1 Stemming Learning Difficulties Among Alternate Learners Of

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

Modesta ijeoma Iloene Institute of Nigerian Languages, University of Nigeria, Aba Campus

Abstract The need to meet the national imperative of learning a language other than one’s mother tongue necessitated the mounting of Alternate language (AL) programmes in the nation’s secondary and higher institutions. It is, however doubtful that the educational objectives of these programmes are being met due to a range of variables that conspire to generate learning difficulties among the learners. This paper is a modest account of these variables with particular reference to the Igbo language. Data used for this study were obtained from both learners of Igbo as alternate language and Igbo language teachers. The researcher drew some data from experience, over the years, with acculturation students in the Institute of Nigerian languages, now University of Nigeria, Aba campus, and the rest from an interview of a random sample of Igbo language teachers in Nigerian colleges of education and federal government colleges during an interaction in a workshop on Acculturation in the same Institute from 7th – 10th September, 2008. The study reveals that Psychological, linguistic, and environmental variables generate difficulties for the AL learners in Nigeria and finally advocates that the AL teachers productively harness the treasure hidden in CLT to enhance learners’ attitudes and motivation, stem learning difficulties and ultimately achieve instructional effectiveness in the interest of AL pedagogy.

1.0 Introduction Nigeria as a state of many nations has always felt the need for unity and cooperation among the various ethnic nationalities. This unity and co-operation has been the target of many policies and programmes Nigeria has evolved among which is the language provision in section 1 (8) of the National Policy on Education (NPE). The section states inter-alia that “government considers it to be in the interest of National unity that each child should be encouraged to learn one of the three major languages (Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba) other than his own mother tongue. In line with the above provision, some Federal Universities and colleges of Education in Nigeria run AL language programmes in Nigerian languages. Secondary schools in Nigeria are expected to teach at least one of the three major languages including the language of their immediate locality. One does not look too far to observe that little success has been recorded in this regard. This is apparent in the perennial lack of teachers of Nigerian Languages as most graduates of this programme end up abandoning the subject or choosing to teach the subject they combined with the AL usually a foreign language. Experience over the years with students of Igbo as an alternate language on acculturation has shown that inadequate learning contributes to this ugly trend; more so when one does not give what one does not have The second language learners encounter learning difficulties of various forms and magnitude. The case of alternate learners of Nigerian languages cannot be different, however what is different is the nature and 1

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages extent of such difficulties inherent in variations in specific languages, and the structure of the state in which such languages are used. This paper examines the causes of learning difficulties in an alternate Nigerian language classroom, with special reference to Igbo. It also draws insights from Communicative language teaching (CLT) to improve instructional outcomes and stem learning difficulties, without losing sight of the factors that constrain effective use of CLT in AL pedagogy. Before we settle down to our target discussion, it is important that we do some terminological clearance.

1.1 Second language (L2) and Alternate language (AL) In applied linguistics parlance, a second language is a language that is used and taught in a country where it is not an indigenous language. In a particular country, however, more than one language can be in use. These constitute indigenous languages in the country. Thus, when speakers of different languages of the same country learn the languages of one another, they learn alternate languages of the country. It is with this understanding that I choose to refer to the programme mounted in the federal government colleges and colleges of education in Nigeria, in response to the NPE, to teach Hausa/Igbo/Yoruba to non-native speakers as Alternate Language Programme. Programmes meant to teach languages like English and French to Nigerians are Second language programmes. The implication is that Hausa/Igbo/Yoruba is an alternate language to anyone learning it other than the mother tongue (mother tongue loosely defined to mean one’s native and first language). Second and alternate languages differ only in definition. Their pedagogical implications do not seem to differ, hence the tendency to refer to both as Second language learning/ teaching. It is important at this point to take a brief look at the nature of L2 learning so as to provide a theoretical background for this study.

1.2 The Nature of Second Language (L2) Learning Much has been said about second language learning in the literatures. Researchers have often relied on theoretical accounts of first language (L1) acquisition to explain second language learning. The innatist theory of Chomsky (1957) and behaviourist psychological theory of Skinner (1957) have been influential in this regard. The behaviourists explain language acquisition in terms of imitation, practice and habit formation. According to this theory, a child develops a language by imitating adult speech, given reinforcement in the form of reward, and practice; the child forms the habit of producing correct response. Chomsky (1957) is a swift opposition to the behaviourist account of L1 acquisition. It maintains that the child is endowed with an innate language-learning ability in the form of a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which specifies the form of a grammar of a possible human language, and a strategy for selecting a grammar of the appropriate form that is compatible with the primary linguistic data (PLD). With the innate strategy, the child is able to match the language she/he hears around with the form of a particular grammar from a fairly restricted set of potential languages. The LAD enables the child to, from the meager and degenerate data actually available, create hypotheses about the form of the grammar of the language she/he acquires, and compare it with his/her innate knowledge of the grammar of a possible language that is congruent with the abstract principles of universal grammar.

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These two accounts of L1 acquisition have greatly influenced innovations in language teaching as efforts were made to place L2 learning in the moulds of L1 acquisition, the weaknesses of both theories notwithstanding. However, the L2 learner is different from a child acquiring L1 both in terms of personal characteristics and condition of learning. A child acquiring a L1 is aspiring on its own to possess a means of self expression, does not know what a language is, but as times go on, it manages to work out one from its immediate environment. The L2 learner on the other hand, already knows and uses at least one language and usually requires a formal instruction which presents some challenges. Thus L2 and even AL learners manifest a wide range of individual differences in personality, styles, strategies and pace of learning. This explains why Burt and Dulay (1980:76) describe L2 learning as a ‘two way street” the learner, and the mental and physical machinery associated with his/her comprising one dimension while the environment, including the teacher, classroom and the surrounding community is the other. Teachers have often wondered aloud why some L2, and by implication, AL students do excel in language instructions while others only struggle with or even ignore it.

1.3 Learning Difficulties in Nigerian Languages as AL Learning difficulty refers to the inhibition that learners experience in attaining the level of achievement set by the teacher/school in a course of instruction/programme. This inhibition is usually manifested in the feedbacks learners provide behaviourally, as a result of language input they received during instructions. The most common feedbacks learners provide are systematic errors found in the learners’ speech and writing. Thus, when in the AL classroom of Nigerian Languages, learners produce systematic errors caused by lack of proficiency in the alternate language, which inhibit their attainment of instructional goals; they can be said to experience learning difficulties. Difficulties caused by language or learning disabilities evident in language disorders of various types such as articulation problems, phonological information processing problems and memory problems, are not part of this paper.

1.4 Causes of learning Difficulties in Alternate language Classroom in Nigeria The National Institute for Nigerian languages, Aba, now part of the University of Nigeria, has played host to Learners of Igbo as alternate language across the country since !993. This is in response to the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) minimum standard for language which requires that students running alternate language programme spend the long vacation in the Institute where the standard language is spoken for a minimum of twelve weeks. Experience has shown that of the numerous students that pass through acculturation programme in this Institute, only very few are actually interested in making a career in the alternate language teaching after graduation. As a matter of fact only one graduate student of Adeyemi College of Education Ondo is known to now teach in the college. The lecturers who bring the students from all the participating schools are all Igbo L1 lecturers except this former student of Adeyemi college of Education. In 2008, the Institute organized a workshop on acculturation inviting participating schools and other relevant stakeholders to assess the programme and 3

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages chart the way forward for a better Alternate Language delivery. During the interactive session, teachers bared their minds on the causes of the setbacks often experienced by AL learners. By and large, revelations from these two classes of stakeholders in AL pedagogy (students and teachers) on the factors responsible for the difficulties experienced by AL learners in Nigeria can be broadly classified into three as follows:

1.4.1 Language Aptitude This has to do with the propensity to master an Alternate language. According to Carroll and Sapon (2002), language aptitude simply means an ability or ‘knack’ for learning foreign languages. Exploring factors affecting foreign language learning, the duo found that language aptitude in conjunction with motivation is the second most important factor in language learning. This means that some people with high language aptitude have the natural tendency to learn a second language faster than others even though every one has the ability to learn a second language, given enough time and reasonably good instruction. Learners with higher aptitude progress faster than those with lower aptitude. Hence, put in the same class and exposed to the same number of contact hours of instruction, it is only obvious that those with lower aptitude will experience some learning difficulty. They will be stretched beyond their capability as they struggle to match the pace of their counterparts with higher aptitude, and can get frustrated when they make no progress, or even by the teacher’s comment about them. There are four components of language aptitude identified by Carroll as follows: a. Phonetic coding ability- ability to perceive and remember distinct sounds associated with symbols b. Grammatical sensitivity- ability to recognize the function of a lexical element in a sentence c. Rote learning ability-ability to learn and retain associations between words in a new language and their meaning in the first language d. Inductive learning ability- ability to infer or induce rules governing the structure of a language Learners who experience some difficulty in these components manifest various levels of interference found among alternate language learners. It simply means that learners’ aptitude affects their threshold for interference problems, be it phonological, grammatical, lexical, or semantic. The Nigerian languages share a lot of linguistic and cultural features, ranging from distinctive tones to cognate morphological and syntactic features. Yet, there exist significant differences between them, since no two languages are exactly the same, no matter the genealogical relationship. Learners of Nigerian languages, like other language learners, have idiosyncratic features of their L1, as part of their intellectual make-up and cannot extricate themselves from the stimulus system to which they function as response. Fries (1945:5) lends credence to the above when he affirms that the already existing habit arising from the first language acquisition causes the problems in foreign language learning. Thus, despite heavy criticism on behaviourist theory and language teaching practices associated with it, one does not look too far to observe that the learners’ utilization of the knowledge of first language and other languages known to them affects their learning of the alternate language. Hence, Rivers (1983:89) states that deviations by learners of a L2 are at the surface structure not deep structure as in L1

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics acquisition, and so cannot reflect “implicit hypotheses: as to the nature of the target language in the sense that Chomsky (1957) used it. According to him, the hypothesis underlying their deviant utterances is: “Until otherwise demonstrated, rules determining the surface structure of the new language will closely parallel those determining the surface relationship of the first language.” Consistent with the above is the data below from an experience with alternate learners of Igbo on Acculturation in the Institute of Nigerian languages: (1) Igbo AL student Gloss a) aha m bu ……… aa m bu my name is … b) abu m onye… a m bu oye I am a native of… c) esi m Osun steeti … ezi m Osun Steeti I came from Osun state… The elision of /h/ and // in 1 (a&b) and substitution of /j/ and /z/ for // and /s/ respectively in 1 (b & c) reveal much about the phonological structure of the Yoruba language and the kind of hypothesis the Yoruba learners of Igbo as an alternate language create about Igbo. This confirms Kachru’s (1981) assertion that the production distortions seen among foreign speakers of a language are as a result of the nativization of the language in the socio-cultural context of their native language environment. The Igbo language has some peculiar consonant sound segments, such as /, , /, the diagraphs, /w, gb, gw/, etc, which present pronunciation problems to learners because these sounds, either do not feature in the learners’ L1 or they pattern differently where they exist. Learners tend to substitute these Igbo consonant sounds with the closest sounds in their L1, for instance, /n/ for / /; /j/ for //; /w/ for /w/; /b / for /gb/; etc. The [-ATR] vowels such as: / ,,/also present some difficulty in pronunciation (see 1b above and note that the learner’s speech does have the mid-high back vowel). Moreover, tone, a feature of most Nigeria languages, causes learning problems for Igbo as AL Learners, even when texts are tone-marked, learners do not seem to recognize or observe them. Again, in connected speech, phonological processes such as assimilation, elision and epenthesis, together with indistinct word boundaries tend to pose problems for alternate learners of Igbo when they listen to natural language use. The learners’ inability to utilize these phonological phenomena makes their speech too formal and mechanical. For instance, /kedu ka i di / instead of /kedukiidi/, /o bu m na- ekwu/ instead of / mneekwu/. At the level of grammar, it is also observed that the dual role of rV suffix in the present indicative and past tenses creates problems for learners, just as they find it difficult to make appropriate use of personal pronouns in the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the possessive forms. Thus, learners are often found to use forms such as: /i gara ahia/ and /lee isi gi/ in response to /{ gara ebee/ and /gosi m isi g[ /, respectively. Another problem area has to do with dialects. The Nigerian languages have numerous dialects out of which one is the literary standard. In some languages like Igbo, the literary standard used in teaching does not have geographical reality. This situation makes it difficult for learners to match what they learn in the classroom with actual communicative events outside the classroom. Again, because most lexical items are associated with certain dialects, students are often confused when different teachers present names of certain things to them as in: (2) odo ikwe ‘mortar’ oroma epe ‘orange’ 5

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

nche anwu mbalari ‘umbrella’ oka ukooru ‘corn’ One way of helping learners out is to give them these words as synonyms or alternative names which are geographically determined, while indicating the generally accepted standard term.

1.4.2 Motivation Motivation refers to a combination of desire and effort made to achieve a goal; it links the individual’s rational for any activity such as language learning with the range of behaviours and degree of effort employed in achieving goals (Gardner 1985). The learners’ level of motivation is another crucial factor that enhances or hinders their achievements in the target language. Closely related to motivation is attitude. Learning difficulties arise when learners develop poor attitude and are poorly motivated towards the target language. Gardner (1985) maintains that attitude possesses cognitive, affective, and conative components (i.e. it involves beliefs, emotional reactions, and behavioural tendencies related to the object of attitude), and consists, in broad terms, of an underlying psychological predisposition to act or evaluate behaviour in a certain way. Attitude is thus linked to a person’s values and beliefs and promotes or discourages the choices made in all realms of activity, whether academic or informal (Mc Groarty 1996). The above suggests that while attitude is linked with personal conviction about a given course of action, motivation relates to the internal drive to pursue such an action. One can thus say that attitude precedes motivation, while both are directly related to the value attached to the course of action under consideration (in this case learning Igbo/Hausa/Yoruba./etc as an alternate language). Another attitudinal problem that fuels learning difficulty is lack of empathy for the language group or their culture. Hostilities and ethnic rivalry among ethnic nationalities in Nigeria lead learners to show no interest when certain Nigerian languages are involved which they do not want to identify with their speakers or customs. Thus, the subtle effects of not wanting to sound like the Hausa, Igbo or Yoruba man, as the case may be, inhibit the learning process of the learners by reducing their attention span. Moreover, the study of Nigerian languages in the secondary schools, colleges of education and universities is considered a last resort, and for those who cannot study any other course and graduates of such programmes are seen to be fit only for teaching appointments. Worst still, even in the classroom, Nigerian language teachers are regarded as less prestigious than their counterparts in other subjects. Learning progresses more when it is goal oriented. Learners of Nigerian languages who see no further opportunities in the programme will tend to rely on their personal choice and interest to strive to succeed. Given the above situation, most alternate learners of Nigerian languages in the secondary schools and colleges of education register the courses not because they have any future in the pursuit of such courses but because they want to make up their subjects and subject combinations. Thus, having no clear purpose and no strongly felt reason to study these languages, such students are unlikely to expend the effort required to excel.

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1.4.3 Contextual Factors These refer to a set of related variables that are external to alternate learners of Nigerian languages, but which exert so much influence on them that learning is either facilitated or inhibited. These variables include the context of the school, the teacher, the school curriculum, instructional techniques and instructional resources.

1.4.3.1 The context of the school This creates learning difficulty for alternate learners of Nigerian languages when students are not sufficiently exposed to the language they are learning due to poor timetabling. Part of the neglect that Nigerian languages suffer in the secondary schools is that the period allocated for their study is too short to allow any teacher cover the syllabus let alone give students sufficient exposure that will make for meaningful progress in learning. Again, because these languages are combined with other subjects in the colleges of education, students do not have as much contact hours with them as should be the case. Even where the Nigerian language is studied in communities where such a language is spoken (i.e. Igbo in Igbo land, Hausa in Hausa land) as in the Federal Government Colleges and Colleges of Education, the medium of communication in the schools is usually English. This further reduces the opportunity for the students to encounter and use such languages outside the classroom.

1.4.3.2 The teacher The teacher is another variable in the context of the school. Nigerian language L1 teachers are insufficient in both number and quality. The problem is even worse in alternate learning situation. For instance, the findings of NINLAN UBE primary Education project II (PEP II) action research in Abia state show, among others, that teachers are neither aware of the language provisions of the NPE, nor do they have the requisite competence, skills and zeal to implement such. Participants at the workshop on acculturation also confessed that the few teachers available are often compelled by school heads to take up the teaching of other subjects considered more important. The effect of this is that Nigerian language teaching and learning is just a past time instead of serious business. Again most teachers still engage in lockstep teaching style, unaware of the current approach to Language teaching and unable to make effective use of instructional resources to achieve meaningful learning outcomes.

1.4.3.3 Absence of Alternate Language Curriculum At the heart of contextual factors that affect alternate learners of Nigerian languages is a near absence of alternate language curriculum for secondary schools and universities. The result is that those who enroll in alternate language learning programmes in the Colleges of Education have neither solid background nor opportunities for further studies. It is rather sad to observe that in the NINLAN UBE PEP II project mentioned above, it was discovered that the Nigerian languages are not included in the curricula module for the primary schools at which level the foundation for further studies is laid. Teachers are, therefore, left to their wits as to

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages the content of Nigerian language instruction. This does not make for unity of purpose and instructional efficiency.

1.4.3.4 Lack of Instructional Resources Another contextual issue is the lack of instructional resources for the teaching of Nigerian languages as alternate languages. Alternate languages teaching is largely dependent on textbooks alone, which are not sufficient in number. Writers and publishers have been discouraged by lack of sufficient sales. Furthermore, Alternate language teaching situations in Nigeria are characterized by the near absence of tapes and tape recorders, language laboratories, slides, film strips and other important resource materials that promote learning. This therefore places a limitation on what the teachers and learners achieve because instructional resources are an integral part of any learning situation without which the set objectives cannot be fully met. It is evident from the above that a lot of factors conspire to generate learning difficulties for Alternate language learners in Nigeria. In the next section insights are drawn from the Communicative approach to language teaching to stem the situation.

1.5 The Communicative Approach to Language teaching (CLT) Over the years, approaches to language teaching practices have evolved from different theories about the nature of language, and communicative or functionalist approach happens to be one (cf Anasiudu 2001). It emanates from the principle that language is use, and so, teaching a language means teaching the appropriate use of a language in contexts. Supported by modern theories of learning and teaching in general and modern methods of teaching language per se, CLT grew out of the dissatisfaction with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods of second language instruction. Proponents felt that students were not learning enough realistic whole language; they could not communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions. In other words, they could not communicate in the culture of the target language. CLT emphasizes authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engage in real communication with one another. It employs situations that students are likely to encounter in real life to necessitate communication, and students’ motivation to learn grows out of their desire to participate in meaningful discussions. The teacher, under this approach, becomes a patient listener, talking less and listening more. He sets up the exercise, because the students’ performance is the goal, he steps back and observes. He becomes an active facilitator of students’ learning, sometimes acting as a referee or monitor. With increased responsibility to participate, students gain confidence in using the target language in general. In summary, the following thematic units are emphasized in the classroom under the CLT framework: - Fluency over accuracy. - Integration of language skills over separation. - Equal attention to all language skills instead of only reading and writing. - Avoidance of mother tongue over translation into mother tongue. - Collaborative activities over lock step teaching style. - Language learning through functional use instead of mastering structure and grammar.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics - Selective correction of learners’ errors instead of total correction. - Learners’ errors are natural instead of evidence of imperfect learning. - Use of audio-visual aids and concrete objects as sources of authentic language input. - Learner-centered instruction instead of teacher-centered. Given the ideals of CLT, the Nigerian language teacher needs to be armed with the skill to combine a number of principles and techniques for effective instructions and ultimately minimize learning difficulties in alternate language instructions. These principles and techniques include:

1.5.1. Goal oriented Instruction When teaching is goal oriented, learners tend to be more committed than when they see no aim for the learning. The teacher should make inputs to language instruction comprehensible to enable learners understand the essence of what is said or presented to them by involving instructions that connects learners’ past experiences, thus providing relevant background knowledge and content. Alternate language teachers should make students understand the kind of future opportunities available to a successful student, for instance, job opportunities. Class exercises should equally be organized around specific goals so that as learners strive to achieve these goals using the target language, they gain more competence. Moreover, the students should be exposed to the different varieties of the language they are learning and guided to appreciate how they differ in both function and form. In other words, the AL teacher should provide detailed accurate and specific answers to what functions and forms of language varieties that matter both in terms of learners’ present activities and future aspirations.

1.5.2 Sourcing and utilization of Instructional Resources The AL teachers are encouraged to source for and utilize instructional resources, such as concrete objects and graphic organizers, relevant in content and form as authentic sources of language inputs in the classroom. This is important because instructional resources enable the teacher to talk less and achieve better outcomes. Their absence restricts the teacher to the choice of methods, which may not be most appropriate to a topic. Furthermore, multi-media are essentially desirable in AL instructions both as input and a feed back system for the learners to evaluate themselves after a set of instruction.

1.5.3 Learner Centered Instruction. A learner- centered instruction makes the learners the focus of instruction. In this strategy, the teacher simply submits to the learning needs of the learners. According to Littlewood (1981) “the development of communicative ability occurs through processes inside the learner … the learner follows a sequence of learning determined by his own natural processes (or internal syllabus)” This means that the teacher has no direct control over the learners’ learning processes but can provide the stimulus and experience these processes require. Using this technique, the teacher is expected to say less and less as the lessons progress, while learners say more and more using their internal criteria. In the words of Rivers (1983:77), it involves “throwing the learning upon students themselves”. Learners should be encouraged to express ideas and thoughts in the target language by providing 9

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages opportunities for them to share their language, culture, country and experiences. Opportunities to use language orally create opportunities to increase receptive language skills. Instructional dialogue should focus primarily on appropriateness of content and not correct language use. The teacher should spend time defining, discussing, and clarifying unfamiliar vocabulary items prior to reading a passage to enhance reading fluency, accuracy, and comprehension.

1.5.4 Visual and Auditory Imaging Instruction Visual and auditory imaging have been advocated as important means of achieving mental representation of the target language by the learners. It involves offering learners initial silent period to experience the language in conceptualized use (Tomlinson and Avila 2007). They are usually given problem solving tasks individually, in pairs or in groups and encouraged to use inner speech, private speech, visual imaging, drawing and physical movement to help them articulate and solve problems. Their utterances are not monitored and no corrections are offered. This way learners gain confidence and lose anxiety about speaking the language as a result of internal rehearsal. Moreover, the teacher, rather than deliver pre-planned scripted lessons, presents the learners with spontaneous informal and natural discussions, to help develop inner speech.

1.5.5 Co-operative Learning and Peer Tutoring Another technique that can be exploited in AL teaching is co-operative learning and peer tutoring. This is a deliberate and conscious sharing of responsibility for learning between teacher and students, student and student, members of small and large groups etc. The teacher creates participatory activities like public speaking, dramatic performances, language (broadcast, picture, etc) games in the classroom. This will provide the learners with a range of participation opportunities and experience in a wide variety of language forms and functions. The type of communicative interaction, however, should be made to match the learners’ level of language development for effective participation and maximum success. In co-operative learning and peer tutoring, the traditional role of the teacher as a dispenser of knowledge is changed to that of an adviser, a guide, helper, supporter and partner in a co-operative venture. Error correction is minimal and selective as the learners learn from one another while completing their tasks. Communicative approach, according to Gerngross and Puchta (1984:98), “puts great emphasis on listening, which implies an active will to try to understand others; one of the hardest tasks to achieve because learners are used to listening to the teacher but not their peers”. This new relationship helps to reduce tension and inhibition in the learners against self-expression in front of others.

1.6 Constraints to the Use of CLT oriented Techniques in AL Instruction For CLT to benefit AL instruction meaningfully, certain factors that place limitations on its plausibility must be addressed. Some of them are discussed below.

1.6.1 Class size The size and shape of AL classrooms constrains learner-centered instruction. The classes are too large to support meaningful participatory activities with effective

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics supervision by the teacher. The effect is that only a few students end up getting involved in class activities.

Related to the above is the sitting arrangement in the classrooms. The seats are immovable and mobility in the class is hampered for both the teacher who facilitates class exercises and the students who must leave their seats to accomplish some tasks. Thus, the size and shape of the classrooms rarely favours anything but very frontal styles of teaching, even the furniture does not help.

1.6.2 Curriculum Uniformity It is difficult for the teacher to submit to the learning needs of students, as required by learner-centered instruction, in a pre-planned programme with duration and common assessment procedures. In other words, the ministries of education or other education regulatory agencies in Nigeria define and prepare the curricula for different levels of education, which must be strictly adhered to for purposes of acquiring the relevant certificate. Thus, learners are not allowed to negotiate the curriculum or define their own needs, they simply submit to the dictates of the curriculum of the programme they run.

1.6.3 Dearth of Multi-media Facilities This constrains emphasis on fluency over accuracy of grammatical structure. AL instructions take place in classrooms without Audio-visual aids and written examination forms a dominant evaluation process. Thus, emphasis on grammatical structure-without which good writing cannot emerge- becomes the only plausible option, since fluency is hardly assessed objectively without audio visual aids.

1.7 Conclusion Psychological, linguistic, and environmental variables conspire to generate difficulties for the AL learners in Nigeria. The AL teachers have, at their disposal, a treasure hidden in CLT to exploit to enhance learners attitudes and motivation and ultimately achieve instructional effectiveness. Ability to employ a goal-oriented strategy requires that teachers have a professionally appropriate level of knowledge and some awareness of how to carry out needs analysis relating to the target language, the learners and to the goals and contexts of instruction. This will help teachers to “plan and implement language instruction which promotes a variety of participation opportunities, intensity of exposure… and multiple possibilities for success in the various aspects of language and literacy use which have personal and societal consequences”, MacGroatty (1996:36). However, AL instructions can only benefit sufficiently from the ideals of CLT when some or all of the constraints discussed above are addressed.

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

References Anasiudu, B. N.(2001) “From Formalism to Functionalism: New Goal, New Approach”. Nsukka journal of African Languages and Linguistics(NJALL) Vol. 2 No.1, 35-44 Burt, M. and Dulay, H. (1980). “Optimal Llanguage Learning Environment”. In James E. Attis, Howard B. Altman and M. Penelope. Attis (eds.) The Second Language Classroom: Directions for the 1980’s. New York: Oxford University Press. Chomsky (1957) Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton Corder, S.P (1993). “A Role for The Mother Tongue”. In S. Gass and L. Selinker (eds). Language Transfer in language learning (rev. ed.). Amsterdam and philadephia: John Benjamins. 18-31. Dulay, H, Burt, M. and krashen, S. (1982) Language Two. New York: Oxford University Press. Ezeuko, R. O. & Ugwuoke, M. I. (1998) “ The Acculturation Programme: NINLAN Experience. A Paper Presented at XVITH CLAN at NINLAN ABA. Gass, S.M and Selinker, L. (eds.) (1993) language transfer in language learning. (rev. ed.). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamin. Gardner, R.C. (1985) Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold. Gerngross, G., and Puchta, H. (1984). “Beyond Notions and Functions: Language Teaching or The Art of Letting Go”. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (eds.). Initiatives in Communicative Language Teaching. A Book of Readings. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 89-107. Johnson, K. and Johnson, H. (eds.) (1999). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McGroarty, M. (1996). “Language Attitudes, Motivation and Standards”. In Sandra Lee Mckay and Nancy H. Hornberger (eds.) Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 3 – 46. National Policy on Education( revised 2004, 2006) NCCE Minimun Standard for Language (revised 1996) Postovsky, V (1974).“Effects of Delay in oral practice at the Beginning of Second Language Learning”. Modern Language Journal 58. 5 –6. Rivers, W. M. (1983) Communicating Naturally in a Second Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Skinner, B.F (1957) Verbal Behaviour. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Tomlinson, B and Javier Avila (2007). “Seeing and Saying for Yourself: The roles of audio- visual mental aids in language learning and use”. In Brian Tomlinson (ed.) Language Acquisition and Development: Studies of Learners of First and Other Languages. New York: Continuum Tomlinson, Brian (ed.) (2007). Language Acquisition and Development: Studies of Learners of First and Other Languages. New York: Continuum Yule, George (1985). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Enhancing Peaceful Inter-Religious Coexistence in Nigeria Through the Use of Language

P.A. Ezema Department of English and Literary Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Abstract A discussion of the nature and importance of language forms the first part of this paper’s introduction. The relevance of language to human society is highlighted. Language and religion are interwoven. Nigeria is a typical multireligious nation and her citizens are known to be religious and dedicated to their religions. A provision is made in the constitution for freedom of religion. The place of English in the religious activities of Nigerians is thoroughly examined. The language is quite indispensable in the religious activities of the various Christian groups. The role of the indigenous Nigerian languages in the religious life of Nigerians is also outstanding. This role is very pronounced among the followers of the traditional religion. The need to harness the rich language resources of the country to promote religious harmony among Nigerians is discussed and emphasized. English and the indigenous languages, especially the three regional languages, can indeed play a tremendous role in enhancing good religious understanding among Nigerians. Three recommendations are made in the area of handling the study of English and the indigenous Nigerian languages to derive maximum benefits from their use in the religious life of the nation.

