian language teachers were dis- missed when the teaching of the Assyrian language was ordered to stop. This teacher was eventually able to immigrate to a European country, stud- ied Semitic languages and presently is on the faculty of a major University in that country.

Abadan

With the start of Iran-Iraq war in 1980, both Shushan School and Nine- veh School were attacked and destroyed by Iraqi air force. Assyrian popula- tion in Abadan significantly decreased and these schools were never opened again.

Urmi

Both Catholic schools in Urmi are still active but the teaching time for Assyrian language is reduced to only two hours/week.

34 Personal interview.

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Books and Periodicals in the Third Period

Books: 1. (Turas Mshukhta), by: William Sarmas, 1979. 2. (Qiryana Qamaya, {al zoola d}qala), self teach- ing primer: book one, recorded on tape, by: Haido Haido, 1980. 3. (Lishana d}yema Atoor Qa Jooree), The mother tongue Assyrian for adults, 1982. 4. (Spar Sheeta d}Ada), Calendar of Ada, 1982. 5. (Qaryanee jubyee d}Mar Toma Audo), Selected readings from Mar Touma Audo, by: Nemrod Simono, 1983. 6. (Mar yaqoo Akhona d}Maran), Saint Jacob Brother of Our Lord, by: Shmuel Yousip, 1983. 7. (Zidqee Dooshdeshe d}Atoor- ayee biad Malkoota d’British), Trampling over Assyrian rights by British Government, by: Minashee Ameer, 1983. 8. (Sapprayoota d}yalloodi: Khora Koma, Khora khvara), Black friend and white friend, children’s literature, 1984. 9. (Lechsiqoon Atooraya-Engelis), Assyrian- English Dictionary, by: Minashee Ameer, 1987. 10. (The Bible in Vernacular Assyrian), reprinted 1988. 11. (Shikvana Zakhma), The mighty ant, by: Louis Gabriel, trans., 1988 12. (Nahra), The River, 1988. 13. (Dashya Gan. Pido-pido), children book, 1989. 14. (Qaryana Qa Kol yom), 2 volumes, Daily reader, 1990. 15. (Urkha khatta qa lapta d}lishana Atoraya), The New Method of Learning the Assyrian Language, in Farsi and Assyrian, by: Edwin Amira, 2000. 16. (William Daniel), by: Nemrod Simono, 2000 17. (Mar Bhishoo), Saint Bhishoo, Tanslated from Classical Syriac to Modern Syriac by: Qasha Doomaran, 2005

Periodicals

All periodicals were published in Tehran: 1. (Qala min Madenkha), The Voice from the East, Assyrian Church of the East. 2. (Umta), The Nation, Assyrian Council of Tehran January 1980.

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3. (Zraqta d}khiroota), The Dawn of Freedom, 1981. 4. (Orhay), Edessa, 1981 (5 issues). 5. (Ishtar), 1981-1983, bilingual (45 issues). 6. (Qala d}Ninve), The Voice of Nineveh, 1984. 7. (Kokhva Bahrana d}Qedamta), The Morning’s Shining Star, 1988 (70 issues). 8. (Mativana d}Atorayee), The Assyrians’ Message, The Organ of Assyrian National Council of Tehran, bilingual Syriac and Farsi, 1993-2006. 9. (Alap u Tav), Alpha Omega, quarterly journal, 2000, still pub- lished on regular basis. 10. (Sapra), The Scribe, irregularly published. With dangerously dwindling numbers in their communities, loss of their schools, economic hardships, and restrictions imposed by a theocratic and dis- criminating regime, Assyrians have tried desperately to find a workable solution to accommodate themselves to a completely different society in Iran. Today, we observe a certain degree of success in preserving their identity and culture. But the future of the ethnic and especially religious minorities in the Middle East seems bleak. With the rise of religious fundamentalism, discrimination in employment, and forced ethnic and religious cleansing is driving these minorities out of their homelands to seek refuge in Western countries where the prospect of maintaining their language, culture and identity is far more difficult. Will the Assyrian language survive in these melting pot societies? Or it will be added to the long list of other dead and forgotten languages. Can Assyrians in diaspora keep the legacy described below? Thirty years ago the distinguished scholar Rudolf Macuch, in his book “Geschichte der spät- und neusyrischen Literatur, History of Late Classical Syriac and Modern Assyrian Literature, Berlin (1976), described his assessment of the literary achievement of the Assyrian people as: “Even with their tragic history, their internal divisions, and their lamented dispersal to the four corners of the world, it would be difficult to find another small nation with literary productivity to compare to the Assyrians.”35

35 gabriele Yonan, “Rudolf Macuch (1919-1993): A personal Remembrance,” JAAS, vol. VIII no. 2, (1994), 110-111.

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Figure 1. Map of Iran-Iraq and the rout of the Assyrians’ Flight

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