Introduction The meaning, nature and importance of language are among the factors that have seriously engaged the attention of human beings from time immemorial. Considering the relevance of this phenomenon to man and its complex nature, it should not be surprising that serious and persistent attention has been paid to it by man. Reflecting on this fact, Adekunle (1990) observes that

Language has not only mystified man for so many centuries by the complexity of its structure; it has also preoccupied man with its capacity for communicative adaptability since the day man discovered this precious gift to homo sapiens. This mystification characteristic of language has drawn many people with different academic and scientific backgrounds as well as experts with varying technological know-how into the arena of linguistic research.

In an attempt to bring out clearly its nature and characteristics, Brooks (1961), defines language as learned, systematic, symbolic vocal behaviour; a culturally acquired and universal mark of man. Actually, language is not inherited and it is non-instinctive. It is learnt as part of the culture of the speech community. Primarily, it is speech and is unique to man. The importance of language to an individual and the society as a whole is inestimable. This fact is better appreciated if one imagines what the life of an 13

Enhancing Peaceful Inter-Religious Coexistence in Nigeria Through the Use of Language Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages individual and the life in society will be without language. Language is a vehicle through which a man’s thoughts, emotions or feelings are communicated. This means that without language the way somebody feels, his attitudes, problems and interest cannot be conveyed to others. Language is also an important instrument for socialization. It is through it that young members of the society learn the society’s ways of life. For instance, a child learns how his people pay respect to the elders and how they worship their gods through language. In short, language is an effective means of socialization for both the young ones and the adult members of the society. It is largely through language that the characters of people are assessed. As language and thought are closely related, people are assessed on the basis of how they use language. This explains why skilful users of language have high social recognition and are regarded as refined, well bred and cultured. Language and society are tightly knit. One can hardly talk of society without language. It is through language that people in the society fully interact with each other. There is no aspect of human life in society that can be carried out without language. Education, politics, literature, economy and religion are all different aspects of human life in society that are very much involved with the use of language. Moreover, language and culture are interwoven. It is through language that the accumulated cultural heritage of a people in a society is transmitted to the new and young members of a society. In other words, society is perpetuated through the use of language.

Language and Religion As already mentioned earlier in the introductory part of this article, religion is one of the aspects of human life in the society which interact a lot with language. Language and religion are interwoven. The two phenomena are among the areas of life which touch the emotional side of the human beings. Religious life springs from the innermost part of the human feeling. It is through language that the religious feelings of people are expressed and communicated. Without language, religious interactions among people will be almost impossible. The relevance of language to religion can also be inferred from the close relationship that exists between language and the ability to think. Language is a creative power – a means through which we do most of our thinking. It is in recognition of this fact that Benzies (1940) emphasizes that we can scarcely think at all without using words. Even if we do not speak, we are constantly using words in our heads to help us to think. It is hard to imagine thought going on at all without using words.

Similarly, Gowers (1973), pointing out the close relationship between language and thought affirms that

it is only by clothing his thoughts in words that a writer can think at all. The inability to put his thoughts in words sets a boundary to his thought. Language is not merely the medium of thought; it is the very stuff and process of it.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Akwanya (1999), quoting Dr. Johnson, describes language as a tool that is used in conveying information about the contents of the mind, and the shape of the world. He goes further to add that writing, an aspect of language, is an agent for conveying a thought which already exists in the mind while speech represents thought through conventional signs. The views expressed above underscore the relationship between language and thought. The linguistic competence of a person determines to a great extent the level of his ability to think. The need for ability to think can be illustrated from the various religious activities of the people. For a preacher to expect his audience to be moved by his sermon, he has to engage in serious thinking. This serious thinking will enable him to generate good ideas and organize them logically in order to present a moving speech. Similarly, the degree of success that religious propaganda or speeches aimed at winning converts can attract depends to a large extent on the amount and quality of thought used in preparing them. These illustrations show that the ability to think which is related to linguistic competence contributes significantly towards carrying out successful religious activities. The relationship between language and religion can also be clearly illustrated with reference to the sources of the doctrines of the two great world religions, namely the Christian and Muslim religions. The Bible which is the major source of the Christian doctrines was originally written in the Greek language but has since been translated into many languages including the English language and some Nigerian languages. Quran, on the other hand, is the major source of the Moslem doctrines. Originally written in the Arabic language, it has also been reproduced in many other languages. These two great religious books are treated as reference points on matters related to Christian and Moslem religions. There is no better way of understanding these faiths than through the books. The ability to understand and interpret the contents of the books depends on the competence in the languages in which they are written. Lack of linguistic competence in the languages can easily lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretation of the doctrines of the religions. Undoubtedly, language and religion are inseparable as has been amply demonstrated above. Even in one’s individual practice of religion, one still needs the use of language. Moreover, religious practices involve a lot of interactions among people. Without the use of language, carrying out such religious activities as sermons, public prayers, crusades, songs, etc, will be impossible. Moreover, record keeping is of vital importance in the practice of religion. It is through the use of language that records are kept.

Multi-religious Nature of Nigerian Society Nigeria is a typical multi-religious nation just as the country is a multilingual one. The three most notable religions in the country are Christianity, Islam and the Traditional religion. Christianity is based on the ten commandments of the Old Testament as recorded in the Bible. These commandments form the pillars of the religion. Islam, on the other hand, is based on five tenets popularly referred to as the five pillars of Islam. They include absolute belief in the unity of Allah, messengership and prophethood of Mohammed, observing fasting in the month of Ramadan, giving the obligatory alms (Zakkat), observing the five obligatory prayers, and going on pilgrimage to Mecca. The three basic elements of the Traditional Religion are the divinities or spirits, the ancestral spirits and the existence of extraneous powers. 15

Enhancing Peaceful Inter-Religious Coexistence in Nigeria Through the Use of Language Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

These form the basic creeds of the religion. The three religions have adherents in every nook and cranny of the country. Nigerians are noted for their devotion to serious religious activities. This fact is attested by the presence of numerous religious sects, particularly among Christians. Christian churches are also a common feature in every part of the country. The number of mosques in the country is also spectacular. Another fact worthy of attention is that the Christian churches and the Muslim mosques are built side by side in many towns and villages of Nigeria. The serious implication of this for peaceful co-existence among worshippers of both religions is better imagined than stated in words. The followers of the traditional religion are also active in the practice of their religion. This is particularly noticeable in the rural areas of the country. In fact, if the character quality of Nigerians is matched with the degree of their religious involvement, Nigeria would have been turned into a heaven on earth. Nigeria is a secular state. There is an ample provision for freedom of worship in the country’s constitution. However, this provision notwithstanding, the degree of religious tolerance in the country is nothing to write home about. Religious conflicts are among the most common social features of Nigeria. Hardly does a year end in the country without one religious crisis or the other. Frictions among followers of different religions, particularly Christians and Moslems, occur very frequently. Followers of different sects of the same religion also clash often over religious issues. Curiously enough, there is no place in the Bible or the Quran where violence in any form and for whatever reason is advocated. The traditional religion in its real form does not enjoin its followers to embrace violence or cause disharmony and chaos in the society. So the causes of the frequent religious conflicts witnessed in the country are not inherent in the religions practiced by Nigerians. They occur as a result of some extraneous factors including the use of language. It is for this reason that the next two sections of the article focus on the place of English and the indigenous languages in the religious life of Nigerians.

The English Language and Religious Activities in Nigeria It is now universally accepted that English is a world language. The language is used in all the corners of the globe. As McCrum (1986) aptly puts it, “The English language surrounds us like a sea and, like the waters of the deep, it is full of mysteries.” Stressing this universal nature of the language, Brumfit (1995) makes the following observation:

Certainly it is now true that the English language is no longer the exclusive property of speakers of English as mother tongue or first language. The ownership of English rests with the people who use it, however multilingual they are, or however monolingual they are.

According to him, the current competent users of English as at 1995 number up to 700 million living in every continent. Less than half of these users of the language are actual native speakers. Interestingly enough, this implies that more than half of the users of the language are non-native speakers of the language scattered all over the world. As Baugh puts it, English is really the mother tongue of nations. Coming nearer home, English is a second as well as the official language of Nigeria. Apart from being a medium of social and interethnic communication, it is the

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics language used to conduct legislative, executive and judicial functions at the three tiers of local, state and federal government levels. Its dominance in news broadcasts and in conducting radio and television talks, documentation and other special features is quite outstanding. The leading role it plays in the religious life of the nation should not, therefore, be surprising. Most religious activities in the country, especially the Christian religious activities, are conducted in English. Christian denominations in Nigeria conduct their worship in most cases with the use of the English language. Prayers and preaching of sermons are carried out mostly in English. Songs used in religious worship are also mainly composed in English. The relevance of this language to the religious life of the nation should be fully understood and appreciated with reference to the area of documentation. A substantial amount of the Christian and Islamic doctrines and other vital items of religious information are documented in English. As mentioned earlier, translated versions of the two great books in Christianity and Islam, namely the Bible and Quran respectively, are available in English. The status of English as a world language is also of vital importance in the religious aspect of the national life. The various Christian religious groups in the country interact a lot with their counterparts in other parts of the world. The same thing is applicable to some extent to the Moslem group. A lot of spiritual and material benefits are derived from these interactions. The interactions are made possible through the use of English. The religious ideas which emanate from the interactions are worthy of attention. The reception, interpretation and application of these ideas in our environment are relevant to the issue of religious peace in the country.

The Role of the Indigenous Nigerian Languages in the Religious Life of Nigerians There are as many indigenous Nigerian languages as there are ethnic groups in Nigeria. It is believed that there are over 400 indigenous languages in the country. These languages play a crucial role in the religious life of Nigerians. The doctrines of the traditional religion are understandably available in the languages. The close relationship between the indigenous languages and the traditional religion in the country can be illustrated with reference to the impact of traditional religion on the naming practices in Igboland. In the Igbo world view there is a lot of reverence for gods and this is very much reflected in the way Igbo people name their children. Examples of such names include ‘Chukwuka’ (God is supreme), ‘Chinonso’ (God is near), ‘Chinyere’ (God’s gift), ‘Uchechi’ (God’s will), etc, etc. These names reflect the people’s belief in the supremacy of the Almighty One. The same practices are common among other ethnic groups such as the Hausas and the Yorubas. The doctrines of the various religious groups are also available in Nigerian languages. More importantly, various ethnic groups in the country carry out their religious activities in their ethnic languages. These include the activities in both the traditional and Christian religions. The sermons, prayers, crusades, songs and other religious activities conducted by these groups in Nigerian languages help in no small way to promote moral conduct, justice, love, kindness and, above all, peaceful coexistence which the nation needs badly. Undoubtedly, religious interactions among Nigerians in the indigenous Nigerian languages engender interpersonal relationship and respect for other people’s religious beliefs and cultural differences. This is 17

Enhancing Peaceful Inter-Religious Coexistence in Nigeria Through the Use of Language Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages especially the case when the interactions involve the use of such regional indigenous languages as Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. The Moslems preach mainly in the Arabic language but they also use Nigerian languages in some cases. The vital advantage involved in the use of the indigenous languages is the issue of understanding. There is no gainsaying the fact that people understand better and feel more at home when they interact in their indigenous languages. This understanding contributes remarkably towards the overall peaceful inter-religious co-existence in the country.

The Implications of the Use of English and the Indigenous Languages in Religious Activities in Nigeria for Peaceful Inter-religious Co-existence It has been so far established in this article that English and the indigenous Nigerian languages occupy an outstanding place in the religious life of the country. This fact has a lot of implications for peaceful inter-religious co-existence in Nigeria. As observed earlier, the country is a multi-religious one. Costly religious violence has occurred fairly often in Nigerian society. However, as pointed out earlier, hatred, intolerance and violence are not inherent in the doctrines of any religion practiced in the country. None of the religions in the country preaches these social vices either against its members or members of other denominations. Therefore, the causes of the religious violence often experienced in the country emanate from sources outside the tenets of the religions professed by Nigerians. One of these sources is the use of language. There are certain linguistic factors which can easily bring about religious frictions among people in the society. Such language-related factors as misunderstanding, communication breakdown, misinterpretation and lack of cooperation are known to have caused religious problems among people with their attendant social upheavals. Misunderstanding among people on religious issues or misunderstanding of religious doctrines is often the cause of religious violence. Moreover, misinterpretation of religious issues from the Bible or Quran often gives rise to an argument. This argument is at times the cause of serious violence among religious fanatics. When discussing religious issues, people’s inability to express and articulate their views clearly can lead to a breakdown in communication. In some cases, a resort to violence is a follow-up to this breakdown. A person’s attitudes and responses to what he hears depend to some extent on his competence in the linguistic medium involved. Consequently, responses to and attitudes towards sermons, prayers, preaching, religious arguments, etc, are influenced by the level of linguistic competence. All the illustrations made above underscore the need to handle language issues with utmost care when treating religious matters. The place of language in religious activities should not be taken for granted. Good grounding in English and Nigerian languages should be seen as an imperative for all and sundry among followers of every religion in the country. This should be taken more seriously, however, in the case of preachers, including ordained and lay preachers, translators and interpreters and even the catechists of the various religious denominations. Since it has been established that there is no religion in the country whose doctrine advocates social violence in any form, accurate and correct translations and interpretations of the doctrines of the various religions in the country will go a long way in eradicating religious violence that may emanate from the use of language. The need for awareness among Nigerians of the sensitive role the use of language plays in religious affairs is of paramount importance.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics

Conclusion/Recommendations It has been established in this article beyond any iota of doubt that English and Nigerian languages play a crucial role in the religious life of Nigerians. It is through the use of the English language that literate people from different ethnic groups in the country communicate and share their religious ideas and experiences with one another. On the other hand, the use of Nigerian languages engenders greatly the feeling of togetherness among Nigerians. This is why Banjo (1989) posits that the effective use of the indigenous languages is crucial in the areas of intimate interaction, pointing out that a considerable part of culture in Nigeria is tied to the use of these languages. The use of language actually promotes cooperation. As Adekunle (1990) aptly puts it, what man needs most in this socially complex and dangerously advanced world is cooperation. An effective tool for achieving this cooperation nationally and internationally is language. The following three recommendations are made as a follow-up to the issues raised in this paper: i) In view of the vital role played by English in the religious and other aspects of the national life, the quality of its teaching and learning should be improved. More facilities for teaching the language, especially in the rural areas, should be provided to promote the communicative competence of Nigerians in the language. Translations of religious books and doctrines from English into the indigenous Nigerian languages are accurate and clear. However, they can only be understood by those well groomed in English. Many Nigerian worshippers of different religions misinterpret the translations owing to their low level of competence in the language, hence the recommendation above. ii) Efforts should also be made to improve the teaching and learning of Nigerian languages. There should be quantitative increase in the intake of those studying Nigerian languages as L1and as alternate languages students in institutions of learning. This measure will promote more widespread use of such regional Nigerian languages as Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba by Nigerians. iii) In addition to making sure that they are well groomed in the linguistic media they use, the language of the public speakers on religious matters should be subjected to some form of censorship. The same thing should be applied to the language of the press that relates to religious matters. These measures should be taken to guard against the use of inflammatory and inciting language which is capable of causing inter-religious disharmony.

Enhancing Peaceful Inter-Religious Coexistence in Nigeria Through the Use of Language Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

References Adekunle, M.A. (1990). “Language in a Multicultural Context.” In Emananjo, E.N. (ed.). Multilingualism, Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria. Agbor: Central Books Ltd. Akindele and Adegbite, W. (2004). The Sociology and Politics of English in Nigeria: An Introduction. Ile-Ife: O.A.U. Press. Akwanya, A.N. (1990). Language and Habits of Thought. Nsukka: Afro-Orbis Publications Ltd. Banjo, A. (1989). “The Status and Roles of English as a Second Language.” In Jibril M. et al (eds.). Handbook for Junior Secondary School English Language Teachers. Lagos: NERDC. Baugh, A.C. (1959). A History of the English Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Benzies, D. (1940). Learning Our Language. London: Longman. Brooks, F.D. (1961). Teachers’ Manual. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers. Brumfit, C.J. (1995). “English as a Second Language and English Language Teaching: Retrospect and Prospect.” In Ayo, B. et al (eds.). New Englishes. Ibadan: Mosuro. Gowers, E. (1973). The Complete Plain Words. London: Penguin Books. Iwuagwu, S.I.C. (2002). “Nigerian Languages as a Tool for Effective Communication.” A Paper presented at the First Annual International Conference of School of Languages, Tai Solarin College of Education, Ijebu- Ode, Ogun State. Waapela, N.P. (2006). “Religion and the Media as Instruments for Promoting Cultural Values in Nigeria.” A Paper presented at the Zaria Conference on Humanities in the 21st Century: Prospects and Challenges, at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text

Clara Vande-Guma Department of Educational Foundations and General Studies, University of Agriculture, Makurdi +2347036351745, [email protected]

Abstract This paper aims at describing the experiential value of the Tiv bard’s effort to capture the various happenings in this society through his songs – using Tarker Golozo’s song Mba yan ve Tile Gomna bunde ve cii, ‘All those who contested and lost the gubernatorial elections’ as an example. The strategy for analyses is the theory of transitivity as defined within the Systemic – Functional Linguistic (SFL) theory. Through this approach, it has been possible to demonstrate that the bard’s choice of expressions reveals a conscious effort to depict material experiences, as indicated by his clear reference to real people and real events. Discussions equally underscore the dynamic nature of the Tiv song and attest to this particular quality as its hallmark. This is what accounts for the ability of the Tiv bard to assert his/her role as an invaluable agent for codifying the social experience of the Tiv people.

Introduction Like many African/Nigerian societies, the Tiv society is experiencing an unending process of social transformation that has far-reaching, if not phenomenal, impact on its social experience. Many of the Tiv verbal art forms, especially Tiv oral poetry, have changed to reflect this dynamic character of the Tiv society and invariably Tiv culture. The resilience of the Tiv bard and his product, the Tiv song, in the face of the challenging torrent of new trends that permeate virtually every sphere of daily life in the Tiv society serves as a very vibrant attestation to the survival of traditional Tiv verbal art forms. Indeed, Tiv bards have been able to assert their invaluable role as agents for codifying the experience of the Tiv people and in some cases Nigeria as a whole. It is in fact possible to identify various epoch marking events in Nigeria and Tiv land by simply carrying out a survey of various songs composed at different periods of the Tiv social experience. By means of their artistic prowess, the songs Tiv bards compose and perform function as useful means for articulating propaganda, entertainment, information, politicking persuasion and worship. Nyitse (2006:7) explicitly acknowledges‘the primacy of songs in Tiv culture and social life’ and asserts their (Tiv songs) value as the most vibrant aspect of Tiv oral poetry. Hagher (1981) shares this view as can be observed in his description of the Tiv song as a composite subgenre of Tiv oral poetry: All the verbal genres… have manifested themselves in the Tiv performance of songs which are sung – poetry of the Tiv people. It is possible to detect the chant-like sub-structure and rhyme of the Tiv riddles rhyme – punning and vowel – consonant of proverbs with tonal word-punning or proverbs and verbal abuses, all in the Tiv songs (p.45).

The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

This means, therefore, that the Tiv bard whose special gift or talent is to produce songs has the especial privilege of being availed with the collage of aesthetic resources due to the dynamic nature of this sub-genre. This is what, according to Yina (2002) makes the Tiv song a very crucial component of Tiv culture since it can be conveniently adopted for all manner of private or public occasions in virtually every sphere of life. This paper seeks to address the task of explicating how the Tiv bard has been able to capture the experience of his community in his songs. This is what is termed experiential fabric in this presentation. The term simply denotes the deliberate attempt by the bard to represent the myriad of ‘happenings’ and ‘doings’ shaping the world in his songs (also called texts). Moreover, the prior motif behind this paper is grounded in the perception that language is the most common means through which people articulate experiences in life and the world. Because language is invariably the bard’s major resource for communication, it should follow as a natural recourse that the language of his texts would instantiate this representative capacity of language. In other words the songs he performs would render the real life experiences which constitute his primary source of his subject matters. It is this quality of Tiv songs or should one say the Tiv bard’s strategy that represents a truism of Finnegan’s (1970) assertion that ‘oral pieces… tend to be directly involved in the occasions of their actual utterance’ or some remote occasion or experience in the mutual knowledge of the bard and his audience and\or community (p.12 – 13). This further provides some semblance of a confirmation for Ong’s thesis (1982:42) about orally based expressions (i.e. expression of thoughts with roots in orality) namely that they tend to be ‘close to the human life world’ or ‘situational rather than abstract’. In another statement this same author has suggested that people in orally based cultures – such as oral poetic traditions – mostly ‘conceptualize and verbalize all their knowledge [of the world] with more or less close reference to the human life world’ (p.49). Thus we could consider discussions in the preceding two paragraphs as the premise for the subsequent analyses of the Tiv song selected for discursion in this paper. But first a description of the theoretical basis of this paper is provided in the next section.

Theoretical Basis It is very common to find people using such staple phrases like ‘vehicle of communication’, ‘vehicle of culture’, ‘code of communication or culture’, amongst several others to describe language. The choice of the term ‘staple phrase’, here, should not be construed as a deliberate strategy to belittle the significance of the meaning of these definitions but rather be interpreted as an acknowledgement of how language has come to be regarded as a concomitant element of human existence. It is this concept of the inseparability of language from human experience that has informed the operational framework of what Halliday and his fellow systemicists call the ideational function of language (in some literature function is labeled ‘metafunction’). The ideational function realizes the referential role of language that is when language is used to represent some external phenomena in the world. This is when it expresses ‘the experience or pseudo experience of the world around and inside us’, so as to convey ‘the flux of goings on’ that shape our experiences (Matthiessen &

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Halliday, 1997). This largely referential function is further subcategorized into two (2) sub-functions namely (a) the experiential function, which bears directly on the representational value of clauses and (b) the logical function, which concerns the logical relationship between clauses and sentences comprising the text and clearly falls outside the scope of this paper. In another source Halliday and Hasan (1989) have suggested that a sentence has some kind of symbolic relation to the real world (p.18). The ideational resource for explaining how clauses play this symbolic role is transitivity. Through this system clauses are analyzed as encoding experience(s) via configurations of processes, participants and the attendant circumstances. By this strategy it is not just adequate to identify the formal constituents of the clause as comprising of the subject and predicate: these formal constituents are identified via a specification of the deictic connection to their referents. Therefore, the verb phrases in the clause are treated as enacting processes, which are symbolic of the events, actions, behaviours that they denote, while nouns, noun phrases, nominal phrases/clauses, pronouns and pronominals are treated signifying as the roles of participants through whose conduct the processes are realized and the adverbials, prepositional, etc. are viewed as activating the surrounding circumstances under which the experiences specified as processes occur. Such circumstances include cause, location, manner, time amongst several others. This system comprises of six (6) (probably inter-related) process-types, each with its own structural configuration for identifying process, participants and circumstances: (a) material process (alternatively called material clause) (b) mental process (also mental clause) (c) behavioural process (also behavioural clause) (d) verbal process (also verbal clause) (e) existential process (also existential clause) (f) relational process (also relational clause) (Eggins, 1994:p.229-266). a. Material Processes Material clauses enact experiences which involve activities or actions. These usually contain verb (phrases) which depict real, concrete and tangible actions, and as such identified as enacting the processes of ‘doings’. Participants are classified into different types, subject to their roles in the activities depicted by the verb phrases. The participant’s role of the entity that undertakes the action or doing is called the actor, and it is usually explicit or implied in minor or elliptical clauses. Depending on the nature of the verb phrase or process the other participant roles include the goal, range, and beneficiary. Where some entity is seen to receive the impact of the action undertaken by the actor, two possible alternate roles could be identified namely the goal or range. The difference between these roles is subject to the nature of the processes reflected. Where the recipient role is seen to be independent of the process, it is termed a goal; but if the second participant role is a restatement or continuation of the process itself, it is called the range. The difference is better understood by comparing these sentences:

The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

i. The constable/slapped/the bus driver. Actor/process/goal ii. They/ran/the race Actor/process/range. The second participant role in (i) is labelled goal because the entity exist independently of the verb phrase, ‘slapped’, while the race in (ii) is labelled ‘range’ since it is more of a restatement of the process ran. Beneficiary denotes the entity that benefits from the process. There are two kinds of beneficiary: a recipient, the one to whom something is given, and a client, the one for whom something is done.

(b) Mental Processes These are clauses which encode meanings of thinking or feeling as opposed to the material clauses which depict concrete processes of ‘doing’. Eggins has divided mental process verbs into three types: cognition (verbs of thinking, knowing, and understanding), affection (verbs of liking and feeling), and perception (verbs of seeing, hearing etc). What distinguishes this process from the preceding one is that it is assumed to be human specific. Only human beings are assessed as capable of carrying out this process. Other animate beings such as animals are not, and the expressions where they are assigned this quality are classified as personification. The role senser is assigned to the participants that must be a conscious human participant. The other participant role is more passive or non-active. This is called the phenomenon, which is that which is thought, felt or perceived by the conscious senser. Matthiessen and Halliday (1997) differentiate between two types of phenomena: (a) The phenomenal, which represents an ordinary physical object, and (b) The hyper phenomenal, which is further sub-categorized as including: i. The micro-phenomenal-denoting an act, and ii. The meta-phenomenal-denoting an idea or fact.

(c) Behavioural Processes Midway between the material and mental clauses are behavioural processes. This is because they are part action but the actions are such that have to be experienced by a conscious being. They depict processes of physiological and psychological behaviour, and have one participant role called the behaver. The following sentences illustrate this process. 1. The students yelled in frustration. 2. Rats skippered all over the room. 3. He yawned noisily.

(d) Verbal Processes Verbal clauses represent verbal actions of saying and all its many synonyms, including symbolic exchanges of meaning such as in: i. The letter says, “with effect from January the first, 2009.” ii. I name this child Raphael.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics A verbal process configures three participants namely, the sayer, receiver, and the verbiage. The sayer is usually the entity from whom the verbal process emanates and need not be a conscious person, but anything that can send out a signal. The receiver is the one to whom the verbal process is directed. That is the beneficiary of the verbal message. The verbiage is what is said or uttered. This may be a statement, a question, a report, a story, or many more. In the illustrations given ‘the letter’ and ‘I’ enact the role of the sayer, the verbs ‘say’ and ‘name’ each enacts the verbal process while ‘this child’ realizes the role of the receiver in the second example. Meanwhile, the expressions with effect from … 2009 and Raphael each depicts the verbiage, what has been said. (e) Existential Processes In existential clauses things are simply stated to exist that is they normally make the proposition that ‘there was/is something, for instance: i. There are two angry clients in the waiting room ii. There is a God in Heaven. In English language these clauses are easy to identify because they usually begin with there. The only obligatory participant in this process is the existent, which is what is stated to exist. Hence the noun phrases two angry clients and a God each function as existent in the given examples.

(f) Relational Processes In relational clauses, things, people, events, animals and so on are either assigned attributes and/or identities. It is common to find intensive or link verbs in these clauses. When the meaning is attributive the process is called intensive attributive and the participant role assigned the attribute is called the carrier, while the quality, classification, descriptive epithet assigned is called the attribute. Where the process is one of identification, it is called, the intensive identifying, and the participants involved include token which stands for what is being defined, and value that which defines the token. Apart from the attributive and identifying processes, there are other kinds of processes which relate largely circumstantial information such as location, cause, and also show possession.

Attendant Circumstances As already noted, all kinds of experiential meanings take place under certain circumstances, which are usually denoted by mostly adverbial particles. In the system of transitivity the lexical items through which these circumstances are enacted are called attendant circumstances.

These are grouped as follows: i. The extent – this states the duration (temporal) and distance (spatial). ii. The cause – this specifies what triggered the process iii. The location – this may be temporal (time) or spatial (place). iv. The manner – this specifies the means through which the process is realized, the quality of the process as well as makes comparisons. v. A rather broad category called accomplishment includes reason and purpose. Other categories of circumstance include matter – which refers to the topic, and role. 25

Stemming LearningThe Difficulties Experiential among Fabric Alternate of the Tiv Learners Bard’s Text of Nigerian Languages

Having explained the theoretical basis for this presentation, the next section focuses on the application of the theory of transitivity in the analyses of a song composed by one of the most celebrated Tiv poets, Tarker Golozo aka Namba wan Golozo, (Number one Golozo) now late. For nearly four decades, Golozo dominated the Tiv musical arena with songs that expressed his personal and the collective reaction of the Tiv psyche to the various trends of events that affected and are still affecting the Tiv and Nigerian society. Perhaps, his hybrid background informed his ability to adapt his poetic skills to reflect new trends in the Tiv social experiences. He belonged to the generation of Tiv bards which included the likes of Agugu Igbakumbur, Iyoughul Ute, Iorlumun Wanikyar, Obadiah and a host of others who experienced Tiv society in its pre-colonial state, but subsequently witnessed and experienced the social changes brought about by colonialism, westernization, acculturation and urbanization. It is in this regard that Kyaagba (1981) describes the bard’s works as an example of the Tiv popular song, since it captures the amalgam of the transformational effects of urbanization on the Tiv individual/society. Meanwhile Ker (2000) has elaborately described this bard’s immense contributions to capturing historical and political issues concerning Tiv and Nigeria in his songs. The impact of Golozo’s works on the Tiv musical/poetic tradition was so immense that many still look upon his songs as sources for philosophical sayings, truly in Adasu’s terms: [He] was a go-between the traditionalist and modernist tendencies. Mba yan ve tile Gomna bunde ve cii which means (all those who contested and lost the gubernatorial elections) was composed and performed by this bard in the aftermath of the state gubernatorial election that took place in 1991. In this song Golozo advised the defeated candidates to accept their defeat as a true reflection of the people’s wish. Other matters include the bard’s complaint about his inability to see the newly-elected Governor Adasu, and his commentary on Adasu’s style of governance.

Analyses of Text The goal of this section is to examine how the bard’s choice of expressions reflects his efforts to (re)-enact a verisimilitude of the social experience, which presumably, motivated his performance. In alternative terms, the analyses focuses on identifying the experiential value of Golozo’s choice of words, phrases, clauses and clause-complexes in the song about Mba yan ve tile Gomna bunde ve cii ( all those who contested and lost the gubernatorial elections). In accordance with the theoretical basis of this paper, the analysis is projected from the level of the clause, which in turn is regarded as realizing the clause- complex (also CC or CCS for plural). The clause-complex is the Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL) term for the sentence. The selected song has been segmented into CCS, which are numbered CC1, CC2, and CC3 and so on for easy reference (see appendix for details of transitivity analyses). The findings of the analyses of transitivity patterns are summarized in the following table:

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Transitivity Patterns in Mba yan Ve Tile Gomna Bunde Ve cii Material 36 Mental 01 Behavioural 05 Process – types Verbal 13 Existential 00 Relational 11 Total number of clauses 66 Total number of clause-complexes (i.e. 19 sentences).

Results summarized in this table indicate that the material process-type has the highest number of occurrences in this song. The verbal process ranks second with a total of thirteen (13) clauses, next is the relational clause with eleven (11). The behavioural and mental processes each record relatively low instances with five and one respectively, while the existential process is not realized in the text. The predominant occurrence of material clauses in this song apparently reflects the bard’s pre-occupation with the conduct of key stake-holders in the topical issue addressed in this song. In the opening CC the material process realized by the negative verb phrase gberen…ga meaning (don’t sing) signifies the bard’s declaration that he had a habitual aversion towards singing political songs, imo i pati (i.e. party song) the same message is emphasized in the opening clause in CC2. In any case he had made an exception in this song to go against this principle. This exception is enacted through the relational clause, where the link verb ngu (seem) in this context, reflects the intensive relation between the carrier kwagh (something) and its attribute a hulem (doubtful to me). The constituents of this clause express the bard’s rationale for his pre-occupation with politics in this poem in-spite of his disinclination towards the subject matter. The material process realized by the verb phrase, u wan zwa (try to put mouth) signifies Golozo’s willingness to make this case an exception. In another material clause (CC3) the verb phrase ade vihin… ga, (do not spoil) and the noun ishima, which means ([your] mind), conveys the bard’s appeal to the defeated candidates to be gallant in defeat. The experiential mappings in CCS4,5 and 6 represent a detailed syllogism which the bard used to convince and console those who lost the election. CC4 represents a verbal experience with the noun phrase Tindi wase u hen Benue (our law in Benue [State]) functioning as the sayer while the process of locution is denoted by the verb er i.e. (states that). The actual contents of this law are specified in other clauses further within the same CC. The first of these clauses represents the contest for gubernatorial ticket by means of a material process as denoted by the verb phrase a tile which translates to (to contest) while the noun or (anybody) functions as the actor and the participant role of goal is fulfilled by the term gomna. In any case the material process functions as a preamble to the subsequent relational clauses in which the bard identified the sought of qualities an aspirant must possess in order to be accepted by the people of Benue state. In the respective clause this attribute is specified with the phrase akpur ityough keng, (must be bald-headed). In the closing clause the material experience realized refers to the rejection of any candidate as underscored by the negative verb phrase mba sangen… mayange ga (never be (s)elected). 27

The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

These expressions depict the poet’s significant observation of the coincidence in the political history of Benue State, which was a contemporary fact at the time this song was composed. Rev. Fr. Moses Oshio Adasu was the second bald-headed candidate to be elected as the Civilian Governor of Benue State; the first was Mr. Aper Aku and he was also bald-headed. Incidentally, each of these successful candidates vied for the post against candidates who were not bald-headed. Aper Aku did so twice, Adasu once. By representing the striking similarities between both candidates as a law reflecting the collective preference of the people of Benue, the bard was able to pep up his performance with a humorous effect. Such a strategy was intended to convince the affected person by means of humour that perhaps the electorate in Benue was more disposed to bald-headed people. As a strategy for mediation, the humour attained must have penetrated the various ‘emotional divisions’ by smoothening any tense emotions/feeling, nurtured by the listeners (losers and others as well). To underscore his position Golozo cited an example in CC5 through the verbal process denoted by the verb phrase vande oron er (had already said that). In this CC the bard recalled the proclamations made by one of the defeated candidates, “Chief Abu King Shuluwa”, prior to the elections. The experiential value of the penultimate and final clauses in this sentence is especially significant. In the respective clauses, which also codify material experiences, the candidate is alleged to have inferred that only God could prevent his victory at the polls; ///… man alu wen a yaan ga yô// saa ka Aondo Ter una sen iyol na /// (i.e. and if he does not win, unless God the father must come down, by Himself). The incident represented in CC5 constitutes the bedrock of the poet’s description of ‘Adasu’ in CC6, precisely in the relational clauses. Here ‘Adasu’ is identified as being ‘God’, first by describing him as wan u Aondo, (the child of God) and next as ‘God’ in // Fada Adasu ka Aondo//(Father is God). These expressions insinuate that Adasu was able to defeat ‘Shuluwa’ at the polls because he was truly God. In any case, the bard went on to infer, Shuluwa had already declared that only God could defeat him and since his opponent was a clergyman, he stood no chance to win the election. In the material processes in the subsequent clauses the poet reported the reaction of this boastful candidate, whom he (Golozo) has depicted as being in a very jubilant mood. Adasu’s victory at polls is conveyed through the material process enacted through the verb phrase a ye yo (has won) while the next clause is actually metaphorical description of Shuluwa’s excitement over the result in spite of his own defeat: ///…har / genga u kuhan gomna/iyol na/// (///… has taken up /the drum/to celebrate the governor’s victory/himself. ///) Golozo’s choice of expressions in this clause especially his inclusion of the reflexive pronoun, iyol na (himself) at the end of the clause for emphasis has enhanced the vivid representation of Shuluwa’s exuberance in-spite of his defeat. Golozo’s representation of ‘Shuluwa’ as a jubilant loser contradicts his previous portrayal of ‘Shuluwa’ as a boastful and over confident aspirant. This could be interpreted as the poet’s strategy to indirectly implore other defeated contestants to be gallant in defeat.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Later on in CCS 7, 8, 9, and 10, the bard confides his inability to see Governor Adasu to certain persons whose names are explicitly specified in the song. A somewhat remarkable feature of the bard’s performance at this juncture is the obvious swing from the general to particular focus directed at these personalities. This interpretation is further facilitated by the preponderant occurrence of the pronouns m (I), ma (I) and me (I) at different positions in the respective clauses. The behavioural processes in CC 12 and CC13 configure to communicate Golozo’s metaphor for describing Adasu’s style of governance. In CC 12 this is articulated as a direct advice de u nengen hen ikyum (stop looking at his bossom) and also a nengen ken hemen (should be looking ahead); in another instance he (Adasu) is warned by means of another metaphor u kpen akpenger ya (if you listen or pay attention to akpenger) as well as u zenden a zende asor oo (you will be going from one sorceress to another). The aforementioned expressions are more of behavioural processes because each of them yield the image of a leadership style that is lacking in focus and direction. The first functions as a challenge to Governor Adasu to become more visionary in focus; in the second challenge, Golozo dissuades his addressee from paying too much attention to sycophants, who are called akpenger. Akpenger is a noisy bush bird; thus by virtue of what they do, Golozo labelled the sycophants surrounding Adasu at that time with this term so as to underscore his disgust for these group of people. The material experiences in CCS14, 15 and 16 were used by the bard to reflect in a chronological order of descent, the traditional zoning process for sharing political power in Benue State. The act of zoning is signified through the verb phrase, gema na (turned and gave), this accordingly denotes a doing. The actors involved in the process are activated by the personal deictic term, Injinia Ochogida Agada (Engineer Ochogida Agada) and other deictic terms denoting a collection of peoples namely, Idoma, Tiv’, ‘Dobuu Jee’. Golozo conscientiously utilized these deictic terms in order to represent the zoning process as it occurred at the various levels of the political constituencies involved in the power sharing process. Hence, the experience represented in CC14 depicts the event at the level of the State involving the two dominant ethnic groups in the State, Idoma and Tiv. In this clause, the ethnic group ‘Idoma’ is also allegorically referred to with the deictic term Injiia Ochogida Agada – who was Adasu’s running mate at that time and subsequently became his Deputy. CC15 represents the same process in this context within the ethnic collection of the Tiv people, who in turn allotted the political slot to a smaller division within the Tiv ethnic genealogy, Dobuu Jee (Double J). This term is a coined expression for referring to the Jemgbagh and Jeichira clans of the Tiv genealogy. CC16 reflects the power sharing process as it occurs between these twin clans, where in the ticket is finally allotted to the Jeichira branch, precisely a smaller division denoted with the name Ikyôr. Ikyôr is a short term for Shankyôr a colloquial term for referring to the Shangev-tiev district in Konshisha Local Government of Benue State. Adasu was a native of this district. The experiences related in the respective CCS were used by Golozo as an expose to enlighten his audience about the traditional zoning process utilized as a procedure for sharing political power in Benue State, as well as to provide useful exposition on the diachronics of how Adasu eventually became the governor-elect. Golozo probably intended to persuade his audience, especially, those who felt

The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages reluctant to accept the authenticity of the results of the elections that Adasu’s victory was no hoax or fallacious event but the outcome of a duly followed political process. CC17 represents the tussle for political power amongst the people of Ikyôr and the reaction of other communities. It opens with a behavioural process which is realized through the verb phrase kase nongon (have gathered and are fighting) and serves to reflect the disagreement, while the reflexive ayol ave (themselves) informs the listeners that the incidence is more of an intra-group conflict. Mba sen (are laughing) and kuren ave (are clapping) each depict material processes which signify the gleeful expression of mockery by members of other communities. As already noted Golozo was also conscious to indicate that those involved in the tussle for power were only the members of Ikyôr community; hence, the specific use of the collective deictic term Ikyôr and the reflexive expression ker ayol ave ( amongst themselves). Meanwhile ior (people) refers to the general public who are represented as bystanders. As the song draws to an end the transitivity patterns in CC18 and CC19 articulate the bard’s suggestion that nobody should intervene to end the controversy amongst the people of ‘Ikyôr’. Those addressed by the poet are namely Timbir Alaku, Saaor Gerechi, and Akawe Torkula. As the analysis shows these vocatives realize the participant role of receiver in the verbal process, in which the poet assumes the role of the sayer by switching from the third person to the first person hence his inclusion of the personal pronoun me (I) in the respective CCS. Discussions in the preceding paragraphs also demonstrate this bard’s painstaking effort to furnish points raised in his discourse with details. This accounts for the copious nature of the song; for a text that comprises of nineteen (19) clause- complexes (or sentences), the proportion of the number of clauses, which is sixty-six (66) is relatively high. Indeed, the repeated lines contribute immensely to sustaining a constant rhythmic pattern and equally enhance the melody; but they also intensify the pedagogical strength of the message in this song. Indeed the poet’s unpretentious reference to an actual event, as demonstrated in this song by the inclusion of the names of people as well as their genealogy and clan, helps to facilitate listeners’ interpretation of the bard’s central message in this song. Such terms include names of actual persons e.g. Adasu, Shuluwa, Julius Atom, allusions to historical events e.g. election of bald-headed candidates and names of places e.g. Taraku, Ikyôr’, Makurdi. These expressions have certainly enhanced the referential value of the poet’s attempt to capture the controversy in the aftermath of the 1991 gubernatorial elections in Benue State.

Conclusion The 1999 Gubernatorial elections in Benue State certainly attracted its own share of controversies. While journalists, social critics and political analysts resorted to the use of the written word, this bard had the power of the spoken word with which to expend his emotions through this song. It is such performance as this that has continued to sustain the place of the Tiv bard and his songs in contemporary Tiv society. Adeiyongo (1991) and Yina (2002) both attest to the fact that the most popular bards in Tiv land are those who appear to be more interested in singing about prevailing circumstances in Tiv society and Nigeria. Indeed the bard does not produce his songs in a vacuum; his art has an essentially strong functionalist base. Hence, it is imperative that the song be related

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics to a topical or historical issue that may be mutual to him and his audience. This explains the preponderance of personalized terms in the song analyzed in this paper, such as the personal pronouns, the emphasis on his familiarity with Adasu in CC7, implicit consciousness of his right to advise the Governor by virtue of his status as a celebrated poet/elder. These are the qualities that input the Tiv song with communally ‘imbued tinges of collective consciousness’ (Yina 2002:39) that makes the society easily identify with the Tiv popular songs. As a mode of human artistic expression with origin in antiquity, the Tiv song has continually evolved to suit the dynamic nature of the society/culture it serves because of the Tiv bard’s conscientious efforts to identify with issues currently affecting his community. This therefore confirms the status of the Tiv song as the most dynamic and prolific component of Tiv oral literature and by extension the continuous relevance of the Tiv bard’s position in the current social dispensation in Tiv land.

References Adeiyongo, A. (1991), “Aspects of Tiv Oral Poetry” Journal of Black Studies, (pp. 123 – 124). Eggins, S. (1994), An Introduction to Systemic – Functional Linguistics. London: Continuum Books. Finnegan, R. (1970), Oral Literature in Africa. Oxford:Clarendon Nairobi: Oxford University Press. Hagher, I. (1990), “Performance in Tiv Oral Poetry”. In N. Uchegbulam et al (Eds), Oral Poetry in Nigeria (pp. 36 – 56). Lagos: Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilization. Hagher, I. (2003), The Kwagh – hir Theatre: A Metaphor of Resistance. Ibadan: Caltop Publications. Halliday, M.A.K and R. Hasan. (1989), Language, Context, and Text:Aspects of Language in a Social – Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jenkwe, T.F. (1998),Yanmoel Yashi: A Study of Tiv Oral Poetry. Aba: AAU Vitalis Books. Kyaagba, H(1981) “The Tiv Popular Song: Two Case Studies” M.A. Thesis, University of Ibadan. Matthiessen, C.I.M.M. and Halliday, M.A.K. (1997), Systemic – Functional Linguistic Grammar: A First Step into the Theory File 11A: 1st g% 20 intro%20 (peng % 10 chapter) % 20 New. Html. Nyitse, L.M. (2006), Form and Content of Tiv Songs. Makurdi: Aboki Ong, J.W. (1982). Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the word. London: Routledge. Yina, G. (2002). “The Deep and Surface Structure Aesthetics of Tiv Oral Poetry.” Makurdi Journal of Arts and Culture Vol 3:34-69.

The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

Appendix Transitivity Analyses Key: P = process, Pm = material, Pme = mental, Pb = behavioural. Pv = Verbal, Pe = existential, Pi = intensive, Pcl = circumstantial Pp = possessive, Pcv = causative A = Actor, G = Goal, B = Beneficiary, R = Range S = Senser, Ph = Phenomenon Sy = Sayer, Rv = Reciever, Vb = Verbiage Be = Behaver, Bh = Behaviour X = Existent T = Token, V = Value, Cr = Carrier, At = Attribute Pr = Possessor, Pd = Possessed Ag = Agent C = Circumstance, C1 = Location, Cx = extent, Cm = manner, Cc = Cause, Ca = accompaniment, Cr = reason, Conj = Conjunction /// /// = Clause – complex boundary // // = Clause boundary / / = group or word [[ ]] = Rank shifted clause

Song – Text /// Julius Atom or Kwande //m/ gberen/imo I pati ga /// Rv A Pm G Verbal – (Material) CC1 /// Golozo/ gberen/imo i pati ga// man/kwagh/ngu/a hu lem // A Pm G conj Cr Pi At m / nongo / u wan zwa /// Be Pb Bh Material-Relational-Behavioural CC2 /// Mba yan ve tile gomna bunde ve cii // or / a de vihin / ishima Rv A Pm G / mayange ga/// Cx Verbal-(Material) CC3 /// Tindi wase u hen Benue / er // or / a tile / gomna yô// saa Sy Pv A Pm G conj nan / akpur ityough keng // alu / u / kpur ityough ga Cr At conj cr At yô // mba / sangen / we mayange ga /// A Pm G Cx Verbal – (Material – Relational – Relational – material) CC4 ///Chief Abu King Shuluwa/ngise je/vande oron er/gomna/sar /un a Sy cx Pv Ph Pme S sar// alu/una/ya/ga//kpa/una/kpe ga//man/alu/wen/ayaan conj A Pm conj A Pm conj conj A Pm ga yô// saa / Aondo Ter una/sen/iyol Na/// conj A Pm R Verbal(mental-material – material – material – material) CC5

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics /// Adasu / ka / wan u Aondo // Fada Adasu / ka / Aondo // er T Pi V1 T Pi V conj a/ye yo// Chief Abu King Shuluwa/har/genga u kuhan A Pm A Pm G Gomna/iyol na///Relational – Relational – Material – Material CC6 Cm ///Tion Ijua Kema Tule or Mbanor//isughun/kpa ke/ma/za Rv R conj A Pm mer//me/sugh/Adasu// A Pm G Kpa/tativ ve /nam/ian ga //man/ngise je/vande luun/ Conj A Pm conj Cx Pi or imo wam aa/// At Verbal (material- material – material – relational) CC7 ///Tion/ka / me / za / mer / me/za lam/a Vincent Aondoakaa// Rv conj APm conj A Pm B tativ ve /nam / ian / ga/// A Pm G Verbal (material – material – material) CC8 ///Son-nen Misita Ifanka/u/ ngu/kua Veronica Mishi wan Anyogo Rv T Pi V Wan Mbatierev//ne/vande/mban/hen geri ne//ka/ne/za erem/ian// T Pi v A Pm B G m/lam a/gomna /// Sy Pv Rv Verbal (relational-relational-material-verbal) CC9 ///Golozo No. 1/ka/or u sha toho yô//ngu/zuan a/ian ga /// Cr Pi At A Pm G Relational – Material CC10 /// Misita Nyiakaa or hen Amua/ngu/shin Taraku// T Pi V //Misita Abayol/kpa ngu/shin Taraku/// Relational-Relational CC11 T Pi v ///Soom Akure lgben ///aluer/wen/alagh ana/se/wan ian yo// Rv A Pm B G Se/za yila/Anyam Iungwa a Vihi Ashe//se/za wa/gomna/ Sy Pv Rv A Pm B Kwagh// a/ de u nengen hen ikyum //a/nengen ken hemen /// G Be Bh Be Bh Verbal (material – verbal material – behavioural – Behavioural) CC12

/// U / kpen akpenger ya // u/ sôr tar/Benue gaa// u/zende Be Bh A Pm G Be Bh a zende asor oo/// Bh Behavioural – material – Behavioural CC 13 33

The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

///Injinia Ochogida Agada / gema / gomna na / Tiv // A Pm B Idoma/ve too/diputi/// Material-material CC 14 A Pm G ///Tiv/ve gema ve na/Dobuu Jee/// Material-Material CC 15 A Pm B /// Dobuu Jee/gema ve na/Ikyôr /// Material CC 16 A Pm B

/// Ikyôr / za kase nongon / ker / ayol ave // Be Bh Cm ior/mba sen / ve// kuren ave /// Behavioural – Material CC 17 A Pm G Cm /// Timbir Alaku / dan ker num / wer i tile ga// Rv Pm Cr. shi/me/or a / Saaor Geechi /// conj Sy Pv Rv Verbal (material-verbal-Material) CC18

///Or[[u/nan a ngoron/er]] i/kôr/sha//ka gaden/mo la// Sy Pv Conj A Pm Pm G

Akawe Torkula/una/a rumun yo// Rv Sy Pv a /kor/or la // nan / wua / atia oo /// A Pm G A Pm G Verbal (Material – Material) – Verbal Material – Material CC19

Mba yan Ve Tile Gomna Bunde Ve cii (All those who Contested and lost the Gubernatorial Elections) Julius Atom or Kwande (Julius Atom a man from Kwande) M gberen imo I pati ga (I don’t sing party (political) songs.) Golozo gberen imo I pati ga (Golozo does not sing party songs) Man kwagh ngu a hulem, m nongo u wan zwa. (But when I sense something wrong, I comment) Mba yan ve tile gomna bunde ve cii (Those who stood for governorship election but lost) Or ade vihin ishima mayange ga (Let no one be annoyed.) Tindi wase hen Benue er (Our rule in Benue (states) that) Or a tile gomna yô (If you stand for governorship election,)

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Saa nan akpur ityough keng (You must be bald headed) Alu u kpur ityough ga (If you are not bald headed,) Mba sangen we mayange ga (You would never be elected.) Chief Abu King Shuluwa ngise je vande (Chief Abu King Shuluwa had already) Oron er gomna sar un a sar (Said he only desired to be governor) Alu una ya ga kpa una kpe ga (If he loses, he would not die) Man alu wen ayaan ga yô,saa (And if he loses, it is only) Aondo una sen iyol Na (God himself that would descend and win) Adasu ka wan u Aondo (Adasu is a son of God) Fada Adasu ka Aondo (Father Adasu is God) Er a ye yô, Chief Abu King Shuluwa (As he has won, Abu King Shuluwa) Har genga u kuhan Gomna iyol na (Has taken up drums and is drumming by himself) Tion Ijua Kema Tule, Or Mbanor (Tion Ijua Kema Tule, a man from Mbanor) Ishughun kpa ke ma za mer me sugh Adasu (Even greeting when I go to greet Adasu) Kpa tativ ve nam ian ga (They never allow me) Man ngise je vande luun or imo wam a (And I have been singing about him for long,) Tion ka me za mer me za lam a Vincent Aondoakaa (Tion when I go to greet Vincent Aondoakaa) Tativ ve nam ian ga (They never allow me.) Sonnen Misita Ifanka (Sonnen Mr. Ifanka,) U ngu kua Veronica Mishi wan Anyogo (You and Veronica Mishi Anyogo) Wan Mbatyerev (Daughter of Mbatyerev) Ne vande mban hen geri ne (You are already town people) Ka ne za erem ian (You are the ones who will go and make way) Me lam a Gomna ((for me) to see governor) 35

The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

Golozo no 1 ka or u sha toho yô ngu zuan a ian ga (Golozo No. I is a bushman so he is never given a chance.) Misita Nyiakaa or hen Amua ngu shin Taraku (Mr. Nyiakura from Amua is in Taraku) Misita Abayol kpa ngu shin Taraku (Mr. Abayol is also in Taraku) Soom Akure Igben or Mbanor (Soom Akure Igben – a man from Mbanor) Aluer wen alagh na se wan ian yô (If we are lucky to be given a little chance) Se za yila Anyam Iungwa Vihiashe (We shall call Anyam lungwa Vihiashe) Se za wa Gomna kwagh (We shall advice governor)

A de u nengen hen ikyum (Let him stop looking at his bosom) A nengen ken hemen (He should look far ahead.) U kpe akpenger ya (If you listen to apkenger[sycophants] rumours,) U sôr tar benue ga a (You can’t rule Benue (State)) U zenden a zende asor oo (You will be going from one sorcerer to another.) Injinia Ochogila Agada gema gomna na Tiv (Engineer Ochojila Agada has given governor to Tiv) Idoma ve too diputi (Idoma has taken deputy,) Tiv ve gema ve na Dobuu Jee (Tiv in turn have given (it) to Double J) Dobuu Jee gema ve na Ikyôr (Double J in turn have given (it) to Ikyôr) Ikyôr za kase nongon ke ayol ave (Ikyôr are fighting themselves over it) Ior mba sen ve kuren ave (People are laughing at them and clapping their hands.) Timbir Agaku dan ker num wer i tile ga (Timbir Agaku, don’t ask them to stop fight) Shi me or Saaor Geechi dan ker num we i tile ga (Also I will tell Saaor Gerechi not to stop them,) Or u nan a ngoron er i kôr sha ka ganden mo la (Anyone who will cry out: “Stop, I am being overpowered”) Akawe Torkula una rumun yô (Akawe Torkula, if he agrees) A kor or la nan wua atia oo (Let such a person pay a fine.)

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics A Stylistic Study of Segun Okunoren’s A Gift to the Troubled Tribe

Collins N. Obasi Institute for Nigerian Languages University of Nigeria ABA Campus (UNAC)

Abstract In this paper, the researcher examines the stylistic features used by the author and their functions in maintaining the structural wholeness of the novel. The style of the creative artist is part and parcel of his language of communication. Stylistic features in a work of art are like manure. They help in the growth, richness, aesthetic, and structural wholeness of the literary work. Furthermore, stylistic feature in literature help to tighten the narratological structure of the events of the story. A perceived work of art devoid of narrative devices could best be described as a historical document.

Introduction In a research of this nature, a distinctive terminological conception stares one in the face. Given the fact that the major thrust of this paper is the style of a creative writer, some viewpoints on style will help to illuminate and give direction to the study. According to Abrams (1981:190-191):

Style is the manner of linguistic expression in prose or verse. It is how a speaker or writer says whatever it is he says. The characteristic style of a work of a writer may be analyzed in terms of its diction, or choice of words. Its sentence structure and syntax, the density and types of its figurative language, the patterns of its rhythm, and its rhetorical aims and devices.

Judging from historical antecedents on the various notions of style with regard to literature, every creative artist has his unique vision, which he strives to communicate to his readers in a peculiar manner and for specific aesthetic reasons. In most cases a true knowledge of the genre of literature and even the period of writing are all necessary ingredients in literary stylistics.

In his thought-providing contribution on style, Nwachuwku-Agbada: (2008:75) sees literary style in the following perspective;

To examine a writer’s style demands a consideration of all that he does in a piece of creative writing with a peculiarity associated with him. In addition to a characteristic portrayal of characters, setting, narrative points of view, author’s use of dialogue, his humour, powers of observation, the length and variety of his sentence structure, his fidelity or otherwise to linguistic conventions, the words and word-type he enjoys, the paragraphing and figurative use of language.(Arungwa 2008:75)

StemmingA Stylistic Learning Study Difficulties of Segun Okunoren’s among Alternate A Gift to Learners the Troubled of Nigerian Tribe Languages

Evidently, the viewpoints of Abrams and Nwachukwu-Agbada Above help to elucidate the thorny issue of style in literature. Without dabbling in the controversies and the cut and thrust of various concepts of style in an aesthetic work of art, there is a common thread running through their viewpoints. Simply put, style is a unique and distinctive manner of presentation of a work of art to an audience/narratee by a creative writer for specific aesthetic purposes through the manipulative use of language. The raison d’etre of style in literature is for aesthetics. Style is not an exclusive trait of literary texts. Even non-literary texts exhibit style. But the concept of style ‘par excellence’ is more prominent and a sine qua non in literature. Style is an integral part of a work of art. Any work of art that is deficient in stylistic features may best be described as a historical document. Stylistic features are like manure to the contents of creative writing. To all intents and purposes, style shapes and conditions meaning in literature. Style, in the context of our study, engenders diction, appropriate registers depending on the genre, subject matter and events of the story. The creative writer is at liberty to choose words, sentences, phrases in whatever form in his narrative expedition even if it amounts to deviation and poetic licence. Perhaps, the importance of diction in a work of art explains why T.S.Eliot cited by Yankson (1987) says “ every creative writer wrestles with words and meanings in order to convey his vision”. Stylistic brilliance is a priceless pearl in literary works because it oils enthusiasm, maintains suspense and sharpens the curiosity of the reader or audience. This is what Okunoren has done in his novel in order to achieve verisimilitude. In A Gift to the Troubled Tribe, the novelist makes copious use of stylistic devices in order to achieve specific aesthetic effects. However, only a few of the stylistic devices, depending on their importance and the frequency of occurrence will be highlighted and analyzed in this study.

Text Analysis First and foremost, the title of the work, A Gift to the Troubled Tribe (AGTTT), refers to Dawda the central character of the novel. In the legendary Amada language, Dawda means “the awaited one. ‘Okunoren (2006:19) explains thus:

Forty days after Efuye gave birth to a baby boy, Ewuare lifted him up to the heavens, thanked the gods and named him Dawda, which in Amada language means “the awaited one”.

Ewuare, Dawda’s father has since been expecting a baby boy from the three wives he married in succession. The legendary Amada people have been in bondage for a protracted period spanning over several decades. The kings and their guards unleashed terror on the masses and there was no end in sight to the socio-economic and political quagmire in the symbolic Amada kingdom. Messianic prophecy interestingly, there was a messianic prophecy by the gods that Dawda shall be a source of hope, inspiration and succour to the Amada tribe. It is in the light of the above messianic role of Dawda that the novelist entitled his novel, A Gift to the Troubled Tribe. In other words, Dawda is a gift to the people of Amada. Dawda as a gift to the troubled tribe is a metaphor comparable to a 24- carat gold of inestimable value, which the novelist uses to hammer home the messianic role of the main hero. And the use of the metaphor above by Okunoren is reassuring and helps to give the Amada tribe a sense of belonging irrespective of the

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics lack of positive humanism and sensitivity of the administration of the kings especially the acting King Chuka.

Another significant metaphor in the novel is used by Samori, the wisest Chief priest and also Dawda’s mentor and counselor. Samori and Dawda discuss the deteriorating situation in Amada kingdom. The Chief priest, Samori, who was a close friend of late Ewuare, Dawda’s father, puts the blame for the continued socio- economic and political upheavals in Amada on people like Ewuare who obviously lack the courage to challenge the status quo in Amada tribe. According to Okunoren (2006:68): Your father was one of them. He had great wealth and was close enough to the seat of power to oppose some of the actions of the king and his guards. But when it mattered most, his courage deserted him.

Double Coincidence of Wants Another narrative device that Okunoren used effectively in his novel is the technique of coincidence. Efuye is Ewuare’s first wife. Both lived together for many years without a child. Consequently, Ewuare marries two other wives in succession with the hope that the god’s would give him a male child. The second and third wives bear only female children. All his hopes are shattered. It is at this point that Ewuare decides to send Efuye, his first wife, packing on account of barrenness in line with advice of medicine men. Coincidentally, it is while Ewuare was considering a possible way of asking his first wife to leave his household that the cheering news of her pregnancy came. Okunoren puts it in the following perspective (2006:8):

Still, the third wife bore only female children. Dejected, he then reconsidered the advice the medicine men had given him. Eventually, he decides that Efuye, his first wife, should leave his household. It was while he was considering the right approach to take towards ejecting her, that Efuye informed him that she had conceived and was expecting a baby. Miraculously, so it seemed, she gave birth to a boy. Ewuare was ecstatic with joy.

The male child Efuye gave birth to was named Dawda, the awaited one – the awaited messiah of the people of Amada tribe. Dawda’s liberation struggle in the novel is aimed at freeing his people form bondage, oppression and the shackles of political regimes that have no human face. Cruelty, murder, threat, intimidation, arbitrary arrests, confiscation of farmlands, imposition of taxes and levies are the order of the day. The techniques of coincidence with regard to Efuye underscores the importance of patience in handling family issues and matters relating to governance. Obviously, this is lacking in the rulership of Amada tribe.

Still on the stylistic feature of coincidence in the novel, one notes the split- second timing and the events that led to the recruitment of Dawda as deputy chief guard to the king. The gruesome murder of the wealthy Banda on the orders of the inhuman, deputy chief guard spurs one of late Banda’s sons to revenge the killing of his innocent father. Unknown to the deputy chief guard that danger was lurking around him and by a quirk of late, he fell into the trap and was immediately stabbed 39

A Stylistic Study of Segun Okunoren’s A Gift to the Troubled Tribe Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

to death by one of late Banda’s sons. The death of the cruel deputy chief guard appears to be in conformity with the biblical injunction, which says that he who lives by the sword will eventually die by the sword. The death of the deputy chief guard immediately creates a vacancy, which must be filled in fifteen days time through the usual first class wrestling competition called Ofudu in Amada kingdom. Dawda has been away from Amada tribe for two good years training as a professional wrestler in order to take part in the hotly contested wrestling competition at a very high level. This is predicted by Samori the wisest chief priest in Amada kingdom although he spent most of his time in the kukulu hills outside Amada kingdom. The time Dawda rounds off his training under the retired veteran wrestler, Didi, coincides with the time the Ofudu wrestling competition was to be organized. It is as a result of this healthy development in Amada that Samori asks Ebuwa the intermediary to proceed to Didi’s farm in the Kukulu hills to fetch Dawda. Dawda comes and defeats the veteran Dingo to emerge as the new deputy chief guard and commander- in- chief of Amada’s warriors. According to Okunoren (2006:103):

Dingo landed Dawda with a crash. He attempted to raise himself, but before he could, Dawda was on him, pinning his back to the ground. The referee stepped in to declare the contest over. Dawda became the new deputy chief guard and commander-in-chief of the kingdom’s warriors… “My Prince, I saw a vision as the new deputy chief guard extended his hand to collect his staff of office from you… my prince, his path swallowed up your path. It is a bad omen, my prince.

The dynamics and intricacies of the network of relationships between the gods, Samori and Dawda, are worthy of note. The novelist uses the technique of coincidence in the recruitment of Dawda as a deputy chief guard and commander-in- chief to reinforce the worldview of the Amada people and also to tighten his narrative structure. The above technique further underpins the immutability and touch of immediacy in the prediction of the messianic roles of Dawda, the expected relentless freedom fighter of the oppressed legendary Amada kingdom. Okunoren wittily uses visual imagery and symbolism in the novel to create vivid mental pictures and bodily pains, which in turn evoke a pitiful sight. All these cause a flood of evocations. Imagery and symbolism, here, heighten the emotional intensity on the part of the reader. Dawda had an encounter with the leopard that attacked his father, Ewuare. The latter and the former, in company with other members of their king’s delegation were returning from Osade Kingdom, where they had gone on a mission. Okunoren (2006:54-55): descriptively says. A huge beast dropped on one of them behind, crushing him to the ground face down, growling and tearing away with its huge claws and teeth at the victim’s head and back. The beast was a leopard and the victim was Ewuare… Dawda had not expected the attack, but he reacted instinctively… he rose from the ground to meet the attack, catching the beast by its shoulders and spinning the beast and himself round in mid air, before its weight could crush him to the ground. They both crashed on the ground with Dawda on top. In a flash, he had his cutlass, which hung by his side out, stood up and dealt the beast a terrible blow on the head.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics

Aesthetically, the unprecedented encounter with the leopard symbolizes Dawda’s great courage, dogged determination and selfless devotion to tackle head- on socio-economic and political problems in Amada kingdom irrespective of the attendant risks. As the new deputy chief guard and commander-in-chief of the Amada warriors, Dawda was then in a unique position of authority to challenge and refuse the inhuman instructions of the king and the chief gurad. In a heated argument between the progressive Dawda and the conservative and sadistic chief guard, the author explains the episode in the following light (2006:103):

Since I was born, my chief, replied Dawda, ‘I have always trod a righteous path, and have always preached the virtues of honesty to all those with ears to hear. The posts we both hold are post for people of high intergrity and we are expected to serve, not to be served. You have through your instructions, directed me to perform dishonest and wicked activities against the very people you are supposed to serve. I will not carry out your instructions because I will not tread an unrighteous path. You have proved yourself a man of low integrity, therefore, it is you that is not fit for the post you hold”.

Irony of Contrast Irony is another literary strategy, which the creative writer deliberately uses in his novel for aesthetic purposes. In the novelist’s literary piece, irony is used to foreground the supremacy of the power of the progressives over and above those of the conservatives. Since Dawda, the avowed progressive assumed office as the new deputy chief guard and commander-in-chief of Amada warriors, his influence has been growing in leaps and bounds, paradoxically, the authority of the acting king, the die-hard conservative has been on the wane. Dissatisfied, the acting king Chuka (Prince Chuka) and Dika his fellow conservative, hatched a plan up to eliminate Dawda at Osara Village known for is high concentration of bandits. Dika has informed Dawda that the acting king had asked them to go the notorious Osara village on official assignment. Just on their way to Osara village, the chief guard who is bloodthirsty takes Dawda unawares by stabling him on the left shoulder. In defence and by a sudden twist of fate, Dawda stabs Dika to death. What an irony? And what a poetic justice? In this context, the irony helps to heighten and resolve the conflict that the characters experience. The irony further underscores the immutable liberation struggle by Dawda for the betterment of the allegorical Amada kingdom to the utter astonishment of the acting king. Our author describes the event in the following manner (2006:119): Dawda saw his chance at last. Mustering all the energy left in him, he let fly the dagger from his hand, aiming straight for the chief guard’s heart … the dagger struck and the chief guard clutched at its hit as he sank to his knees and fell to the ground dead, a look of surprise on his face. Dawda had survived the unexpected attack!

A Stylistic Study of Segun Okunoren’s A Gift to the Troubled Tribe Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

Suspense and Surprise Suspense, surprise, shock and metonymy are also part and parcel of Okunoren’s narrative devices in A Gift to the Troubled Tribe. The death of Dika, the chief guard to the acting king is a very terrible surprise and shock to prince Chuka, the acting king of the mythical Amada kingdom. Dika’s demise leaves power vacuum that is to be filled in fifteen day’s time before the confirmation and coronation of the acting, Chuka. The palace, therefore, directs that the usual Ofudu wrestling contest be organized in order to recruit a new and loyal chief guard who could help the acting king wade through his problems in the legendary Amada tribe. Metonymically, the acting king has given orders, which shockingly leads to his catastrophic failure. This is a deliberate literary strategy by the novelist to speed up the resolution of the conflict experienced by prince Chuka and his fellow conservatives. At the time the palace directed that a fresh Ofudu contest be held, he (the acting King) is perfectly aware that Dawda his deputy chief guard was nursing a serious injury on his left shoulder. Dawda sustained the injury during the fight with the late chief guard. The palace had thought that the serious injury was capable of incapacitating Dwada from taking part in the Ofudu wrestling contest. Both Samori and Dawda least expected that the acting king was going to call for the Ofudu wrestling contest immediately because his coronation ceremony was just around the corner.

During the Ofudu wrestling contest, drums usually usher contestants in to the center of the arena. In a brisk walk, Dawda was in the arena waiting for the other contestant. The acting king and his cohorts were utterly surprised to see Dawda as a contestant. Dawda’s candidature kept the acting king and his fellow conservatives in suspense especially as the beating of the drums go on and on for Dawda’s opponent to walk into the arena. Finally, Dawda was the only contestant because, at the expiration of thirty minutes, no other contestant puts himself up for the wrestling contest. The acting king then had a sinking feeling of surprise. Consequently, the referee declares Dawda the new chief guard to the acting king. This does not go down well with the king, who obviously, was terribly shocked with the outcome of the Ofudu contest. Through this skilful manipulation of language, the novelist mocks the acting who fails to understand that power is ephemeral. Prince Chuka and his aids erroneously thought that they have the power of life and death over their subjects. Through the stylistic features of suspense, surprise, shock and metonymy explained above, the novelist further presents Dawda as a campaigner against bad governance, and as an indomitable crusader for social justice. We are informed by Okunoren (2006:123) that:

It soon dawned on everybody present that no other contestant would come forward and that Dawda was the only contestant for the post of the chief guard … the referee stepped in to declare Dawda the new chief guard. The declaration was followed by a roar from the spectators, which shook the arena. Their man had won. As Dawda moved forwards a not too pleased Prince, to receive his staff of office, songs of praise broke out amongst the spectators, and Dawda’s name was on everybody’s lips.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Other brilliant examples of the stylistic devices of surprise and shock in Okunoren’s novel could be seen during the coronation ceremony of a new king after three years of the death of king Shaka. Under normal circumstances the first son of the late king Shaka, prince Chuka the acting king should have been confirmed and crowned king but rather the pendulum of public opinion swung dramatically in favour of his younger brother Prince Badera. Ironically, the kingmakers crowned prince Badera because Prince Chuka was insensitive to the plight of his subjects. Furthermore, the people of Amada suffered years of misrule under Prince Chuka’s government that reeks of corruption. Prince Chuka, his fellow conservatives and their guests were surprised and shocked at the unfortunate turn of events. From the point of view of aesthetics, the narrative devices of surprise, shock and metonymy used by the novelist further make a mockery of the inhuman government of the acting king Chuka. These techniques undoubtedly highlight the clarion call to action, order, justice, equity, fairness and moderation in governance. This is true, if Amada tribe, Nigeria and Africa in general are to participate in the “universal rendez-vous of give and take” according to the Martinican writer, Aime Cesaire. In a swift reaction and in a fit of pique. Prince Chuka condemns the choice of his younger brother as king instead of himself. Sunara, the most senior of the kingmakers, had earlier on addressed the teeming crowd. Okunoren (2006:127) say thus:

“…People of Amada kingdom, this is your king” he said, as he walked to where the Princess sat and led Prince Badera, the second son of king Shara, to the throne… Prince Chuka, initially shocked too, stood up later to protest vehemently. “ I am the king of Amada kingdom!” he shouted at the top of his voice. “As the first son of King Shaka, I should be the King… “You are quite right” replied Sunara… But you misused the opportunity given you by the tribe to prove yourself.

Stream of Consciousness In a concerted effort to weld the various elements of the narrative with dexterity into a harmonious whole, Okunoren adopts what Nwachukwu Agbada calls the stream- of – consciousness technique. According to Arungwa (2008:80):

… The highlight of Nwachukwu Agbada’s use of the omniscient point of view is the stream -of - consciousness device, where he invades the thought processes of his characters to transmit to his audience what goes on in the minds of his characters.

In his witty contribution on the point of view, Gerard Genette describes the omniscient narrator as being extradiegetic (see Obasi and Ufomadu 2005:76). The obvious implication of an extradiegetic narrator is that he tells his story without any noticeable sign of involvement in his narration for the purposes of objectivity. The omniscient narrator is also an impartial observer who works in tandem with a focalizer or focalisor according to some narratologists. In fact, the focalizer carries a torch in the form of a camera for the narrator in order to ensure that no minute detail is left out. The focalizer directs his camera on the various events recorded in the novel onto a narratological point in order to facilitate the work of the narrator with an eye for detail. In Okunoren’s novel, the angle of narration is extradiegetic, which 43

A Stylistic Study of Segun Okunoren’s A Gift to the Troubled Tribe Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

manifests through the steam-of-consciousness device. A glaring example of the above device was when Samori, the wisest chief priest in the mythical Amada tribe, informed Efuye that her only child Dawda who had been away for almost two years would eventually be homeward bound in nine day’s time. Efuye was very ecstatic about her son’s homeward journey. Okunoren (2006:98) described the situation saying:

The cry of joy, Efuye gave at this news drew other women around them. Soon every one of them was dancing and praising the gods. Samori was tempted to inform Efuye that Dawda was actually coming home to contest the Ofudu that would soon take place, but he changed his mind. He reasoned that Efuye would most certainly, vehemently oppose Dawda contesting.

The stream-of-consciousness device or technique mentioned above in Okunoren’s novel, reveals the penerating minds of both the extradiegetic narrator and the focalizer into the thoughts of Samori, Efuye and the other faces irradiated with joy. The narrator and the focalizer, through their powers of penetration into the characters’ thought processes, were able to observe and note that Samori exercised considerable restraint and caution in his discussion with Dawda’s mother. If Samori had done otherwise, he would have let cat out of the bag thereby jeopardizing Dawda’s participation in the crucial Ofudu wrestling contest. Aesthetically, the stream-of-consciousness technique is also used to ensure that Dawda’s mother is not in the know about the major reason why her only child was coming home after two years. If Efuye knew, she would have had a fit. And the traumatic effect of the fit on Dawda’s mother would have had far-reaching consequences on the actualization of the message of the novel. In this paper, we have briefly examined the concept of style and stylistic features used by Okunoren in A Gift to the Trouble Tribe.

Findings and Conclusion In this revolutionary novel the writer makes copious use of some narrative devices or techniques to hammer home the message of the novel to his reader or audience. The stylistic device includes: metaphor, coincidence, imagery, symbolism, irony, suspense and surprise, shock, metonymy and the stream-of-consciousness, through an extradiegetic narrator. From the stylistic penchant in his masterpiece, Okunoren’s readers are able to comprehend his personality, idiosyncrasies and with an insight into his thought processes and manner of expression. Perhaps, this explains why Marx Buchon, the renowned French literary guru and philosopher said that “the style is the man.” Okunoren is alive to his responsibility as an agent of social reform and crusade. He mirrors his independent African society characterized by corruption, misrule and insensitivity to the plight of citizens, using connotative language to highlight the aesthetic purposes of his work. The style of the creative writer is embedded in his language of communication. In literature, stylistic features cannot be expressed without language. Generally the literary language used in the text analysis is characterized, the antisti interlace and interlock of the stylistic devices mentioned above are to connote and defamilliarize Revents prevalent in the ficticiouss world of Segun Okunoren. This is to make literature occupy its rightful place in schemes of things, analytic as well as meaning

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics related and this is where stylistic features become imperative. One can then make bold to say without any modicum of hesitancy that narrative devices enable the verbal artist to carry along his reader or audience. Any literary work devoid of stylistic devices will obviously pale into insignificance in the literary scene.

References Abrams, M.H.A. (1981). Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Arungwa, U. (2008). “The style of the Nigerian Didactic Novel. Evaluation of J.O.J. Nwachukwu Agbada’s God’s Big Toe.” In O. Ezechi…(eds.) Pp. A Scholar in the Eyes of His Students: Essays in Honour of Professor J. O.J Nwachukwu Agbada. Eds Ezechi Onyerioinwu, Chibueze Prince Orie and Onyebuchi Nwosu, Aba: Leardership and Literary Achievers Series. Obasi, C.N. & Ufomadu, F.U (2005). “La Traduction, Litteraire et la Notion de l “Equivalence: Une Reflexion Personnelle”. Calabar Studies in Languages 12.1, April. Okunoren, S. (2006). A Gift to the Troubled Tribe. Ibadan: Spectrum. Onukaogu, A.A. and Onyerionwu, E. (2009). 21st Century Nigerian Literature: An Introductory Text. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited. Yankson, K.E. (1987). An Introduction to Literary- Stylistics. Urowulu Obosi: pacific

Setting and Characterization in the Igbo Novel: A Reflection of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

Setting and Characterization in the Igbo Novel: A Reflection of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel

Nsolibe, Obiageli Theresa Department of Igbo Language Anambra State University, Igbariam Campus.

Abstract Forster’s Aspects of the Novel and its stipulations have sparked off heated arguments on what constitutes the novel. The arguments mostly stem from the fact that Forster in his commandment has European novels, and not novels of other cultures of the world in mind. The eurocentrism of Forster and critics like him attacks African prose and they have enumerated reasons for their positions. In other words, apart from European novels, the novels of other cultures including Igbo do not qualify as novels. Such inadequacies the African novels are said to suffer include the areas of technique, characterization, motivation, psychology and in depthness from unrealistic and awkward dialogue, and improper conception and handling of time and space. The identified “inadequacies” of the African novel identified by Eurocentrists, have necessitated the present study. This study, therefore, takes a look at Forster’s Aspect of the Novel from the perspective of its relevance to the setting and characterization of the Igbo novel. The work takes an analytic procedure as well as humanistic approach based on evidences available in settings and characterizations in a wide range of Igbo novels. The stand point of this paper is that aspects of the Igbo novel have been existing long before the emergence of Forster’s commandments. However, the Igbo had their concept of setting and characterization before Forster’s view and these are adequately reflected in some novels and inadequately in others.

Introduction Literature is seen as “a means of conveying information about social reality, about human nature, about the states of consciousness of the writers, and their personal visions of life or information about values and practices relevant for everyday life in community” (Akwanya, 1999:106). This means that literature expresses the way of life of a people, and it is influenced by time, place and the individuals idiosyncrasies. The visions of the artists are projected to the society through the three major genres of literature namely: prose, drama and poetry. (The World Encyclopedia: 2005). The novel is a subgenre of prose. It is a written expression without a formal pattern of verse or metre, and to this extent the novel and prose are similar in the sense that they involve the narration of events (Ikeokwu, 2005). Notwithstanding the fact that the novel seems more popular than prose and tends to overshadow it, it is still a subgenre of prose. This work is concerned with two of the seven aspects of the novel as Forster points out. These are setting and characterization. It is imperative here to look at the concept of the novel vis a vis the theories of the novel. Such a look will enable us to justify the relevance or otherwise of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel to the Igbo novel as regards setting and characterization.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Universal Concept of the Novel Of all the literary genres, the novel is the one that has been subjected to the most rigorous experiments. This experimental nature of the art of the novel dates back to Don Quixote (Nwahunanya, 1998). The novel has historical roots both in the field of the medieval (period of European history between the end of Roman Empire in 476 A.D and about 1500 A.D.) and early modern romance. It is difficult to proffer a proper definition of the novel. This is so because the word ‘novel’ according to Clarke (1976:73) “contains a huge field of literary endeavour, and includes many forms, from the 15th century rambling romance of Mallory and Sir Philip Sidney to the precise structural perfections of Jane Austin or Conrad of the 20th century”. There is no clear cut distinction and fluidity of the lines demarcating the different types of novels such as “the Sentimental novel”, “the Satirical novel”, “the Romantic novel”, and “the realistic novel” as the critics call them and this makes it difficult to come up with a fine definition of the novel as a genre (Nwadike, 2002:1). Forster Clarke lectures proffer some contradictory definitions of the novel at various points, and this poses some kind of confusion. Historically, most of the criteria (such as artistic merit, functionality, a design to create an epic totality of life, a focus on history and the individual) are arbitrary and designed to raise further debates over qualities that will supposedly separate great works of literature from a wider and lower “trivial” production. (Wickipedia, the free encyclopedia). This creates problems in defining the novel. There is also the problem of inconsistency in the style of novel writing. The style by French novelists that become the characteristic of the modern novel is for the early modern period (15th century). Closely connected to the development of elegance in the belle letters production for style, elegance and of class-fashionable behaviour not social class (Huet, 1670:4). A less aristocratic style of English reform novels became the ideal in the 1740s, because the 18th century authors criticized the French ideals of elegance the belle letters had promoted. Again the requirement of style changed in the 1760s when prose fiction became part of the newly formed literary production. The more normal it became to open novels with a simple statement of their functionality, the less interesting it became to imitate. These changes make the proper definition of the novel difficult. The requirement of length is also contested in the English novels with greater ferocity than in the novels of other cultures. It rests on the consensus that the novel is today the longest genre of the narrative prose followed by the novella and the short story. The sequence has been unstable. 17th century critics had handled the romance as the epic length performance and privileged the novel as its short rival (Huet, 1670:3). The question of how long a novel has to be in order to be more than a novella is of practical importance as most of the literary awards have developed a ranking system in which length is also a criterion of definition. The “Booker Price” has thus aroused a serious debate with its 2007 listing of Ian McEwan’s On Chesil Beach. Critics immediately stated that McEwan had at best written a novella (Meyer, 1997). In his argument, Stephenson (1960:6) sees the novel as “a long fictitious prose narrative” and projects the maximum length of a novel to be 70,000 words and perhaps the maximum length of a short story to be 10,000 words. Also M. Abel Chevalley’s proposal of “a fiction in prose of a certain extent” (Forster, 1927:25) created doubts and arguments among the critics. Forster defined the novel to be 47

Setting and Characterization in the Igbo Novel: A Reflection of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

any prose fiction not less than 50,000 words in length. Forster, however, envisages controversies as regards his definition and made a proviso “… and if this seems to you unphilosophic, will you think of an alternative definition, which will include The Pilgrim’s Progress… or else, will you give reasons for their exclusion?” Nwadike (2002:5) faults Forster’s issue of length and notes that Forster never discussed works of fiction which had less than 50,000 words mark in his Aspect of the Novel. Sequel to this stand, works of fiction became classified into novellas, novelettes or short stories. The requirement of length criterion has been traditionally connected with the notion that epic length performances try to cope with the totality of life. The novella by contrast focuses on a point, the short story on a situation whose full dissensions the reader has to grasp in a complex process of interpretation (Huet, 1670). However, the essential qualities for an acceptable novel are the illusion of reality, portrayal of individualized characters and the acquisition of unity of structure. It is with the specifications of structural unity, individualized reality imbedded in the basic traits of long, fictitious prose narratives that the novel emerged (Stephenson, 1960:7-8). The novel as a genre first emerged in the 15th century with the publication of Sir Thomas Mallory’s Morte d’ Arthur in 1485, an English prose narrative version of the romances about King Arthur and knights of the Roundtable. Morte d’ Arthur is a romance, and yet it is regarded as the forerunner of the English novel (Nwadike, 1989:23). But large output of prose fiction between 1580 and 1600 did not establish the novel as a literary type, because as the history of the novel began to develop, scholars tended to define and classify its different forms – romance and realism, and scientific rationalism of Francis Bacon gained currency. For this reason, intelligent minds came to disregard idealistic-dream world of the prose fiction. Factual observation and analysis won the day (Stephenson, 1960:291). This is the reason why such master-pieces as Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote, John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress, and Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels were not classified as novels. Don Quixote lacks not only unified plot, but also a primary purpose of creating an illusion of reality. The Pilgrim’s Progress was not admitted into canon because the characters remain personifications of abstract qualities. In Gulliver’s Travels, the reader meets characters who are little more than puppets, scarecrows, marionettes and other imitations of humanity. Forster also avoided the inclusion of secularized characters (ghosts, the supernatural, and other fantastic beings) in his criticism of the novel (Nwadike, 1985:25). Also, the secularization of the European novels did not hold out for long in eliminating Christian God, angels, devils and saints from the world of European novel because the bourgeois still hold on to the Christian faith. Rather than run away from fantasy, the European novels focus attention on the interaction of the European bourgeois man with his immediate physical environment, human society and Christian divinities (Chinweizu et al, 1980, 19-20). Nwadike (1989), however, advances probable reasons why Forster was so influenced by the length criterion of the novel. First and foremost, Forster was writing from the vantage point of the social set-up prevalent in his own milieu – the Victorian age of English literature – a period Europe depended solely on the novel as the main source of pleasure and entertainment. Nwadike (1989) concludes that the raison d’eter for the voluminous nature of Samuel Richardson’s Clarissa Harlow, Jane Austin’s Emma, Charles Dicken’s David Copperfield and William Make Peace Thackeray’s Vanity Fair Which ran into several hundreds of pages, while some like

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Clarissa appear in volumes was because the novel was the only source of entertainment then. Chinweizu, et al (1980:18) points out the arrogance in the Euro-centric conception of referring to the European novels as “the novel” using definite article “the” and referring to other regional novels routinely as “African novel”, “Chinese novel”, etc. Going through Forster’s Aspects of the Novel from the beginning to the end, this Eurocentric conception of referring to the novel as “the novel” is evidenced. Whatever may be the case, and no matter how hypocritical and arrogant these European literary theorists and critics are, it is quite clear that the European novel evolved in the 18th century from its progenitors-prose and verse narratives, epics and romances of the Greco-Roman and medieval eras of Europe (Ikeokwu, 2005:386). The novel as variously defined by scholars and critics, bring in cultural differences. Chinwezu et al (1980:18) see the novel as an extended fictional prose narrative whose subject matter is “man in society”. In support of this definition, Akwanya and Anohu (2002:2) look at the novel from the humanist point of view contending that “the novel is a special kind of literature characterized by a reflection on the individual’s experiences in relation to the socius”. Akwanya and Anohu (2002:3) enlarging the scope of the humanist approach opine that the novel treated under social discourse, is either a weapon of reaction or a way of escape. This approach is based on the supposition that lyric and dramatic literature are systems which are totally different from the novel and it matters little that they have all been handed down by tradition as literary forms. Also, there is the phenomenologist approach which defines art including literature (novel) as “a movement of thought or fantasy coming into being as, and in one of the forms sanctioned and hallowed by tradition.” In other words, phenomenologist sees the novel as a weapon of reaction or a way of escape from realities of life, and or fantasies of life (Ikeokwu, 2005: 387). As regards “realities”, the politically disenfranchised use it as a weapon of expressing opposition. On that of “fantasy”, the unspecified and emotionally disturbed use the novel as an instrument of pacification and as a place of refuge or explaining mysteries of life where the world could be left behind. For whatever reason the world could be left behind, the narrators of such novels employ metaphor and allegory to protect or explain what they under normal circumstances would not find a way to say (Ikeokwu, 2005). Whatever definitional approach taken in the definition of the novel that does not take cognizance of, reflect or respect other human societies and their cultural differences, cannot withstand the test of time. Probably Boulton (1954:16) foresaw this definitional problem of the novel and observes accordingly that “the desire or tendency, even practice to fit literary works into over formal definitions and classifications has given rise to much bad criticism”. This desire does not augur well for the spirit of globalizational growth of literature.

The Concept of the Igbo Novel Language is the medium of literary expression, be it specific literature or universal literature. This functional approach of language shows that for languages to perform the function of expressing specific and universal literatures, it has to have the principles of language operation. Language is copiously used in analyzing and rendering literature, and as such language and literature are intertwined. There is 49

Setting and Characterization in the Igbo Novel: A Reflection of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

the provision by language studies of rules, theories or principles of linguistic operation. The specificity of individual languages does not debar them from possessing the unique ability of manifesting universalism. All aspects of the novel- story, plot, character, setting, etc., are expressed using linguistic features only, unlike drama that uses paralinguistic devices like gestures, movement, visual and sound effects for communicating experience. To fill this enormous gap created by the absence of paralinguistic features, the novelist makes use of written language. The Igbo novel should be viewed against the background of the African milieu. According to Chinweizu, et al (1980:23), “the world of African novel is broad enough to include encounters of humans and spirits, transformations of humans into animals and vegetables, and of inorganic matter into organic matter and vice versa as in Tutuola or the narrowly realistic portrayals in works of Achebe, Ngugi, Peter Abrahams, Mphahlele, Armah, Oudoguem, Beti, Oyono, Sembene, Camara Laye. Others include Igbo works like Achara’s Elelia Na Ihe O Mere and Ala Bingo and Maduekwe’s Dinta. The broadness in the world of African novel (Igbo novel inclusive) is lacking in the novels of other cultures. Therefore, the critics of such narrow universe where the world of spirits, of the unborn, and the dead, and other supernatural occurrence exist should not be skeptical about these and should suspend their disbelief and enjoy well written stories. The authors argue that African world view is vast and African novelists need no special effort to convince the Eurocentric readers on accounts involving the spirit realms. This is because they are legitimate part of their African (Igbo) view of the universe. In spite of the negative criticism, there are still some European critics who value the mystic phenomenon of African (Igbo) novels. In his novel Storm and Echo, Prokosch in Ramsaran (1949:28) questions about African novels thus, “why do we all, all of us turn to Africa in the end when everything else looks hopeless? When our hearts are sick with loathing? He answers his questions thus, “Listen, I’ll tell you why; because in the African novel, there’s still a chance, just infinitesimal chances of discovering man… know Africa, and you know the real secret of man”. Emenanjo (1995:5-6) corroborates the views above when he notes that, “literature is sourced from human society, the society may be visible, close and obvious, or opaque, distinct and never-never. In other words, literature parasites on human society dealing with the past, present, future and the surrealistic” The controversy about what constitutes the Igbo novel extends to language. In his own contribution, Emenyqnx (1978: 189) defines the Igbo novel to include works of authors whose medium of rendition is not Igbo but, who are of Igbo extraction. The libralitarians led by Emenyqnx see Igbo literature as the most part written in English which does not detract from its value as art conceived in the Igbo mind according to an Igbo world view, Igbo ethics and Igbo standards. No doubt, Emenanjq’s definitional approach triggered off what Emenanjq (1982:4) refers to as “Creative Spark” maintains that, “Igbo literature refers to creative and non-creative (or book) literary works of all sizes and descriptions that are available in Igbo. The authoritative linguists led by Ugonna stresses the point that no other language can accommodate the complexities involved in Igbo world view. Consequently, literary works of Achebe, Amadi, Ekwensi, Mezu, Ike, Munonye, Nzekwu, Nwapa, Umeasiegbu, etc., written in English are not Igbo novels notwithstanding the fact that the authors are of Igbo extraction, and that a good deal of the themes, characterization milieu, idioms, proverbs and thoughts are basically Igbo.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Ugonna (1979) argues that Igbo novel is that “body of Igbo fiction which is written in Igbo language”. According to him, any literary work which is to be considered as Igbo literature should be written in Igbo or at least to be translated into the language. Ugonna here has brought in another dimension in the definition of the Igbo novel, which is, any literary work from any language (English, French, Portuguese, etc.) translated into Igbo language, is Igbo novel. His view stems from that of Obi Wali (1960) which argues that African literature must be written in African language or lose its artistic validity and autonomy (Emenyqnx, 1978:191) Further definitional problem of the Igbo novel took the variety of Igbo and length into account. Two schools of though emerge with regard to variety of Igbo – Achebe and Emenanjo schools. Achebe is for the use of the author’s dialect, while Emenanjo vehemently opposes the idea, arguing that the standard Igbo (SI) holds sway to any other variety of Igbo as medium of expression of Igbo literature. Any literary work that falls short of this expectation of being written in standard Igbo poses problems to its readers and also difficult to understand. Ogbalu’s novels are written in his native dialect and as such poses problems to readers. Nwana, Achara, Odilora, Obodo and Ihentuge are good users of standard Igbo, and readers have little or no difficulty reading and understanding them. Ikeokwu (2000:147) elaborates Emenanjo’s view when he points out the difference between spoken Igbo (Asxrxasx Igbo) and written Igbo (Ederede Igbo), especially as it affects our educational system and other official engagements that picture out to the world outside our literary standard (Written language); and for this reason, “standard Igbo (SI) holds sway for mutual intelligibility” Emenanjq (1984) The length of the Igbo novel takes its own share in the argument about the Igbo novel. Emenanjq (1982) shares the same view as Forster’s 50,000 words length, although he suggests 40,000 words length, when he noticed that Forster’s assumption looks unphilosophical. Emenanjq classifies the Igbo “Novel” into three, using length criterion. The novel has minimum length of 40,000 words, between 25,000 to 40,000 words as a nouvella, and below 25,000 words as a novelette. Ikeokwu further states that we have only two Igbo novels Isi Akwx Dara N’ala by Ubesie and Agh[r[[gha by Munonye (p. 49-51). From Emenanjq’s classification, all the other Igbo novels apart from the above mentioned two fell into either nouvella (long story) or novelette (short story). Emenanjq from his classification supports the Eurocentric critics’ view of using size to define a novel. But, Ikeokwu (2000) points out the fact that Emenanjq contradicts himself. Otherwise, why did he allow contributors to Tony Ubesie’s: The Man and the Artist edited by him, to refer to all Ubesie’s works as Igbo novels? African critics should not follow their European colleagues in charging African (Igbo) novels with various technical (like inadequate description or characterization, motivation, etc.) thematic (themes involving cultural conflicts or fascination with African past) and ideological (a lot of didacticism – a constant moral attitude) inadequacies. The charges which might conceivably make sense if African (Igbo) novels were intended to be replicas or approximations of European novels. African novels are said to employ the same techniques, and in approximately the same ways, treating the same themes with approximately the same emphasis and urging the same values (Chinweizu et al, 1980:3). Dike (2001:163) in confusion observed that, “using Forster’s length criterion, Ubesie’s Isi Akwx Dara N’ala, Xkwa Ruo Oge Ya and Xkpaka

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages Setting and Characterization in the Igbo Novel: A Reflection of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel M[[r[ Onye Xb[am may not be adequate as novels”. Contributing, Ikeokwu (2000) opines that Dike in his discomfiture interrogates, “which is more important in the work of art, the volume or content? We should not allow the Eurocentric criteria in the definition of the novel to destabilize our own definition bearing in mind that their Eurocentric definition of the novel is made from the Eurocentric perception of life and not the African (Igbo) perception of life. The development of the Igbo novel should look forward to the popular saying, “forward ever, backward never” so as to avoid another “black out” in the progress of Igbo studies. We have to note from the beginning that definition of the novel took into consideration language, traditionality, length and translation from other linguistic cultures. We therefore see the Igbo novel as a fictional prose narrative written in the accepted Igbo language and of sizable length about man in the society. The Igbo novel has to ex-ray the Igbo way of life, their ethics and Igbo standard written in Igbo language or lose their artistic validity and autonomy.

Aspects of the Igbo Novel Forster (1927) in analyzing the aspects of the novel had in mind specifically English novels. So, he summarized the aspects of the novel under such heading as story, people, plot, fantasy, prophecy, pattern and rhythm. But there are contributions as regards aspects of the Igbo novel by some Igbo critics and this we will discuss under the aspects of the Igbo novel. Despite the fact that Forster had English culture in mind and not the cultures of other people when discussing the aspects of the novel, some of his aspects fit into the Igbo novel but not so perfectly. Ngara (1982:15) says, “African fiction can be analyzed into four main constituents, content, narrative structure, character and linguistic format. Toeing this line also, Xzqchukwu (2001:20) proffers a critical model for the Igbo novel thus: subject matter, theme, character, plot, point of view, narrative devices and linguistic format. Nwadike (1992:78) listed his critical tool to include the ones mentioned above with additional tools of “setting” and “tone of voice”. So, Nwadike advances seven point-parameter in judging the novel. They are content, plot, character and characterization, point of view, setting, linguistic format/language, narrator’s voice. These seven points shall be tagged, “Aspects of the Igbo Novel”. Not much critical works have been published by many critics on the Igbo fiction compared with its English and French counterparts (Nwadike 1999:49). Some of the criticisms done so far centre mostly on the thematic, characterization and language. Some scholars like Ugonna (1979), Emenanjq (1982, 1983), Emenyqnx (1981, 1984), Nwadike (1982, 1986, 1996, 1999), Njqkx (1986), Nwaozuzu (1987), Xzqchukwu (1989) and Ikeokwu (2005) have made some meaningful and constructive contributions along the lines mentioned above. Igbo creative works are based on the five areas according to Nwadike’s studies and research. They are, the comparison of Igbo literature with other literatures, the length of Igbo fiction, the problem of plot, the question of undeveloped characters and the problem of style. Emenanjq (1982) is of the view that Igbo novels should be tone marked. He also says that Igbo creative writing lacks suspense due to flatness of language, poor narrative technique, poor plotting and lacks originality in terms of content and value. Considering the above discussions, it seems that a 52

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics standard has been set for criticizing Igbo literary works. Some of the standards fit into Forster’s aspects of the novel, while some do not. We now look at the relevance of Forster’s ‘setting’ and ‘characterization’ to those of the Igbo novel.

Setting The setting of a novel encompasses a number of different but linked elements: time – day or night, harmattan, rainy or dry season, the historical period (an actual date), place – inside or outside, country or city, specific town and country, real or fictional, social – the minor characters who take little part in advancing the plot, but whose presence contributes to the realism of the novel (Rexoth, 2007). Setting also means the scenario where the story is introduced. Onuigbo (2006: 244) uses the term ‘setting’ to refer to “the time, location and social condition in which the action of a narrative takes place”. He further explains elements of setting as: the geographical location, topography and scenery, the character’s occupations and daily manner of living: the time or period in which the action takes place (for example, the historical epoch, seasons of the year, time of the day): and the general environment of the characters, such as the religious, mental, moral, social and emotional conditions through which the characters move (:244). Forster dealt with “setting” inside the story and not separately as the Igbo literary critics treat it. Igbo novels have their settings mostly in Igbo country and culture. Also there are settings in mood, atmosphere (spatial setting – eerie, dangerous, menacing, tense, threatening, relaxing, nostalgic, happy, light-hearted, etc). In any literary work, there is a general setting as well as specific setting for certain incidents. We may clarify this point by referring to the text Ihe Onye Metere (Ofomata, 1996). The geographical location is the fictional village of Alaukwu and Umuaka (some actions also take place at Dagburu): the historical setting here is the time before the coming of the Europeans to Igbo land. The cultural setting is the Igbo society with its religious, moral and social institutions and these are the general setting. In the novel, however, there are specific settings for specific incidents. The settings include Eze Xzqemezie’s compound, Ichie Akajiqfq’s compound, the village market, the village square, and the forest where Qhahxrx is killed, the stream where they throw his business paraphernalia, the famous Dagburu oracle, and so on. Setting is of primary importance in the make-up and behaviour of fictional characters. The entire action of a novel is frequently determined by the locale in which it is set. It sometimes happens that the main locale of a novel assumes an importance in the reader’s imagination comparable to that of the characters and yet somehow separable from them. Wessex is a giant brooding presence in Thomas Hardy’s novels. The popularity of Sir Walter Scott’s “Waverley” novels is due in part to their evocation of a romantic Scotland (Sterne, 1969:70 – 71) In the same vein, Ubesie’s novels are interesting due to the fact that actions are determined by the locales. Each action in Isi Akwx Dara N’Ala corresponds to the setting. Chike’s places of business are not in the rural communities with less population, but in the urban cities with large population – Enugu, Lagos and Overseas. His places of abode in the city and in the village befit his status as a wealthy man. His war time condition shows that things have moved from “grace to grass”. He had to adapt to the hard times of war, like living in refugee camps, begging for relief materials and, eating at times without salt. Achara (1935:3) 53

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages expresses setting as regards time and location in Ala Bingo. Eze Qgara-Qru- n’afq-lqta-n’afq has the control of the two seasons of the year in his hands – the rainy and dry season Eze Qgara-Qru-n’afq-lqta-n’afq alternates his time of stayingSetting inand the Characterization two places in the where Igbo Novel: the A Reflectionlives – ofin Forster’s heaven Aspects and of theon Novel earth where he calls Ala Bingo. During the rainy season, he stays for twelve months in heaven and during the dry season, he stays on earth for another twelve months and he works on his farm in Bingo as the land is very fertile. The settings here involve time, place and kings occupation. Qfqmata (1996:5) portrays how Qhahxrx while on his way home late from Alaukwu market on the day he is murdered had an eerie feeling. He is scared on getting close to the place where he is murdered. Also, in the same text, Qfqamata shows the setting of an eerie and dangerous atmosphere when Nzeka coming home late from his farm saw the killing of Ohahuru by Nwohia, Okechi and Onwuha from his hiding place (p.7). The period of the novel is before the coming of the Europeans. This is evidenced by the sending of emissaries by the people of Umunka to Alaukwu to enquire about Ohahuru who disappeared from Alaukwu. Also, the traditional mode of communication used in summoning the people in the village square to find out the murderers and the kind of punishment given to the culprits depict setting based on time. The culprits were handed over to the people of Umunka to do with them as they so wished. The topographical setting of the scene of murder is that of bush and bush path. The religion of the people is traditional religion. This is portrayed in the belief of the people of Alaukwu on the efficacy of the Oracle at Dagburu and taking Onwuha there to ascertain if he has a hand in the murder of Ohahuru. Nzeako (1981:1) describes the atmosphere as being tense and fearful around the death-bed of Ekwuigbo, Juochi’s father as Juochi and her mother observe helplessly the gradual snuffing out of Ekwuigbo’s life by the cold hands of death. Another weird atmosphere is when Juochi waits in her friend’s house to be rescued by Nneka. The spatial setting here is the amalgamation of the rural and urban setting while the temporal setting is the advent of the white missionaries in Igbo land. A writer’s choice of which details of setting he presents or emphasizes is guided by the theme he is developing and the incidents of the plot. In his rural novels which were written to show that Africans developed their own civilizations without any help from the Europeans, Achebe takes great care to present the people’s custom, religion, belief system, values, judicial system, science, industry and how both work and play are organized. (Onuigbo, 2006:245). Many novelists, however, gain a creative impetus from avoiding the same setting in book after book and deliberately seeking new locales. The Igbo novelist Ofomata apparently needed to visit a fresh scene in order to write a fresh novel. His ability to encapsulate the essence of an exotic setting in a single book is exemplified in Ihe Onye Metere (1999). The setting of this novel is that of the rural Igbo communities in all its ramifications. His other novels – A Achowa Isi Ochu, Onye Chi Ya Akwatughi, Onwu Egbughi Onye Uwa have an amalgamation of rural and urban settings. The setting of a novel is not always drawn from a real-life locale. The literary artist sometimes prides himself on his ability to create the totality of his fiction – the setting as well as his characters and their reactions. In the Russian expatriate Vladimir Nobokov’s Ada (1969), there is an entirely new space-time continuum, and the English scholar J.R.R. Tolkien in his Lord of the Rings (1954) creates an 54

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics “alternative world” that appeals greatly to many who are dissatisfied with the existing one. The world of interplanetary travel was imaginatively created long before the first moon landing. The properties of the future envisaged by Aldous Huxley in Brave New World (1932) are still recognized in an age that those authors did not live to see (Wells, 1948). Such Igbo novelists like D.N. Achara in novels Ala Bingo (1963) and Elelia Na Ihe O Mere (1964), and Maduekwe’s novel Dinta (1975) have their settings partly in no-man’s land (land of the spirit) and partly on land. Comparing setting in the Igbo novel with Forster’s setting in his aspects of the novel, we found out that Forster embedded setting in the story. He did not give setting the pride of place it deserves by discussing it separately. The Igbo artists deal with setting separately and in all its ramifications. They discussed setting and its elements as involving time, place, geographical and topographical locations, and social condition of characters. All these are in relation to their religion, mental and emotional condition in the environment in which they move as well as the scenery and the occupation of the characters involved in the story. But, Forster talked about setting only in relation to time and place. He did not talk about setting in no-man’s land unlike the Igbo critics. According to Chinweizu et al (1980:23), it is a vast and almost limitless universe, and African novelists therefore need make no special effort to make believable” to Eurocentric readers accounts involving the spirit realms which are a legitimate part of their African view of the universe”. From this exertion by Chinweizu et al, we can observe that the Igbo novelists have ample enough setting to choose from while writing. Whatever the locale of his work, every true novelist is concerned with making a credible environment for his characters. For a rich or poor character, they should show so. In the war front, the setting should indicate so. The setting in Juo Obinna (1977) indicates environment of war in all its ramifications. Activities in the urban or rural communities should be so portrayed in setting. From the experiences in the Igbo novels studied, we see setting as “the circumstance, time, place and general environment which actions in a story are carefully selected to further the movements or actions of characters at the centre of narratives.

Characterization According to Onuigbo (2006:238), “the drawing of clear images of a person, his actions and manners of thoughts of life is called characterization”. Characterization is the process of conveying information about characters in narratives or dramatic works of art or everyday conversation (Wikipedia the free Encyclopedia). Characters are the agents who act the incidents in a literary work. They are the vehicles by which the author conveys to us his/her view of the world. A study of characterization demands identifying, examining and evaluating the writer’s performance in the use of literary devices to portray characters; it is more than a mere description of characters themselves. Since literature is sourced from human society, it draws all his characters from human society or recreations of it Emenanjo (1995:6). Sources of this nature are inexhaustible when one looks at the myriad of events within “all possible combinations of human chemistry and human psychology”. He observes that the human society is inhabited by hollow and solid men, colourless and colourful men, and the best men but with no convictions, the worst men full of passionate intensity, virgins in a maternity ward, priests and mallams, popes, mullahs and imams dying on 55

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages prostitutes’ beds in brothels, reverend sisters found with used condoms. Considering the different classes of human beings, there are bound to be all sorts of experiences, which are capable of sparking off consummate imaginative creations. CharactersSetting and in Characterization Igbo narratives in the Igbo mayNovel: A be Reflection rounded of Forster’s (complex) Aspects of the or Novel flat (simple), although there is every possibility that a character may start off with being flat and graduates to being rounded. According to Chinwezu et al (1980), the distinction between flat and round character is not very sharp, but rather elastic as E.M. Forster, the English novelist who brought these terms into general usage states:

In their purest form flat characters are constructed round a single idea or quality. When there is more than one single factor in them, we get the beginning of the curve towards the round.

There is the existence of flatness or roundness of characters in Igbo novel as they are extensions of the Igbo folktale, and as such inherited this aspect of literary traditions from it and not from the influence of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel. But suffice it to say that this aspect of the novel fits into the same aspect of characterization with Forster’s aspect. Ofomata’s fictional character Nkemdirim in Ihe Ojoo gbaa Afo, Ubesie’s Obinna in Juo Obinna, Odiliora’s Akubuuzo in Okpa Aku Eri Eri are good examples of flat characters who behave and maintain a single attitude throughout their various narrative sequences. On the other hand, Ofomata’s Ikenna in Ihe Ojoo Gbaa Afo, Ubesie’s Chike and Ada in Isi Akwu Dara N’Ala, Nwanna’s Omenuko in Omenuko, Achara’s “Eze-ogara-oru-n’afo” in Ala Bingo show the creative devices of roundness of character vividly. Mbah, and Mbah, (2007: 255-261), shows different types of characterization. For example, there is characterization by naming where the name given to a character does not only exhibit meaning but the name is also closely related to the actions of the character as regards his nuances and mannerisms. ‘Omenuko’ may not only be a name, but may refer to one who shows extravagance in time of lack. Akajiofo in Ihe Onye Metere may not only be a name but may refer to one who exhibits uprightness in his dealings with people, or who is always holding his staff in his hand. Much of such characters like ‘Akubuuzo’ in Okpa Aku Eri Eri who all but starved in the midst of plenty in the name of savings for Overseas trip, Ogu and Mgba in Ala Bingo, who go about fighting (Ogu) and wrestling (Mgba), Elelia in Elelia Na Ihe O Mere, who perform some supernatural feats, are allegorical in nature. The actions of many characters represent various moral or ethical ideas such as hope, charity, greed, covetousness, treachery and a whole of other psycho-philosophical ideas in characters representing life, death, mind, soul and such abstract ideas as wisdom (:255). Nwadike propounds a characterization method he calls allegorical and block in line with Azuonye’s. Nwadike (1999:55) contends that allegorical or naming method names in consonance with attitudes characters manifest in the narrative sequence. According to Mbah and Mbah (2007:256), there is also “block characterization” which the fictionist devotes a paragraph or more, early in the narrative to describe in detail the physical appearance of a character or analyzing the moral and psychological nature of the character. This is a common form of characterization. This is reflected in Ihe Onye Metere where Ofomata (1996:9) describes (the missing) character, Ohahuru according to his handsomeness as being

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics one of the reasons why his people are so sad and worried about his disappearance. Devoting a paragraph early in the novel to describe Ohahuru’s handsomeness, Ofomata puts it thus:

Qhahxrx machara mma, mma gwx. Q bx xd[ mma ahx q mara kpatara nne ya ji gxq ya Qhasoromhxrx. Mma q mara na-ese okwu.

Also in Ukpana Okpoko Buuru (61) Ubesie describes Meenihu elaborately as background to what he will do in the narrative (Mbah and Mbah, 2007:256). In another type of characterization, which Azuonye called motifemic labeling, the character is associated with some kind of recurrent mannerism or idiosyncrasy, gesture or saying. Wherever and whenever the character appears, he is likely to be presented as putting forth that peculiar mannerism, gesture or representing a peculiar kind of phrase or sentence (Mbah and Mbah, 2007:257). In the Nigerian movie industry today, an Igbo actor Chiwetalu Agu exhibits this mannerism of representing a kind of phrase or the other in every film he acts. In the film “Royal Destiny” he exhibits this phrase “Aaazu Ikpookpo”. There is also the emblematic characterization, and a character here is identified with a certain kind of emblem, picture or material. The meaning and significance of the emblem is revealed more and more in the character as the story develops. The emblem builds gradually the status symbol of the character. The traditional ruler is known in his royal regalia and staff of office. Ofomata (1996:58- 59) portrays emblematic characterization in the king of Dagburu Ozo Uruagwu popularly called Ichie Akajiofo. The king acts in consonance with his name. He is always holding his staff of office – ‘Ofo’ in his hand whenever he is talking and wherever he is. Even while sleeping, he keeps the ‘ofo’ beside him and when traveling, he must have it inside a small bag he is always carrying. Finally, Azuonye talks of the characterization by dramatic conflict in which the fictionist may create his character by involving him in a conflict with another character. It may be conflict between man and society as ‘Enyi’ in Mmiri Oku E ji Egbu Mbe of Ubesie (1974) showcases various incidents that evidenced conflicts between Enyi and the society. Enyi had conflict with Nneka the uncle’s wife, the white man’s cook, the white man’s dog, the police, even with hunger and the river that nearly drowned him. The last two conflicts mentioned are with nature. Nwana (1963) portrays how Omenuko is always in conflict with himself over the abomination he comits against his sales apprentices. The apprentices incidentally are his kinsmen and he sells them into slavery when his goods drown in the Ikwu river. He keeps blaming himself and is always in conflict with himself. He only has peace when he frees those he gets and helps set them up. The conflict may be man against nature as in Dinta, or character with himself as ‘Omenuko’ in Omenuko. Characters in works of fiction may not necessarily be human characters. There are animals, spirits, and forces which have been so personified that they participate dynamically in the story (Mbah and Mbah, 2007:255). Achara (1964) shows how a bird living inside a river saved Elelia from death in the hands of Chief Amaghi-ihe-oma. The bird acted like a human being by picking the chain ‘kalari’ thrown into the river by the Chief in order to convict Elelia. For the loss of the ‘kalari’, 57

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages the Chief wants to kill Elelia. The bird even talked to Elelia to get the ‘kalari’ from the stomach of the fish that swallowed it. Apart from the above mentioned types of characterization, Emenanjo shows what he calls ‘stiff’ characters. They are those characters at either of the extreme poles of characterization like ‘Adamma’ in Onye Chi Ya Akwatughi, “Akubuuzo” in Okpa Aku Eri Eri, ‘Chike’ the hen pecked husband, and ‘Ada’Setting the femmeand Characterization fatale wife in the Igboin Isi Novel: Akwu A Reflection Dara ofN’Ala. Forster’s NwadikeAspects of the (1999:56) Novel stresses another category tagged ‘dialogue’ or ‘showing’ method where a character’s speech or what other characters say about it enable the reader form impression about it. Onuigbo tags this characterization method “telling” where the author describes the characters thoughts and feelings to the reader, evaluates and interprets the character’s motives and actions. Ofomata (1996:22) exhibits what was going on in the mind of Onwuha when his friends-in-crime were caught and brought out in front of the crowd in the village square. Onwuha was shocked, afraid, and tensed up because he did not know the minds of the captured. Ofomata in the same text (:61) shows what was going on in the mind of Onwuha at Dagburu when Nzeka left his seat to Ichie Akajiofo’s seat to consult with him on how and when to approach the oracle. Onwuha’s uncontrollable thoughts on whether they are discussing how best to kill him or sell him off were exposed to the readers. Considering the above definitions, types and examples of characterization, Characterization can be defined as “the vehicle by which the authors in works of arts convey to their readers their views of the world”. Character can also be portrayed as ‘main’ or ‘minor’. Main characters in narrative sequence feature throughout the various developmental stages of the plot, whereas minor characters play supporting roles in the conflict, such as presenting alternative views of events, or serving as contrasts to the main characters. For instance, Chinwe, Osita’s house maid’s good behaviour in Onye Chi Ya Akwatughi by Ofomata helps to show clearly Adamma, Osita’s wife’s bad behaviour. Also Bola, Adamma’s boyfriend’s bad behaviour contrasts with Osita’s good behaviour. Character can be said to be ‘dynamic’ when it changes either psychologically, intellectually or spiritually in the course of the narrative. A character can also be said to be ‘static’ when it does not change in the course of the narrative. It should be noted that no type of character (round or flat, dynamic or static) is inherently better than, or superior to another (Onuigbo 2006:240). It should be borne in mind that the distinction between flat and round (or any other classificatory model) is not very sharp, but rather elastic Nwadike (1999: 56). After all, Forster who initially muted the idea of rounded or flatness stands flexible on the issue when he pointed out:

The test of round character is whether it is capable of surprising in a convicting way. If it does not convince, it is flat, pretending to be round. It has the incalculability of life about it-life within the pages of a book (:81)

Ikeokwu (2008:68) in his own contribution classifies character into realist, idealist and centrist characters. He says that the realist character are those characters who think of self only without considering what effect or impact their ideas or actions and or inactions have on others. The idealists are those characters whose ideas or actions tend to mean well for the generality or the individual members of the

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics society. The centrists are those characters who strike balance the realists and the idealists. Different critics may see the same character differently. Odilora’s Akubuzo a miser (main character) in Okpa Aku Eri Eri could be tagged flat for that miserly dominant trait, but could be tagged rounded because “he is an able school administrator and disciplinarian, very resourceful and has a high sense of economy and self respect. He is highly ambitious, and hates white imperialism” Nwadike (1999:56). In Igbo novel, mode of characterization does not maintain a straight jacket, but rather two or more of the modes enumerated above can be found in a single character.

Findings and Conclusion Considering the above analysis, we can observe two types of setting – abstract and concrete settings depending on the plot. The concrete setting involves the physical locations in the story, the occupation of the characters involved in the story and the topography of the regions involved in the story. They are concrete in the sense that these settings can be seen as well as felt by the characters in the narrative whether the story is real or fictitious. The abstract setting involves the time of the events in the narrative, the atmosphere and the general environment of the characters such as the religious, mental, moral, social and emotional condition through which the characters move. They are abstract setting in the sense that they may be observed in the story and in the characters but cannot be physically felt. As regards the characters, two types are also observed. They are the credible characters and the incredible characters.The credible characters are those characters whose actions are believable of them. They behave true to type. There is no doubt as to whether they did what is said they did. The action may be positive or negative. The incredible characters are those characters whose actions seem hard to believe. The characters perform feats that seem humanly impossible and people find it difficult to believe. The primary obligation of the Igbo literary artist is excellence in Igbo literature, and not to castigate the Eurocentric critics on their myopic view of African literature. Needless to say, the Igbo literary artist is influenced first of all by the “literary heritage afforded him/her by Igbo culture. In addition and as secondary influence, his exposure to English literature and history through reading, as well as familiarity with writings of Igbo authors of both Igbo and English expressions” (Nwachukwu Agbada 1997:125). Although, before the advent of the Europeans, Igbo literature was not written, but there has been the existence of the Igbo traditional literature like the Ifo (tales) whose motifs pervade the Igbo literary writings. Thanks to the only enduring contribution of the Christian missionaries to the African-writing, which is the tool for preserving their literature, and thus help decisively to bring about the emergence of Igbo written literature (Emenyonu 1978:xiii). The trickster motif in traditional literature is there in the characters in Omenuko, Ije Odumodu Jere, Ala Bingo, and Elelia Na Ihe O Mere. Habits like good morals, shrewd, witty, hardwork, resourcefulness, etc., in modern literature are a heritage from the traditional Igbo literature. In narratives like Omenuko and Juo Obinna their chief characters are imbued with such personal survival qualities as shrewdness, wittiness, and resourcefulness. 59

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

Setting in Igbo novels mostly are in the Igbo traditional society with their agricultural settings. Ihe Onye Metere is a good example of a novel set purely in traditional Igbo society, as most of Thomas Hardy’s novels are set in the English country side (rural community). Some Igbo novels like Nzeako’s Juochi, Ubsie’s Isi Akwu Dara N’Ala, Ofomata’s Onye Chi Ya Akwatughi, and so on, have their settings both in rural and urban areas. Some Igbo novels also have their setting partly in no man’s landSetting (or and land Characterization of the spirits) in the Igbo and Novel: partly A Reflection on land of Forster’s like theAspects text of theAla Novel Bingo, Elelia Na Ihe O Mere etc. Time is also associated with setting as events are narrated in their time sequence. In the Igbo novel, setting is given a pride of place and is looked at in its entire ramification unlike Forster’s discussion of setting. He embedded setting inside the story and not much of the elements of setting are discussed except ‘time’ and ‘place’. Igbo novelists also have different characters in their works and each behaves true to his type. Characters can overlap in their behaviour showing that they can be elastic. There is no sharp distinction between these characterization models. It depends on how the critic perceives the character. Some critics, for instance see Odilora’s Akubuuzo as flat while some see him as round. Also Forster’s discussion of characterization in his aspects of the novel is concerned with only the flatness or roundness of the characters. This does not mean that characterization in the aspect of the Igbo novel is an extraction from Forster’s. Rather, characterization existed before the advent of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel and are extensions of the Igbo folktale. Apart from the above two mentioned characterization models by Forster, the Igbo novels manifest other characterization models like stiff, naming, block and others. Observations is also made of the fact that the Igbo novels Omenuko and Ala Bingo were published six years after E.M. Forster’s Aspects of the Novel and this is not enough time for the Igbo artists to make the material useful in their narrative creation. This goes to prove that before discussion of setting and characterization in Forster’s aspects of the novel, Igbo modern novelists have there own setting and characterization in their novels. But this is not to say that Forster’s discussion of setting and characterization in his Aspects of the Novel left no mark on the Igbo novelists/critics on their discussion of setting and characterization. At least, it opened the eyes of literary analysts on how to analyze and criticize literary works.

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References Achara, D.N. (1935), Alabingo. Ibadan: Longman. Achara, D.N. (1952), Elelia na Ihe O Mere. Ibadan: Longman. Akwanya, A.N. (1998), Discourse Analysis and Dramatic Literature. Enugu: Acena publishers. Akwanya, A.N. (1999), Language and Habits of Thought. Enugu: Afro-Orbis Publishers Ltd. Akwanya, A.N. and Anohu, V.A. (2002), 50 years of the Nigerian novel (1952-2001). Nsukka: Fulladu. Bell-Gam, L. (1952), Ije Odumodu Jere. Ibadan: Longman. Boulton, M. (1954), The Anatomy of Prose. London: Rotledge and Kegan Paul. Chinweizu, Onwuchekwa, J and Ihechukwu, M. (1980), Towards the Decolonization of African Literature Vol. 1. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd. Emenanjo, E.N. (1982), Some First Thoughts on Igbo Literature: In F.C. Ogbalu and E.N. Emenanjo, eds. Igbo Language and Culture, 2, 47-64. Emenanjo, E.N. (1995), Towards Understanding Literature: Some notes on Demystifying Literature and Literary Appreciation. A Lead Paper Presented at 2nd Annual NINLAN Workshop/Conference on Teaching Nigerian Languages and Literature in the Nigerian Secondary School System at Army Command Secondary School, Jos. March, 13-15. Emenyonu, E.N. (1978), The rise of the Igbo novel. Ibadan: Oxford University Press. Emenyonu, E.N. (1981), Medium and message in Igbo literary creativity Ahiajoku Lecture Colloquium. Owerri. Emenyonu, E.N. (1991), Techniques and language in Uchenna Ubesie’s fiction. African literature today, 17, 31-36. Forster, E.M. (1927), Aspects of the novel. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd. Huet, P.D. (1670), Traitte de l’origins des Romans. Stephen Lewis Translation (1715). Ikeokwu, E.S. (2005), The relevance of E.M. Forster’s Aspects of the novel. In Trends in the study of languages and linguistics in Nigeria: A Festschrift for Philip Akujuoobi Nwachukwu (pp 238-378). Port Harcourt: Grand Orbit Communications and Emhai Press. Ikeokwu, E.S. (2008). Gender Identity: A Study of selected Comcemporary Igbo Plays, A Ph.D. Dessertation, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Maduekwe, J.C. (1957), Dinta. Ibadan: Oxford University Press. Mbah, B.M. & E.E. Mbah, (2007), Azuonye: Lectures on Igbo literature and stylistics. Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press Ltd. Meyer, J. (1997), Work paper of the Summer Institute of Linguistics. University of North Dakota Session, Vol. 41. 61

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Munonye, J. (1975), Aghiriigha. Ibadan: University Press Company. Ngara, E. (1982), Stylistic criticism and the African novel. London: Heinemann. Nwachukwu-Agbada, J.O.J. (1997), Tradition and innovation in the Igbo novels of Tony Ubesie, Researchers in African literature, 28(1), 124-133. Nwadike, I.U. (1986), Nsiripuru Ukpana okpoko buuru nke T.U. Ubesie Dere: Anu: A magazineSetting and of Characterization Igbo culture. in the 4,89 Igbo -Novel:98. A Reflection of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel Nwadike, I.U. (1992), Ntoala agumagu. Onitsha: Ifunanya Publishers. Nwadike, I.U. (1995), J.U.T. Nzeako as an Igbo novelist. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt. Nwadike, I.U. (1999), Criticism trends in the Igbo fiction: Ihafa: A Journal of African Studies. 3, 49-60. Nwadike, I.U. (2002), The concept of the novel. A Paper Presented at the Valedictory Symposium in honour of Prof. Kay Williamson, University of Port Harcourt. April, 10-11. Nwahunanya, C. (1998), Issues in literary theory, history and criticism. Owerri: Corporate Impressions. Nwanwozuzu, G.I. (2001), Characterisation in Tony Ubesies’s novels: In E.N. Emenanjo, (Ed) Tony Ubesie: The man and the artist (89-106) Owerri: Afrika- link. Nzeako, J.U.T (1981), Juochi. Onitsha: Ukatu Press. Odilora, U. (1974), Okpa aku eri eri. Onitsha: UPC. Ofomata, C.E. (1996), Ihe onye metere. Enugu: Format Publishers (Nig) Ltd. Ofomata, C.E. (1996), Achowa isi ochu. Enugu: Format Publishers (Nig) Ltd. Ofomata, C.E. (1996), Ihe ojoo gbaa afo. Enugu: Format Publishers (Nig) Ltd. Ofomata, C.E. (1996), Onye chi ya akwatughi. Enugu: Format Publishers (Nig) Ltd. Ogbalu, F.C. & Ememnanjo, E.N. (1982), Igbo language and culture. 2. Ibadan: University Press Ltd. Onuigbo, S. (2006), Essays and literary concepts in English. Nsukka: Afro-Orbis Publishing Co. Ltd. Ramsaran, J.A. (1970), New approaches to African literature: A guide to Negro- African writing and related studies. Ibadan: University Press Ltd. Rexroth, K. (2007), The art of literature. Essay from Encyclopedia Britannica. Stephenson, L. (1960), The English novel: A panorama. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Sterne, L. (1979), Tristram Shandy, 6, 70-71. Ubesie, T.U. (1973), Isi akwu dara n’ala. Ibadan: Oxford University Press. Ubesie, T.U. (1973), Ukwa ruo oge ya. Ibadan: Longman. Ubesie, T.U. (1973), Ukpana okpoko buuru. Ibadan: Oxford University Press. Ubesie, T.U. (1973), Juo Obinna: Ibadan: Oxford University Press. Ugonna, N. (1979), A Brief survey of development of the Igbo novel. Nsukka Studies in African literature. 30-47. Uzochukwu, S. (1990), Akanka na nnyocha agumagu Igbo. Onitsha: Kawuriz & manilas Publishers Ltd. Uzochukwu, S. (1996), Culture and change in the Igbo society: The literary dimension. A Lead Presented at 3rd Annual NINLAN Workshop/conference, F.C.E. Kano, April, 15-19.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Uzochukwu, S. (2001), Tony Ubesie and the art of the Igbo novel: Some brief notes. In E.N. Emenanjo, ed. Tony Ubesie: The man and the artist (19-32). Owerri: Afrika-link Books. Waldo, C. (1976), A short history of English literature. Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Wells, G.H. (1948), Heart of the matter. London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Integration of African Tie-Dye, Batik and Non-Fabric Materials into the Teaching and Learning of Quiltmaking

Okpara, Tochukwu Felicia (M.F.A-Textile) Lecturer in Textiles & Fashion Design Dept. of Fine & Applied Arts University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Phone—+234(0)8035770632 Email-([email protected])

Abstract The teaching and learning of all aspects of textile art education and practice must be such that African indigenous textile, ideas, forms and materials should be explored. Textile Art students should be given room to explore local resources available to them in the making of different aspects of textiles in their studio assignment. This will help greatly to, not only promote African textile art forms and ideas globally, but will create identity and pride of place in the global textile and fashion designing competitiveness. In this paper the writer presents with pictorial illustrations, how indigenous African tie-dye, batik and other materials can be used to explore quilt making that already seem to be devoid of African ideas and design concept.

Introduction Quilting according to Mohr (2001), is the sewing together of two layers of fabric with an inner layer of something warm, like wool or foam. It is the oldest craft known to man. Quilting has a long history in itself. Its making, dates as far back as ancient Egypt. According to Mohr, the earliest quilting took place in Egypt around 3400BC. She further explains that during the Crusade, European soldiers came into contact with Arabic soldiers who wore quilted shirts under their armor to make it more comfortable. These soldiers brought this craft back into Europe where it was used for clothing and bedcover. Again, Monroe, (2001) explains that the art of quilt making is a generational art which reflects family histories, mutual supports, wisdom of the aged, family tears and moments of joy. According to her, quilting is a memory- making project which also involves community activities. European settlers brought a rich quilt making tradition to America, while colonialism spread the tradition further to some other parts of the world. Many household properties made numerous references to quilt at this historic period in America and other European colonies. The oldest surviving piece of quilt in existence in America is the saltanstall quilt made in Massachusetts in 1704. Powers (2001), in his article “A Free Slave Tells Stories through Quilting” describes the history of African American woman in quilting during and after slavery period of 63

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American history. According to him, Black women slaves were needed for spinning, weaving, sewing and quilting on plantations and in other wealthy households Regardless of the origin, it was the pioneer women in America whose needles created a way of life that would influence their whole cultural and social structure. No other art was ever so completely dominated by women or brought many of them together for the purpose of fabric art creativity. It is a symbol of love, tradition and home; it is a creative means of paying tribute to traditions of the past, a way of recording fading culturesIntegration for of posterity. African Tie-Dye, It Batiktells a ndthe Non stories-Fabric Materials of the individual quilts, the quilters and their inspirations. Quilts often commemorate significant events, place or person. Some quilts were frequently used as Wedding, Birthday, Christmas gifts and other such events. Quilts are colourful, exquisite, and inventive and are rarely seen by the public. Some are so intricately designed with delicate lacy, floral and silky cut designs. Some feature landscapes, landmarks, modes of transportation and objects of everyday life. Designs often reflect the societal or cultural activities, signs, symbols and motifs that are current at their time of production. Susan (1997) discusses the Baltimore Album Quilt tradition. She is seen by the public. She said that it is the world largest collection of a unique and expertly crafted textile art. In another development, Asper (2005) of the Green Mountain Designs, shares her tips for successful quilt making. Although her article is written especially for the beginners, yet, even more experienced artists can still find the information valuable. She laid emphasis on cutting and sewing straight borders of pieces of cloth in order to achieve straight quilt. This she believes is one of the easiest ways of avoiding problems in quilt making. As a memory making project which finds satisfaction in being a delicate art of fabric manipulations, quilts are all about stories, mutual support, wisdom of the sages, folktales, tears and moments of laughter. According to Breneman (2001) wrote on “Friendship Quilts: Precious Remembrance”, according to her “Friendship quilts bring to mind dear friends and beloved relatives showing their care their care through quilts. These quilts, according to her were given to someone who was moving to distant places, for weddings or birthdays. The myriad of options in quilting always allow the artist to adopt instructions to any situation. With proper choice of patterns and textures, quilts can look equally divine and novel in any traditional, contemporary or eclectic environment. It is capable of adding a deep sense of aesthetic to an otherwise, casual, or just formal setting. Its beauty to any decorative style depends on the patchwork, mix of fabric, colour and design. The African society can be educated to the exquisite artistic workmanship and extensive variety of designs that can make up the beautiful look of quilts by exposing textile students to quilted materials in museum, art exhibitions, craft shows, cable television art shows and also by making them participate in conferences where they could have the opportunity to read papers that deal with the preservation of African heritage. As historical documents, most quilted works are signed by the artist who made them, some with messages to the recipient the same way autographs are signed. Sometimes, the signatures include those who also contributed to the cost of the materials. Techniques that use colorants: For Surface Design of Textiles materials: Colorant: Any material applied to cloth that imparts color to it. Dye: Colorant that chemically bonds with the fibers Pigment: Colorant that adheres to the surface of the fibers

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Painting: Application of a colorant to the surface of a cloth in a non- repetitious manner by means of a brush, sponges, or other instrument. Printing: Application of a colorant to the surface of a cloth to create a repeatable design by means of a prepared surface which is pressed against the cloth. Resist: Any process by which areas of the cloth are protected from the action of dyes. Batik: The application of waxes, pastes, or similar material as a resist in order to created a dyed design. Tie Dye or Shibori: The wrapping or covering of areas of cloth as a resist in order to create a dyed design. Shibori is a type of stitched tie dye as practiced in Japan.

Techniques that Use a Needle and Thread Appliqué: The technique of stitching cut shapes of fabric onto a background fabric. Embroidery: The decorative application of threads to the surface of a textile by means of a needle. Patchwork: Pieces of fabric, usually in different colors and patterns, assembled to create a larger panel. Quilting: Stitching which holds layers of fabric and (usually) an inner layer of padding together. (Note: quilts need not involve patchwork, and patchwork need not be quilted!) Quilting has changed overtime; it is no longer just the art of sewing decorative bed covers from cut-out fabrics either for personal use or for sale. Today, quilting has become a serious form of fabric art, and quilts have not only found their places in museums, galleries and private collections but are studied as an aspect of textile programme in the Department of Fine and Applied Arts, Home Science and Vocational Education in most universities. Quilting now reflects the influence of mathematics, geography, technological innovations and personal aesthetics. At the beginning, only wealthy families could afford the expensive quilted fabrics, but the recent ban on the importation of textile materials in Nigeria has led a few Nigerians to not only develop interest in making felted bed covers and blankets but also in making a variety of utilitarian tufted fabrics such as arm and head-rest for their furniture, traveling bags, table-mat, kitchen hand-gloves, babies accessories and even tufted clothing as fashion designs. It is also uncommon to see quilts made from batik, tie and dye or from numerous Nigerian and indeed African fabrics. The basic difference between African batik or tie-dye and those of the Europe and America are seen through the use of motif and symbols that are indigenous to Africans. The intrinsic linear drawings of the Yoruba batik, the ‘uli’ drawings of the Igbo people which often reflect on their cloth design are examples of such African cultural motif. There is also a deep sense of colour in the African batik ,for instance, the Tiv, Yoruba and Hausa use of indigo (deep blue and purple) on their batik are remarkable, while the bright and deep red colours batik of the Masai of Kenya are also outstanding when compared with those of other continent. The reasons for the dominance of foreign products may not be separated from the fact that quilting has been established with time, as a strong Western 65

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages culture and tradition. The objective of this paper is to identify how African tie dye and batik can be integrated into quilt making in textile studio practice. To identify how other African indigenous raw materials can enhance and extend learning and teaching process in the study of textile and fashion design. How students can use these local resources to memorable and historical art forms. Again this paper hopes to reveal how textile design teachers and their students can participate effectively in propagating the use ofIntegration locally of sourcedAfrican Tie-Dye, materials Batik and Nonin -quiltFabric making.Materials

Methodology:

The first practical stage in every textile work or design is the development of sketches, from thumbnail pencil sketches to colour sketches. The sketches help the artist to observe most mistakes which could have been a problem during the actual execution, by which time it will be too late to correct. The next stage will involve selection of appropriate motif, colour, and fabric. It is at this point that locally sourced materials are considered. The fabric will have to be tie-dye or batik and or other locally sourced materials which could be used as an effective alternative. The artist will then set out to collect pieces of cut-out cloths from tailors and seamstresses and buy the once he or she deemed necessary to make a good design. The artist will then proceed to make her composition bearing the initial design in mind. This composition could take the form of horizontal, vertical or diagonal format. The design could also be in different panels or even in circle format. Creating a visual balance

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics and harmony of colour and form is absolutely necessary at this point so as to avoid making a bad design. A proper management of positive and negative spaces is also important. During the working process, some sketches are transferred directly using pencil or indirectly with the use of stencils on the fabric. The selected cloth can either be plain or patterned fabric. The motifs will then be cut into appliqué ready to be attached to one another according to the originally sketched design. At every point of this working process the artist is conscious of the fact that the basic different between an appliqué and a quilted fabric is the presence of foam or other similar soft materials that is added to sewn fabric to turn it into a quilt. The last stage of this working process involves putting finishing torches to the work. Here, the artist creatively and critically review and analyze the work before attaching other necessary accessories with either thread or gum. Traudt (1998), in another article, “Quilting How To’s”, gave an extensive directions for many different quilting techniques. These includes block piecing, foundation piecing, rotary cutting, speed piecing, appliqué, hand and machine quilting, setting, binding, basting, drafting image transfer, fabric dying and painting. Alword (2003) also wrote on “How to make quilts”, here she first narrated how early European settlers in Kansas brought the art of quilt making to America. Their experiences, according to her, inspired the unique patters made from objects around them, such as log cabins and flower from their garden/ such unique patterns are still present in quilts made in America today.

Local Resources for the Teaching of Textile In Africa, the study of visual art in our educational institutions has for a long time depended on imported equipments, tools and materials for its teaching and practice. We have, for a long time, embraced these imported resources without regard for possible consequences. Today, we have perhaps realised the negative impact it has on our social and cultural life. It has greatly redefined the way in which we view and appreciate African Art. Thus, the need to redefine and restructure our art educational delivery system to facilitate greater understanding, appreciation and interest in tapping local resources that abounds within our environment. The need to create a well designed, supportive art learning environment that depend so much on locally sourced materials has become necessary in order to achieve success in learning in art education. Failing to tap these local resources will be detrimental to the efforts we are making in preserving our rich African cultural heritage. We know that the study of visual art is a practical oriented exercise that depends largely on good knowledge and skills of manipulating materials, tools and equipments in creating a work of art. There will, therefore, certainly be some intrinsic problems, risks and challenges that will face the restructuring. Some examples of locally sourced materials that should be adopted or that are adoptable in the making quilted art forms or textile works in general include some of the following: pieces of cut-out cloths from tie-dye materials, jut bag materials or similar African woven fiber materials, African beads or corrals, woven fiber ropes, cowry shells, traditional African colorants or dye materials etc.

Conclusion and Suggestion Quilts, no doubts, are used for many things besides creating warm and decorative beddings. Clothing’s, wall hangings, pillows, table mats and toys are only 67

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages a few examples in which quilting can be used. Although, the use of quilting, like any other form of art is subject to change over time, the basic principles of making quilts remain the same. Many textile artists and indeed artists generally in Nigeria are yet to come to understanding of the creative potentialities that are possible with quilting. As a result of this problem, this paper is therefore aimed at not only increasing the artist’s interests in learning quilt making in our Art Educational Institutions in Africa but also exploring theIntegration possibilities of African Tie of-Dye, using Batik and localy Non- Fabric sourced Materials materials (African Batik and Tie-Dye) to make fascinating quilted works. Tapping local resources simply refers to sourcing indigenous and alternative materials and tools to facilitate visual art production and instructions, the use of such locally sourced materials should be such that seek to foster development of the desired skills and knowledge of art through practice. The cost of producing these materials or tools should be relatively low. It should be easily produced, replaceable and also durable. It should not differ significantly in quality and reliability from the imported or industrially produced ones. Any art teacher who is really interested in his job should try to explore all possible avenues through which he can make his practical demonstrations interesting to his students. He should go the extra mile in helping his students source these locally made materials where necessary. Since the teaching of visual art does not depend only on theories or spoken instructions, the concept of locally sourced materials and tools should be added to the existing art curriculum so as to facilitate teaching and learning and to finally sustain our art education.

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Integration of African Tie-Dye, Batik and Non-Fabric Materials Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

References Diane Monroe (2001), Making a Cloth Quilt. Retrieved on October 4, 2009, from http://www.geocities.com/authens/delphi/5557/topten.htm Harriet Powers (2001), A Freed Slave Tells Stories Through Quilting: Harriet’s Life and the Making of Her Story Quilts. Retrieved on September 9, 2009 from http://www.womenfolk.com/quilt.htm. Mary Alward (2003) How to Make a Quilt: Informations and Advice you want to know. Retrieved September 9, 2009, from http:///www.id.essortment.com/ howtoquiltmark-rzpj.htm. Mary Asper (2005). The Art of Quilt-Making: Straight Borders make Strate Quilts. Retrieved on September 9, 2009, from http://www.getcreativeshow.com/ crafting-sewing-conference. Nelda Mohr (2001), A Brief History of Quilt Making. Retrieved September 9, 2009, from http://www.answerpoint.org/columns2.asp. Susan Druding (1997), The Batimore Album Quilt Tradition. Retrieved October 4, from http://www.mdhs.org.batimorealbumquilt.htm. Susan Traudt (1998) Quilting How To’s: Directions for many different quilting techniques. Retrieved September 18, 2009 from http://www.womenfolk.com/quilting-history/mourning.htm. Judy Breneman (2001). Friendship Quilts: Precious Remembrance, Retrieved October 4, 2009, from http://www.womenfolk.com/quilting-friendshipquilts.htm.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Functional Bilingual Programme for Literacy and Language Teaching Skills: The Nigerian Primary School Situation

Babarinde, Olusanmi Department of Linguistics, Igbo and Other Nigerian Languages University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Abstract It is an age-long established fact that Nigeria is a multilingual and multicultural society. However, literacy programmes especially in the mother-tongue were frequently hindered by some factors before independence period by the actions of the colonial masters. The foregoing notwithstanding, a positive attitude was shown immediately after independence. Unprecedented interest in the use of the indigenous languages in both speaking and studying overwhelmed the Nigerians. However, this paper acknowledges the presence of illiteracy in the Nigerian educational system. So, it posits that this nagging problem can be solved provided a functional bilingual scheme is adopted to teach the basic language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing especially to the pupils in the primary school. The pedagogy of language skills should rather be based on the bilingual policy which assigns a fundamental role to the mother-tongue of the pupils and a secondary role to English. The mother-tongues will serve as the languages for imparting knowledge throughout prymary school and English will be learnt as subject. Besides, the said language skills should be taught in a manner that the acquired experience in the learning of the mother-tongue will enhance and facilitate the better understanding of the second language.

Introduction The mother tongue plays an important role in moulding the child’s early learning. Language is very closely related to the mind. Psychologically, language is important to man, especially, the mother tongue or the first language. It is the means by which we conceptualize and think, that is, language influences our thought. Language is an immaterial aspect of human culture. It is considered that language is closely related to culture in that it is an expression of the common cultural experience of the members of the linguistic community who speak it. This point underscores the socio-cultural value of language to man. Given the psychological and sociocultural improtance of language to man, it follows that the mother tongue, as the first language acquired by the child to express his innermost thought about himself and about the world around him, will tend to have a certain psychological and sociocultural effect on the child. The use of mother tongue in school in the first year of schooling facilitates continuity in the child’s learning process and therefore maximizes his intellectual development. The reason for this is not far fetched. The situation where a child uses one code (if code is seen as a system employed by someone to express himself) at home – one that he is naturally related to, psychologically and socioculturally – and has to switch on to a foreign language, vehicle of a foreign culture with which he can not express his innermost desires, feelings and thought, socioculturally distant from the child, creates a serious gap between the home and the school. This break between the home and the school may bring feelings of inadequacy and resentment 71

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towards the self, the teacher and the school (Unesco, 1953:18). Learning is not optimally achieved under these conditions and so the child’s learning process is slowed down.

The Significance of Literacy in the Mother-Tongue and Development of Language Literacy is fundamental and basic. Literacy in one’s first language or mother- tongue is so indispensable to the person’s identity and self-esteem. Language plays a crucial role in the nitty-gritty of literacy, because language is the cardinal element and necessary part of the culture of a speech community. In other words, learning the skills of literacy in the first language makes it much easier to acquire speaking and literacy skills in the second language. The concept of Mother Tongue or First Language (L1) according to Afolayan (1988:26) is the only language of a monolingual person which is acquired naturally in his native environment and which meets all his linguistic needs. Sequentially, it is usually the first language of a bi/multilingual person. Generally, one of the tenets of teaching is to start from the simple to the complex, and the known to the unknown. So, for literacy to actually have any significant effect, teaching in the mother-tongue should be the priority. Matshazi’s (1987:231) and UNESCO’s (1988:1) views on the imperative nature of the first literacy lessons can not be underestimated, given the increasing rate of the drop-outs in the primary school education. So, ever before a people can be made literate in their mother-tongue, such a language must be developed. This can be achieved through language engineering. This is the design and implementation of strategies towards the rehabilitation and optimal utilization of individual languages. Ferguson, (1971:465) highlights three stages of language development process: (i) graphization:- this is the reduction of spoken language to writing, or the devising of orthographic symbols to represent the spoken form; (ii) standardization:- codification is an important prerequisite for standardization; (iii) modernization, especially the development of intertranslability with other languages over a wide range of topics extending from literature and humanities to science and technology. According to Karam (1977:177), no individual can be said to be literate in his or her mother-tongue if his language has never been commited to writing, that is graphization process. Besides, people that desire to advance must agitate for linguistic standardization and access technology. However, language development is a project that entails government intervention through language planning. Language planning, according to Weinstein (1980:336) is a government authorized long-term, sustained and conscious effort to alter a language’s function in a society for the purpose of solving communication problems. An important aspect of language planning is orthography design. This can be achieved through codification which is an explicit statement of the code via dictionaries, grammars, spellers, punctuation and pronunciation guides. Orthography is one of the crucial factors in achieving the aims of the national policy on education. Its need is further justified on the grounds of the confusion which has slowed down the production of written materials and made more difficult the teaching of language.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics National Policy on Education and the Language Scheme for Nigerian Primary Education It would seem futile, according to Akindele and Adegbite (1999:106) to talk about education without discussing the tool to it, which is language. Whether formal, non-formal or informal, education is imparted through the medium of language. In the formal educational system school subjects are coded via the means of language. Teachers teach through it, and pupils learn through it. Actually, language does not just serve as a medium of instruction in the school system, it also exists as a subject also taught through language. The discussion on language policy and education looks at the implication of the policy for different levels of education in Nigeria. It is crystal clear in the National Policy on Education that the government will see to it that the medium of instruction in the primary school is initially the mother- tongue or the language of the immediate community and, at a later stage, English (NPE 5. 4). Considering the centrality of language in the educational process and its importance in the preservation of culture, the government considers it to be in the best interest of national oneness that each child should learn one major Nigerian language other than his mother-tongue. However, this staement is more of a paperwork. For one, it does not specify when in the educational system the child should learn this majour language. Besides, the mother tongue should serve as the medium of instruction in pre-primary education; no other language is assigned any role at this level, but in the section 3 sub-section 15 both the mother tongue and English are recognized and assigned roles as media of instruction and subject in primary education. And this belief is aptly captured by Asyeliman (1991:9-10) while analysing the Minister of Education’s comment. According to Asyeliman, despite the fact that the mother tongue policy had been in the Nigeria’s statute since 1925, highlighted in 1977 and revised in 1981, it was never properly implemented over the years. What is stated in the National Policy on Education is different from what operates in reality, in which English is used as the medium of instruction. And the government finds it difficult to control the language of instruction at this level since the pre-primary schools are privately owned. The Nigerian educational system has not been functional because the programme adopted has not in any way aided the promotion of the language achievement considered necessary for efficient and pragmatic education. There are shortcomings in the programme. These loopholes have negative effects on the overall result of the educational system. A lot of these lapses are at the stages of policy formulation, implementation and evaluation. Six years are insufficient for pupils to acquire the basic skills of all languages learnt by them. And with the abrupt switching over from mother tongue to English, the pupils do not master the necessary skills in any of the languages properly. The government can remedy this situation by encouraging an efficient bilingual programme that will make almost all the skills in L1 and L2 languages efficiently mastered in the primary school. Besides, the English skills of the pupils will be improved at this level given the inclusion of the use of English as a subject in secondary education apart from being a medium of instruction. It is thus desirable that the policy should state clearly that education is both compulsory and free for pupils, at least, up to the Junior Secondary School if better results of efficient mastery and application of language skills are to be achieved. Some of the problems militating against its implementation is orthography, among others. 73

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To achieve these objectives, government will (i) develop the orthography of many more Nigerian languages; and (ii) produce textbooks in Nigerian languages. Nigeria is a classical multilingual society in which minority languages, which are very many in number, live cheek by jowl with major languages which, at a micro-level, are only three in number or, at a macro level, are nine or twelve in number. Nigeria has an explicit national policy for language in education, but none for languages in the overall polity. Given the crucial role of the English language in Nigeria, a greater attention is now paid to it than other Nigerian languages in such a way that it assumes the role of a second language (L2) after the mother tongue (L1) of individual speakers. About one-quarter or less of the Nigerian populace have communicative competence English. Yet it has been the desire of each Nigerian to acquire the language in order to align with the mainstream of the country’s political and socio-economic system. Bilingualism is a national issue of communication in Nigeria. Hence, an average Nigerian is essentially a bi-lingual person who converses in both his mother tongue primarily and the English language secondarily. The Federal Government of Nigeria recognizes the feature of bilingualism as fundamental to effective education of its citizenry and it thus embarks on a bilingual programme in the country’s education system.

An Efficient Bilingual Programme for Primary Education The suggestion of an efficient bilingual programme does not seek an alternative programme to the one mentioned above. Instead, it seeks to renew the existing programme to make it more capable of providing effective language mastery and functional education for pupils. Since the educational programme must hinge on a good primary education programme, the suggestion of bilingualism in education here will concern mainly primary education. Further still, it will pertain to the suggestion of principles and procedures for teaching language skills. Generally, an effective programme of language in education in a multilingual society like Nigeria should be founded on three major principles. According to Afolayan (1988:26), these three principles are: (a) the promotion of an efficient bilingualism-biculturalism. (b) The assignment of complementary roles to indigeneous languages and English (c) The primacy of the mother tongue. In Nigeria, the educational system aims at developing a pupil who will be able to use his mother tongue, and an official language. The essence is to enable him to understand ideas from people and express ideas both locally and internationally. Also, by learning two or more languages, the learner will be naturally exposed to different cultures. Thus, his horizon will widen beyond the confines of his native culture. An efficient bilingual should have adequate mastery of his L1 and L2 and also possesses the ability to alternate them as situation demands. On the assignment of complementary roles to languages, the L1 and English have different roles to play in the educational system. The L1 enhances the proper understanding of the contents of subjects taught at school and his culture, while English serves the roles of modernization and wider communication. Any other local

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics language learnt serves for social integration and promotion of unity among members in the multicultural society. The primacy of the mother tongue suggests the primary importance of the L1 over all other languages. The mother tongue is the most useful language to a child in the formative stage of his life. According to Fafunwa (1982:295), it is as natural to him as mother’s milk. It is also a means by which his attitudes and aptitudes are best developed. The child should thus be encouraged in his twelve years in life to master his mother tongue for the positive development of his physical, mental and intellectual potentials. The implication of the above fact is that apart from being a subject like English, the mother tongue should be the medium of instruction throughout this level. Experiments have shown that the pupils will learn and comprehend their subjects better in their mother tongues, especially if they are allowed to mature in it (Afolayan, 1976:135-153; 1979; Omojuwa, 1976:34-47). Efficiency in L1 skills always leaves a lasting impression on his communicative ability of an individual, an impression that will make him seek to develop himself communicatively as well as identify himself with his native enviroment. Such an impression might even motivate him to learn more languages and understand more about the world around him.

Teaching Language Skills in a Bilingual Programme The four basic skills of language, viz, listening, speaking, reading and writing, normally interact with one another in an efficient teaching programme. Whether they selectively combine an oral-aural, literacy, productive or receptive skills carried out by scholars have shown that the prior acquisition of some skills in both the L1 and L2 facilitates the acquisition of some other skills in the L2 (Cummins, 1979:222-251; Pialoris, 1974). Just recently, Royer and Carlo (1991:450-454) have observed from their experiment that: (i) reading skills in L1 do transfer to reading skills in L2 as the second language develops, and (ii) listening skills in L2 also transfer to reading in that language. This shows that language skills in L1 and L2 can be properly developed if adequate measures are taken in teaching them to learners. In considering he proper teaching of language skills to bilingual children, the discussion of Omojuwa (1985:34-47) on a sequential approach to the teaching of reading skills in two languages apparently supports the primary role of L1 in a bilingual teaching programme. Omojuwa (1985:34-47) opines that the sequential teaching should be such that reading in L1 comes first and reading in L2 later. She then highlights the sequences in which 7 progressive stages of reading are introduced in the reading programme. In the programme, the first five progressive stages of L1 reading are introduced in primary one and the remaining two in primary two. In contrast, only the first stage of L2 reading is introduced in the second term of primary one while the last four stages are introduced in primary two; stages two and three are not introduced here because they are already covered by L1 reading instruction. The programme stages listed are as follows: Stage 1: oral preparation 2: general pre-reading activities 3: pre-reading activities (for specific script) 4: reading through interest 75

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5: learning the basic patterns in the first reader 6: introduction to reading from the first reader and preparing for the 2nd reader 7: continuing reading the first reader and preparing for the second reader. Although the presentation above illustrates a bilingual teaching approach, it needs to be integrated onto the wider language skills development programme.

Factors for Language Skills Development and Maintenance The bilingual programme suggested above appears to have an inbuilt mechanism for efficient language learning and development. But to keep the mechanism functioning, certain factors in the totallanguage planning process need to be considered and put in shape. First is the people’s desire for successful language and educational development. If the country wants people to be literate in the nearest future, the people have to be motivated to work for it. The government’s dedication and sincerity of purpose should not be in doubt while the co-operation and support of the people should be guaranteed. At the policy formulation stage, government should disengage its interest in pre-primary education and let parents raise their children as they wish before they get to the primary school. Education should normally begin in the primary school. So, the language policy statement in NPE section 3 above should be amended to make the L1 the medium of instruction throughout primary education and also to make it a subject in the curricullum alongside English and other Nigerian languages. At the developmental stage of the planning programme, the provision of qualified teachers, adequate materials, equipment and essential infrastructures is necessary. The training of teachers should be geared toward adequate mastery of the content subjects, knowledge of teaching methods and techniques and competence in language skills and communication effectiveness. Government should guide and streamline the production of essential textbooks for learners. The textbooks must be assessed for their content, language, and aesthetic quality and they should be made accessible and affordable to pupils. Well-equiped libraries and laboratories must be provided to ensure the success of the programme. Lastly, although one cannot suggest an evluation and renewal of a programme that is yet to be in force, it is proper to keep in view the need to constantly evaluate and renew language programmes in the light of their contributions to educational development and communication success.

Conclusion It is apparent that the problem of illiteracy can not be tracked and solved in isolation since it exists in the content of other problems of language skills development vis-a-vis educational development. Hence, if literacy development is to be embarked upon, it has to be in the center of the wider problems mentioned above.This is why the discussion in this paper has appraised the current language programme in primary education in Nigeria, identified some of the lapses and suggested the need for an efficient bilingual programme for teaching language skills to pupils.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics References Afolayan, .A (1976). ‘The six year primary project in Nigeria’ In A. Bamgbose (ed.) Mother Tongue Education: The West African Experience. London: Hodder & Unesco.(PG. 135-153). Afolayan, .A (1977). “The New Language Policy Effective Instruction in Schools Language Education in Nigeria. Vol.1 Afolayan .A (1979). “A Current Evolution of the Six-Year Primary Project. Education Unseco. Afolayan, .A (1988). ‘Editoral’ Journal of English as a Second Language.OAU press: Ile-Ife. Akindele, F. And Adegbite, W. (1999). The Sociology and Politics of English in Nigeria: An Introduction. Ile-Ife. Obafemi Awolowo University Press. Asyeliman, S. E. (1991). ‘Mother-Tongue Aids Literacy’ In National Concord. Nigeria. 25th July, 1991. pp 9-10. Brann, C. M. B (1977). “The Role of Language in Nigeria Education Policy” The Nigerian Language Leader. Vol. 1. No 2. pp. 78-84. Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic Interdependence and Educational Development of Bilingual Children. Review of Educational Research. Vol.49. pp 222-251. Dulay, H., Burt, M. and Krashen, S. (1982). Language Two. Oxford: Oxford University press. Fafunwa, A. B. (1982). ‘An Integrated Primary School Curriculum Scheme in Nigeria: A Six-Year Project’ In A. Afolayan (ed.) Yoruba Language and Literature. Ile- Ife. University of Ife press. Pp.295. Ferguson, C. A (1971). Language Structure and Language Use. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Karan, F.A (1977). ‘Literacy and Development’ In J. D. Gordman (ed.) Language and Literacy: Current Issues and Research . Iran: International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods. Magret, G. (ed.) (1987). ‘Mother-Tongue Literacy: The Bridge to Learning’ In Literacy in Industrialized Countries: A Focus on Practice. Toronto. International Council for Adult Education. International Seminar. Pp 73-74 Omojuwa, J. O. (1985). ‘Introduction to Literacy Skills in Two Languages: A Sequential Approach’ In S. O. Unoh, R. A. Omojuwa and N. R. Ikonta (eds.) Literacy and Reading in Nigeria. Vol. 2. Pp 34-47. Pialorsi, F. (ed.) (1974). Teaching the Bilingual. Arizona: The University of Arizona Press. Royer, J. M and Carlo, M. S.(1991). ‘Transfer of Comprehension Skills from Native to Second Language’ Journal of Reading. Vol. 34. No. 6. pp 450-454. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1979. Section 51. Unesco (1988). Choice of Language for Literacy. Paris. Pp 1-2. Weinstein, B. (Ed.) (1980). Language Planning in Francophone Africa In Langage Problemlem and Language Planning. Vol.4 (1). Pp.336.

Stemming LearningIgbo Culinary Difficulties Field and among the Structure Alternate of Learners Metaphor of Nigerian Languages

Igbo Culinary Field and the Structure of Metaphor

Amechi B. Oha Federal College of Education Obudu Cross River State [email protected]

Abstract In this study the notion of metaphor is studied through the interaction of two unrelated conceptual fields in Igbo: the semantic field of cooking and that of the general life. The semantic field of cooking which constitute the donor field is extended to semantic field of general life, following Kittay and Lehrer (1981).The outcome is that the more remote a lexical item is from its extended field the more striking the metaphor is to the language. The implications of this to Igbo lexicon are discussed in the light of the generative capacity of the language.

Introduction: Lehrer (1969) first suggested a certain semantic relation between culinary field and other fields (then the field of emotion and torture) without giving its name. Semantic field as a semantic concept seeks to organize linguistic expressions into a structured experience. By this, events are hierarchically organized into their related conceptual domains through which their expressions are derived. In such conception the meaning of a word is determined in part by other related words available in the lexicon. Such related words are said to constitute a semantic field. Words that belong to the same semantic field bear certain specifiable semantic relation to one another. For example the words ńri1-food constitute a semantic field whose lexical field will include jí, édè, ḿmirí, ùne, òsikápa, ḿmanụ́ , ákwụkwọ nrí . One food can substitute for the other, thus the relationship is paradigmatic. A related concept to this is collocation. Words in the same semantic domain adopt certain linearly acceptable order to collocate. Thus, such other words that cannot linearly occur with them are barred by collocational restriction. For instance one can use rí ‘eat’ for jí’yam’ in the following:

Ó rìri jí- “ 3s2 eat pst yam “He ate yam” But such word cannot be used with the lexeme moto in, Ó rìri mótò – 3s eat pst moto “He ate a vehicle”

This sentence is ruled out by the collocation restriction holding between rí and mótò but the same rí can go with jí because they collocate. This form of semantic relation is called syntagmatic relation. These are ideal language use. But experiences from various languages of the world usually reveal the idiosyncratic and indeterminate way lexeme uses are often not streamlined to particular conceptual domain. This has often led to the argument of the adherents of the Antilinguistic school who claims that there is no systematic basis to language organization (Gethan, 1990). One strong pointer to this indeterminacy and vitiation of the semantic field theory is metaphor as was expounded by Kittay and Lehrer (1981). In their explication, in metaphor the lexical items from one semantic field (the donor field) are transferred to another semantic field (the

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics recipient field) and the structure the first field (the donor field) provides the structure or reorganizes some previous structure of the second field (the recipient field).

Interactions of Semantic Field and Metaphor In semantic field, lexical item are interdependent, the value and function of each being determined by their relations to other elements within the system. Thus the Saussurean dictum is that in the relational structure of language everything hangs with everything else. This means that a linguistic unit does not exist and have value on its own. The value of any unit becomes only significant by the nature of its relationship with others. Such relationship can be in similarity or in opposition. There are two ways of determining these relationships: syntagmatic and pragmatic. In the syntagmatic choice, the relationship is in linear order, e.g jí-rí; *mótò-rí are not in a well-formed liear order. In the paradigmatic choice such relationship is in terms of alternatives, for example you can choose between jí and édè. An ordinary (dictionary) definition of metaphor is that of the use of a phrase which describes one thing by stating another thing with which it can be compared without using the comparative word: as or like (Procter, 1978). This definition is more substantiated by Kittay and Lehrer’s (1978) reference to the interactional theory of metaphor, which states that in metaphor two conceptually incongruous domains are brought together into contact in a manner specifiable through the use of the linguistic notion of a semantic field. Thus in such interaction the semantically specified arrangement and use of words as ascribed by the semantic notion of semantic field is violated. Kittay and Lehrer (1989) recalls the Shakespearean metaphor where the set of words related to the theatre constitute the donor field while those semantically related to life constitute the recipient field in such sentence as “life is a stage” The terms ‘stage’ and ‘life’ each belongs to a given semantic field. While stage belongs to the theatre, life belongs to the general human affairs. The significance of the resulting metaphor comes from the interaction of the context with the particular semantic field operative in the metaphor. In this, study we extend the notion of metaphor to the semantic field of Igbo cooking terms. In particular we want to find out how cooking term as a donor field, in transferring its semantic field, structures other semantic fields which constitute the recipient fields. Kittay and Lehrer (1981) has objected to the analysis of isolated entities such a words, phrases and sentences and metaphor, in that such entities are only metaphorical in the context of use. They then seek for analysis covering conceptual domains of two semantic fields which allow for more conceptual incongruities to emerge, thus our attempt at looking at a conceptual field of cooking in Igbo as a donor source of metaphor to other areas of life follows the same pattern.

Cooking Terms in Igbo Cooking here is taken as the acting on a substance causing a change in its state and keeping it ready for eating. The cooking terms we want to concentrate on in this study are those of verbs because, as Kittay and Lehrer (1981) state, all other categories; nominal, adjectival and adverbial - bear the semantic relations of either syntagm or paradigm to the verb which dominate in the field. Oha (1998) in a study of the semantic field of verbs of cooking and the lexical fields they pattern into, discovered that within the large semantic space of cooking sí there is a set of lexical items that, as Anyanwu and lIoene (2004) put it, “mutually delimit each other within this semantic space” forming a hyponymy relationship. Members of this set selects specific food items with which they co-occur. Whereas sí “cook” is neutral and can co-occur with virtually all food items, verbs such as ghé ‘fry’ is specified in its selection of food, so are others listed below:

Igbo Culinary Field and the Structure of Metaphor Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

dè soak rù soak to soft rụ́ roast by burying in hot ash rù roast to soften gwọ́ turn inside thickened liquid mixture hụ́ roast bío stir (especially yam) to mix (usually) with vegetable gwé grind into fine texture kwọ́ grind to pulp sụ́ pound to pulp sú crush dryly té blend in boiling dá causterize dá warm síkwa recook gbò congeal in hot water mị́dry gbá place under the sun ṅá warm as to excite kpọ́ burn

For cooking type that involves some longer process in addition to the normal cooking, for added effects, the followong are identfied: gbázè thaw sićhu parbo il dátu causterize/warm to a point sídè cook to soften síta cook dry sícha cook to redden Such verbs have the morphological features of being compounds to contain the semantic load of the extra information being conveyed. Another discovery of the study is that cooking verbs in Igbo involves stages that can be delineated as pre-boil, boil and post-boil. Certain Food preparation may be accomplished at the first or second stage of the process while others may go through the three stages. The preceding or one stage may provide basis for the next stage. Depending on the type of preparation, yam for example, may be ready by a boiling process. It may also require a post boiling process like bío-“stir (especially yam mixed with vegetable)”. Also highlighted in the study is that cooking process in Igbo food preparation can be classified into sub groups of fields in terms of properties that define them with each lexical member a hyponym of the other but closely related in terms of their acting agents.

Igbo Cooking Terms and Metaphor In this section the effect of transfer of the lexical field of verbs of cooking to other semantic field is explored in terms of the structure it imposes. We first of all make out the metaphors derivable from the cooking verbs and try to figure out into what recipient field they pattern:

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Health rú àhụ́ nwátà áhụ̀ rùru erú body child that inflame The child’s body is inflamed (extreme inflammation of the body)

Manipulation of Justice bío Ị̀ hụkwara ka ó sì ná-̀ebio ókwu ahụ̀- 2s see emph that 3s take PROG. stir talk that Did you see how he was turning the case? gwọ́ Ọ́ gwọ̀ rọ yá bụ ókwu kà ó sìri másị yá 3s stirrV that be talk that 3s take suit 3sobj. He turned the case the way he liked

Mysticism gwọ́ Ị́ gwọ̀ rọ ụ́ kwụ gị́ agwọ 2s stirrV feet 2sposs.stir You stirred your feet well sí Díbị̀a siri ya n’ọ́ kụ herbalist cookrV 3sobj.PREP.fire The herbalist fortified him strongly

Accident gwé Ị̀ hụ̀ rụ ka ụ́ gbọ ahụ́ sìri gwérìé ndị ḿmadụ̀ 2s seerV that vehicle that take grindPST COMPL.people PL. Did you see how the vehicle ground the people (in an accident)? kwọ́ Ị̀ hụrụ ka ụ́ gbọ ahụ sìri kwọ́ rìé ndị ḿmadụ̀ 2s seerV that vehicle that take crush pst comp. people PL.? Did you see how the vehicle completely crushed the people?

Torture ghé Ó ghère nwátà áhụ̀ n’ọ́ kụ 3s fryrV child that PREP.fire He fried the child (extent of torture) sụ́ mirí sụ̀ rụ ànyị́ akwụ water peltrV 1pl.palm kernel rain beat us silly dà Yá dàtụ́ kwanụ gị́ kà Ị́ hu kà ó nà-adị́ 3sobj. causterize 2sobj. That 2s see that 3s PROG. Be Let him suffer you for a while so that you can see how it pains bà Ọ́ báchàpụrụ ahụ́ yá niile 3s peelrV exitrV body 3sobj.all He peeled off all his skin 81

Stemming IgboLearning Culinary Difficulties Field and among the Structure Alternate of Metaphor Learners of Nigerian Languages

mị́ Ọ́ mị̀rị ya n’ọ́ kụ 3s dryrV 3sobj.PREP.fire He dried him

Brewing té Ị̀ hụrụ ófe o tère ná mmanya ahụ̀ 2s seerV soup 3s blend pst? Did you see the soup he prepared in that palm wine?

Emotional anger gbọ́ Óbì na-agbọ́ yá ụfụ n’íhì íhe ọ́ gwàra ya heart PROG.boil 3sobj. PREP.because thing 3s tell pst 3sobj. He is boiling because of what he told him

Mating - sí Óke ọ́ kụkọ̀ à ka ḿ hụ̀ rụ sírí nnekwu ọ́ kụkọ̀ áhụ̀ Male fowl this that 1s seerV cook female fowl that It is this cock that I saw mate that hen

An analysis of the various metaphors associated with the verbs of cooking in Igbo reveals that the recipient fields are the following: Health, Manipulation of Justice, Accident, Mysticism, Torture, Emotional anger, Brewing, Mating.

Analysis of Data Totally agreeing with Kittay and Lehrer’s (1974) that the analysis of field and metaphor on a whole discourse such as poems and passages are more revealing, we nevertheless try to restrict metaphor analysis to the sentences level, because of our reliance on our data obtained from earlier study (Oha,1998). The recipient fields identified from the data are discussed in terms of the structure of the metaphors.This is realized by the lexical items involved. Three conceptual domains in the field of cooking can be delineated, with the highest one being verbs of food preparation, others are state (temperature of the food) and the nature (taste) of the food. We, however, concentrate on the verbs of food preparation in this study.

1.Health The cooking verb transferred to health is ru “soften”. It occurs as metaphor in such expression as Ahụ́ nwatà ́á́hụ ruru eru Body child that soften The child’s body is excessively inflamed

The donor field rù, as a cooking verb, denotes softening of a fruit either in hot water or in hot ash to be ready for serving. Such fruits prepared in this way are pears, palm fruits etc. The structure of rù has been donated to the field of health, reordering the conceptual field of health. Normally the theme in the donor field, the fruit, will in the course of preparation become hot and soft. This image is brought upon the theme in the recipient field - the sick child - whose body has, by the fever, become hot and therefore inflamed, hence can be likened to the softened pear. Recall that as

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics observed by Kittay and Lehrer (1981) on the frequently occurring conceptual incongruity that when two conceptual fields are brought together in metaphor the structure of the semantic relation of the first field reorganises some previous structure of the second field. This is fully played out in this relation as the heating and softening of the pear in the donor field requires a locative - the hearth. On the other hand however, in the recipient field such locative is not available. That is why Kittay and Lehrer (1981) conclude In some cases of metaphor there are no recognized similarities between two words and the semantic field to which they belong, although once the metaphor is made, we rethink our understanding of the words and their fields so as to find similarities which make our mental move from one field to another less battling, less abrupt. When the cooking word rù is applied to sickness, or body inflammation we think less of the fact that the body has not been buried in ash or in hot water because of the common semantic feature of HEAT.

2 Manipulation of Justice All the verbs occurring in this domain have the feature of denoting the “stiring” of cooked solids in mashed vegetables and oil or sauce. They are bío and gwọ́. For certain Igbo culture areas, the verbs are synonymous, meaning “stiring” the cooked solid in mashed vegetable, oil or sauce. However, in other culture areas such as Mgbidi, a member of the Ọgwụ Waawa MD5 cluster (Ikekeonwu, 1986), the constituents discriminate each of the verbs from the other. Bió is used for cooked solid mixed in mashed vegetable, example, ‘bió jí’ can only be understood to mean “mix cooked yams in a mashed vegetable with oil”. However, for any other form of thickened liquid the verb to use is gwọ́. For instance, cassava flakes ‘àbacha’ is mixed in a sauce, and is therefore described as gwọ́ àbacha’ If the same yam as above is mixed in oil, gwọ́ is aptly used to describe the process. ‘gwọ́ okwú’ conveys an image of a seemingly straightforward statement that has been diluted or twisted. Some elements have intervened in the matter that has affected its straightforwardness. So, from the donor field we have the ‘yam’ and the “mashed vegetable” as the theme and the location respectively corresponding to the ‘statement’ and then the ‘twisting’ of such statement.

3 Accident The verbs occurring in this field of metaphor are kwọ́ and gwé. Kwọ́ denotes food preparation method involving the grinding of substance into paste, as in:

ị́kwọ́ tòmátò “tomatoes grinding” ị́kwọ́ osè “pepper grinding”

The term cannot be used for grinding dryly substance to powdery form. In such situation gwé is employed as in:

gwé osè ọ́ kpọọ́ “grind dried pepper” gwé anwụ́rụ̀ “grind snuff”

This image of grinding is donated to the recipient field to conjure the intensity of destruction resulting from accident, such as in an automobile accident as in:

Mótò kwọ́ rìri ńdị ḿmadụ̀ A vehicle (involved in an accident) ground the people 83

Igbo Culinary Field and the Structure of Metaphor Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

Ụ́gbọ òlokó gwérìri éwu ahụ̀ The train ground the goat.

4 Mysticism The verbs occurring in the field of mysticism as metaphor are Sí Gwọ́ ‘Sí’ is the super ordinate lexeme in the field of cooking because every other cooking term describes cooking. So often, it is used to refer to other cooking verbs. For instance somebody engaged in ị́gwọ́ àbacha “mixing cassava flakes in the sauce”, may reply to a call by saying:

Án àm esí nrí I am cooking.

However its special use in this regard cannot be extended to other specialized cooking terms except in cooking type involving Gwọ́. The two terms are used to convey the image of some mystical preparation of the self, hence such expressions as:

Ị́ gwọ̀ rọ ụ́ kwụ gí agwọ You have firmly stirred your legs

This expression is used in inviting a visitor to the table as he has just come at the right moment the food is served. The second verb in this category is

Ó sìri nwá yá ahụ̀ esí He cooked that his son thoroughly.

This expression illustrates the magical power acquired by the son through series of initiation. This compares with Lehrer’s (1969) finding that ‘cook’ which is the superordinate lexeme also features as a hyponym in certain cases of food preparation.

5 Torture The field of torture receives the highest number of donors from other fields in Igbo metaphor with five verbs:

Ghé ‘fry’

Ó ghère nwá ahụ̀ eghé He fried the child (that is he subjected the child to agony)

Mị́ ‘dry’ Ọ́ mị̀rị ńnwa ahụ̀ amị́ He dried the child (referring lack of care)

Bá ‘peel’

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Ọ́ bàchara ńnwa ahụ̀ He peeled the child (he skinned the child by beating or whipping)

Dàtụ̀ – ‘causterize’

Ọ́ dàtụrụ yá ọkụ́ He sparked him a little (the agent has dealt with him)

Sụ́ – ‘pound’

Ọ́ sụ̀ rụ ya ákwụ He mashed him with blows.

A consideration of the various verbs used as metaphor of torture shows that they are hyponymous of torture. They represent the various grades of torture as none is synonymous with the other. Lehrer (1969) explains this high rate of occurrence on the high occurrence of and diverse form of violence in the world which find expression in those fields.

6 Emotion The emotional field identified with the verb of metaphor is that of state of anger represented in gbọ́ “boil”. Just as liquid heats up and starts boiling, anger is seen as following the same pattern. Thus a challenger may say:

Ị̀ ̀ ga- agbọ́ nyụ ọkụ́? Will you boil over to extinguish the fire

7 Brewing The Indo-European nations regard brewed item as food, hence brewing as food preparation term. Igbo distinguish between food and wine, hence the phrase òríri nà ọ́ ̀ṅụ́ ṅụ ‘eating and drinking’ are separated in the feasting discourse. The conceptual field of cooking is therefore transferred to aspect of brewing; that is in brewing palm wine as in,

Ó tère ḿmanya “He brewed palm wine”

Ó tère ófe na mmanya à “He cooked soup in this wine”

Soup is a special sauce preparation done with a lot of ingredients that give it a special taste. This field of soup making is transferred to the conceptual field of brewing to convey an image of the special attention to perfection given in the brewing of palm wine.

8 Mating This is a term restricted to the sexual union and reproduction in animals. The semantic field of cooking is also donated to the lexical field of sex. This semantic field is si ‘cook’. In Igbo, the conventional term denoting sexual intercourse in human beings is not the same as that for other lesser animals; rather there are hyponyms for each hierarchy of animals. For example

Igbo Culinary Field and the Structure of Metaphor Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

sexual union within other lower mammals is described as Ị́gbà ókè, meaning copulating. For birds the verb sí “cook” is used as in:

Ọ́ bụ̀ óke ọ́ kụ́ kọ à siri ńnekwu ọ́ kụkọ̀ ḿ- “It is this cock that mated my hen” 3sg be male fowl this cook female fowl my We have earlier noted Lehrer’s (1969) finding that ‘cook’ which is the superordinate lexeme also features as a hyponym in certain cases of food preparation. Sí “Cook” and sí “mate” can both be analyzed as containing the semantic feature (PREPARE). While sí ‘cook’ prepares for eating sí ‘mate’ prepares for reproduction.

Conclusion In this study the relationships between two fields in metaphor – the donor field and the recipient field have been explored. There exist some semantic features common to both fields which sometime include some “pre-established bridges in the form of recognized similarities among terms from both fields” (Kittay and Lehrer, 1981). In the field of health for example, the image of heat and softness conveyed by rù in the softening of pears conjures well the physical state brought about in the child by the fever. This pattern is played out in all other domains examined in this study. They bear out our hypothesis drawn in the beginning of this paper that in metaphor, the lexical items from one semantic field are transferred to another semantic field and that the structure of the donor field provides structures for the recipient field. Language is full of devices for extending the uses and bounds of the closed set of inventory of the lexicon in a regenerative ways that make it possible to express even the most novel thought in a language. Without such strategizing mechanics as this, language will be a mechanical and artificial thing to be exhausted. The bringing of two semantic fields as noted by Kittay and Lehrer (1981) even in the most transient metaphor, makes us realize new connection, and allows (us) to create new unities which will form the basis of future thoughts

Notes 1 Tone Pattern: Nwachukwu’s tone marking system is used in this paper. Three tone patterns are used but concretely two tone symbols manifest: (I) high tone indicated by a slanting stroke leaning to the right as on the vowel inside the stroke /ó/; (ii) low tone indicated by slanting stroke to the left as on the vowel inside the stroke /ò/. (iii) For down-step the same high tone indicator is used. Thus only the first tone of a sequence of syllables on the same pitch is marked until a change in pitch. In the case of a change in pitch from high that is not low, another high tone indicator is used to signal downstep.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics References Anyanwu, O. and Iloene, M. I. (2004) “Verbs of Planting & Harvesting in Igbo: The Ngwa & Obimo Dialects Example”. In Ndimele O-m (ed) Language and Culture In Nigeria: A festschrift for Okon Essien. Aba: National Institute for Nigerian Languages P. 815 – 821. Gethin, A. (1990) Antilinguistics: A critical Assessment of Modern Linguistic Theory and Practice. Oxford: Intellect. Ikekeonwu, C. I. (1986) “A Lexico-phonotactic Study of Northern Igbo Dialects” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Kittay, E and Lehrer, A. (1981) “Semantic Field and the Structure of Metaphor” Studies in Language 5.1.31-63. Lehrer, A. (1969) “Semantic Cuisine” Journal of Linguistics 5. 39-55. Procter, P. (1978) Longman Dictionary of contemporary English. Burnt Mill: Longman Group Oha, A. B. (1998) “Igbo culinary field: A framework for the study of meaning” A paper presented at the 16th conference of the Linguistic Association of Nigeria, 7th -10th December 1998 at NINLAN, Aba Imo State.

Say What You Mean and Mean What You Say Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

Say What You Mean and Mean What You Say: The Use of the English Language in Advertisement Texts and Perception by Young Igbos in Nigeria

Ngozi Lillian Nwodo The Use of English Unit/Department of English School of General Studies University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus. [email protected]

and Gabriella Ihuaru Nwaozuzu Department of Linguistics, Igbo and Other Nigerian Languages University of Nigeria , Nsukka , Nigeria. [email protected]

Abstract The communicative linguistic function of advertisements is to persuade and/or inform but whether this objective is achieved is uncertain. This issue is particularly pertinent in the case of advertisement texts written in the second language of readers. This paper examines the perception of the information carried by billboard advertisement texts from the stance of 15 – 24 year old Igbo speakers who are also second language users of English. The paper uses a socio-psycholinguistic perspective to identify the manner in which the linguistic structures of billboard texts interact with certain variables to influence positive or negative perception of the information carried. The nature of the responses will not only indicate perceptions of advertisement linguistic structures, but also indentify collective social attitudes towards subject maters that are perceived positively or negatively. This in turn will indicate the way forward for structuring of linguistic messages, if they are to be understood as intended, for positive information dissemination on issues which affect this age group.

1. Introduction Advertisements invoke highly emotional responses from the reader. However, these reactions are often not directed to the products/services advertised, but rather to the manner in which the products/services are advertised. Advertisements awaken reactions to issues of self-concept, gender awareness/sensitivity, ethical values, racial identity and cultural heritage. The manner used in advertising a product/service centres on two focal elements – the linguistic and the visual components. A notable advertisement which produced wide-spread public reaction includes one by a major player in the Global Satellite Mobile (GSM) operation in Nigeria, the Mobile Telecommunications Network (MTN).In October 2004, MTN unveiled their “Life is Beautiful” Promo. The reaction was electric. The TV Promo was breathtakingly world class. The MTN billboard advertisement campaign, which ran alongside this TV Promo, portrayed a rural grandmother’s ecstatic reaction in dance to the birth of her grandson – “Na Boy”. The entire village joins her to celebrate the birth. This advertisement produced uproar from women activitists and gender sensitive individuals who felt the advertisement perpetuated discriminatory attitudes against the girl-child by reinforcing male-child preference (See Babington- Ashaye, 2004; Kolawole, 2004).The“Na Boy” advertisement has since been discontinued. Presently, the Ignis electrical products billboard campaign portrays

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics visible sexual innuendos through both the linguistic and visual components. The relationship between the qualities of the products and the products themselves are equated to wives and extra marital relationships. The slogans reads: IGNIS: The smart wife’s first affair and Let’s teach your wife a few tricks. IGNIS. For great value (IGNIS: refrigerator, cooker, freezer and washer). This campaign is still being run. Although, the visual components of such advertisements contribute to public reaction, it is the linguistic component of the advertisements, which contextualises the visual aspects (Barthes, 1977). Why is it that these innocuous products/services are interpreted as being associated with concepts of sexism and/or ethical and cultural orientation or disorientation? The answer appears to be twofold. First, in the choice and selection of language used and second the readers themselves and their perception (i.e. comprehension and interpretation) of those linguistic structures. One must ask what is the nature of the language (i.e. linguistic structures) capable of producing such perception? How do these linguistic structures work to influence comprehension and interpretation of the information carried? Do these linguistic structures interact with the reader’s socio-cultural and psychological background to influence this perception? What is the extent of the relationships? This socio-psycholinguistic aspect of the language of billboards has not been extensively investigated. This paper is especially interested to identify that socio-psycholinguistic variables work simultaneously to influence perception of the information carried by advertisement texts and that certain relationships of these socio-psycholinguistic variables lead to intended perception or otherwise.

2. The Socio-Psycholinguistic Perspective in Perception of Advertisements The function of advertisements is to persuade and/or inform and the linguistic component plays a primary role in this respect (Trudgill, 1974; Fiske and Hartley, 1978; Vestergaard and Schröder, 1985; Lasker, 1990; Fries, 1992; Myers, 1994; Fuertes-Olivera et al, 2001). However, limited research has been conducted to identify whether this linguistic function of advertisments is actually achieved (Crystal, 1991).Sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic researches (Vestergard and Schröder,1985; Bhatia, 1988; Fuertes-Olivera etal, 2001; American Psychological Association, 2004) have indicated that the interaction of either socio-cultural or psychological factors with readers influence the perception of how the linguistic information is viewed. Indeed, Goodman’s (1996) Transactional Socio- Psycholinguistic Theory on Reading and Written Texts expanded through Liontas (2002) work on Transactional Idiom Analysis (TIA) identifies the need to recognise interacting factors which influence comprehension and interpretation of written material. Their theories assert that the reader is central to the reading process and transacts meaning from the text through lexical, phonological, syntactic and semantic cues. The reader’s comprehension and interpretation of the meaning derived from these linguistic cues is influenced by the totality of her/his socio-cultural and psychological makeup. Doctoral research carried out by Nwodo and Nwaozuzu (2008) show that socio- psycholinguistic variables exist in the perception of information carried by billboard advertisement texts. As stated above,advertisements have a definite function to persuade or convince a reader towards a particular intention and the linguistic component plays a primary role in this respect( Leech, 1966; Harris, 1980; Fries, 1992; Hermeren, 1999; Rush, 1998). Since, billboards are a subtype of print advertisements; we assume that the communicative function of billboards is the same.Thus, questionnaires were administered to 170 Igbo speaking female and male respondents aged 15 – 24 and who are also second language users of English to ascertain their perception of 66 sample billboard advertisement texts. The texts 89

Say What You Mean and Mean What You Say Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

were taken from billboards located in Enugu metropolis, a city in South-East Nigeria. The questionnaire was divided into 2 sections. Section A elicited responses on socio-cultural factors of the research population with regard to age, sex, marital status, nationality, educational qualifications, languages spoken, family background and length of residence in Enugu urban. Section B of the questinnaire elicited positive/negative responses based directly on the 66 sample billboard texts. Billboard advertisement texts selected for analysis are those that carry information on subject-matters that impact upon the welfare of human beings individually and collectively. Thus, in this study the linguistic component of billboards analysed are those that impact upon the young person’s fundamental human rights as outlined in documents such as The Convention on the Rights of a Child [CRC, 1989], The UNICEF World Summit and Action Plan [UNICEF World Action Plan, 1990], The Organisation of Africa [OAU] Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the African Child [OAU Children’s Charter, 1991] and The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women[CEDAW,1979]. The issues discussed in the above mentioned documents impact on an individual’s basic rights, in terms of integrity of the physical body, management of health, nutrition, the physical environment, child bearing, caring and rearing, and the psychological balance between work and play. In addition, the right to self-expression and to communicate with others is viewed as a necessary right, because it impacts upon the individual’s psychological health and well-being. Therefore, billboard advertisement texts within the following classes are analysed: The billboard texts were divided into 10 classes: i) Class A: Beauty and Cosmetics i.e. cosmetic creams/lotions, perfume, mascara etc. ii) Class B: Hygiene i.e. soap, shampoo, deodorants, sanitary towels, toilet rolls, detergents etc. iii) Class C: Medical i.e. prevention and treatment of illnesses, medicated drugs, insecticides etc. iv) Class D: Food and Drink v) Class E: Household Equipment i.e. furniture, electrical, electronic etc. vi) Class F: Children and Baby Products vii) Class G: Leisure i.e. travel, cigarettes etc. viii) Class H: Employment i.e. employment vacancies, careers etc. ix) Class I: Communications i.e. communication networks, phones, satellite dishes, newspapers, etc. x) Class J: Politics i.e. civic rights orientated messages Responses in the questionnaire identified the extent to which linguistic factors influenced positive or negative perception of the information carried as well as the relationships of psychological factors of attitude, cognition and memory to such perception. Reader perception of the billboard texts was examined within the context of whether the linguistic structures caused readers to comprehend and interpret the linguistic texts as intended or not. The perception of the information carried was recorded through the responses in the research questionnaire to the billboard texts as positive, negative or neutral, supported by such respondents’ selections of words/word groups taken from the authentic billboard texts. Intended comprehension and interpretation of the billboard texts was viewed as having been reached when respondents indicated positive responses where the advertisements were intended to generate positive responses and negative responses where the advertisements were intended to produce negative responses. Contrary and/ or neutral responses to the billboards were regarded as unintended or misconstrued comprehension and

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics interpretation. Neutral responses were deemed as not having met the intended interpretation of the text, because if a billboard text makes no impression on the reader, it cannot be said to be performing its intended communicative function. Thus, the perception of the readers is viewed within the context of whether the linguistic structures of the billboards result in the communicative function of the billboard advertisements being met or not.The research also investigated the frequency occurrences of the choices of words/word groups which supported responses and analysed the linguistic elements (i.e. phonological, lexical, syntactic and semantic) of such words/word groups. This analysis indicated the types of the linguistic structures which interacted with the socio-psychological factors of the reader to influence the comprehension and interpretation of the billboard texts. Correlations of the respondents’ perception of the linguistic structures to the socio-cultural and psychological factors of the readers identified socio-psycholinguistic relationships. In cases, where these relationships occurred to a significant degree, socio-psycholinguistic variables existed in the perception of billboard texts.

3. Analysis of Responses Taxonomic analysis was used to generate much quantitative data that indicated certain socio-psycholinguistic variables interact to influence perception of the information carried by billboard texts. Chi-square (χ2) tests supported by multiple linear regression identified that certain variables interacted to produce positive or negative perception of the linguistic structures of billboard advertisment texts. The responses were analysed in 3 classes according to the age, sex and the languages spoken by the respondents. Thus, where significant relationships occurred between particular age, sex or language groups to billboard texts in particular classes, a close examination of the linguistic as well as the socio- psychological factors which led to such relationships were identified. This examination identified the socio-psycholinguistic relationships wich occurred in the perception of billboard advertisement texts by this particular research population. For example, billboard texts classed as Hygiene included the following: - i) Freedom to choose (Lux Soap) ii) Be Clean, Be Protected, Be Happy D e l t a. MEDICATED and ANTISEPTIC SOAP. TOUGH ON GERMS. MILD ON YOUR SKIN. (Delta medicated soap) iii) New Key quality soap – the smarter way to a cleaner wash. (New key soap) Dermocare medicated and antiseptic soap truly cares. Gentle on skin, and tough on dandruff, body odour, pimples etc. (Dermocare medicated and antiseptic soap) iv) Use … TRUCK SOAP Bar & Tablet. Nigerian’s Number 1 Laundry Soap (Truck Soap) v) Life is… Tender (Joy soap) vi) So little gives so much… So Klin. 30% concentrate detergent. (Klin detergent) The chi-square (χ2) value (χ2 = 4.949) was significant (asymp. sig.= 0.26) at 0.05 level and the null hypothesis was rejected. Chi-square (χ2) tests identify significant relationships exist, but do not indicate the direction of such relationships, that is whether they are positive or negative. Thus, the supporting analysis of the responses identified that for 15 – 19 year olds question items intended to identify relationships between the the lingusitic structures of billboard advertisements and attitude indicated that 75% of positve responses occured.Similarly, for question items intended to identify relationships between the linguistic structures and memory, 81.2% of positive responses occured with this age bracket.Conversely for the 20 – 24 year olds the same question items elicited only 48.78% and 36.58% of positive responses co-occuring with factors of attitude and memory 91

Say What You Mean and Mean What You Say Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

respectively.This suggests that billboards in this class were viewed more positively by 15 – 19 year olds than their 20 – 24 year old counterparts. The examination of the selection of words/words groups by respondents indicated a high frequency occurrence of independent noun phrases with pre-modifying noun phrases which classify (i.e. name the product) such as . TRUCK SOAP Bar & Tablet. Nigerian’s Number 1 Laundry Soap (Truck Soap). The frequency occurrence of the respondents’ choices of syntactic structures in the billboard advertisements for Truck Soap and Klin Detergent indicate examples of the types of syntactic structures which interact with socio-cultural and psychological factors to influence perception of the information carried.There is also a high frequency of adverb clauses like so little gives so much. This suggests these types of syntactic structures influence perception more greatly than other syntactic structures. . The billboard advertisement for Lux Soap show that the frequency occurrences of the word choose is significant. The frequency of occurrence of the word choose suggests that it gives the readers pleasant semantic connotations of being able to express individual preferences. The frequency of the types of syntactic structures used in the billboard advertisements for Delta and Democare Medicated Soaps suggest they interact with socio- psychological factors to influence perception of the information carried. In particular, the imperative sentence-types Be clean, Be protected Be happy are identified often by the respondents in producing a positive perception of the information carried. Also, the adjective phrases tough on germs for Delta Soap and tough on dandruff, body odour, pimples for Democare soap are also identified by the respondents in producing a positive perception of the information carried. Similarly, the frequency occurrence of the parallel adjective phrases of mild on your skin for Delta Soap and gentle on skin for Democare Soap suggested such structures also produce positive perception of the information carried. The frequency occurrence of structures we term “noun phrase imperatives” reinforcing one another as in the smarter way to a cleaner wash suggest such structures interact with socio-psychological factors of the audience to influence positive perception. In particular, the use of adjective pre-modifiers smarter and cleaner appears to intensify such a perception. Also, the frequency occurrences of the noun phrase Democare medicated and antiseptic soap which has a noun phrase pre-modifier which names the product is typical of those selected. Respondents identified the noun phrase as a single-unit syntactic structure which suggests that the product Democare is perceived as not just parallel to medicated and antiseptic soap, but synonymous with the word soap. Another example with regard to the languages spoken by the respondents showed a significant relationship for billboard texts classed under Children and Baby Products where the(χ2) value (χ2 x2 = 27.791) was significant (asymp. sig. = .000) at 0.05 levels. It is noted that 90% of positive responses co-occured with bilingual Igbo/English speaking respondents whereas 0% of positive responses co-occurred with attitude for multilingual speakers of Igbo/English and one other indigenous language.Conversely,for billboards classed as Food and Drink, 70 % of positive response co-occur with attitude for multilingual speakers of Igbo/English and one other indigenous language whereas there are only 18.5 % of positive responses for bilingual speakers. The results of the chi-square (2) test suggest that there is a significant relationship between the languages spoken by the respondents and their perception of the billboard texts in Class F: Children and Baby Products. The 2 value (2 = 27.791) is significant (asymp.sig. = .000) at 0.05 level. The results also suggest a relationship of 4.13%. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Supporting data for billboards in Class D: Food and Drink as discussed above shows 90% of positive responses for those who speak Igbo and English only co-occur with attitude, whereas 0% of positive responses co-occur with attitude for those who speak Igbo, English and one indigenous language. These results follow an opposite pattern for the perception of the linguistic structures of advertisement in Class C: Medical. In addition,bilingual speakers show positive perception is supported by a higher frequency rate of preposition and adjective phrases like With 28 vitamins and minerals (Peak powdered milk and chocolate) and Strong and Healthy .Multilingual speakers support responses with poetic imperative structures with lexical and semantic manipulation over well-known bound idioms such as Grow and Shine (Luna powdered milk) substituted for “Rise and Shine”. For billboards in classes C and F respondents who speak both English and Igbo viewed the information carried more positively than those who speak English, Igbo and one other indigenous language. In both instances, the influence of attitude was important, followed closely by memory. The 90% positive perception of billboards in Class F by respondents who speak English and Igbo only, suggested bilingual Igbo/English speakers perceived the information positively. This positive perception was related to attitude. Conversely information carried in this class was perceived less positively by multilingual speakers of Igbo, English and one other indigenous language. The low influence of attitude and memory for the multilingual group contributed to this negative perception. For example, for respondents who speak Igbo and English only in Class C: Medical, 86.53% of positive responses co- occurred with attitude, 76.92% with memory; in Class F: Children and Baby Products, 90% of positive responses co-occurred with attitude. It was only in Class D: Food and Drink that respondents who speak Igbo, English and one other indigenous language perceived the texts more positively than their bilingual counterparts. In this class, 70% of positive responses co-occurred with attitude and 90% with cognition. In particular, the age and the languages spoken by the respondents interacted primarily with attitude and memory towards influencing perception. Factors of sex and cognition played secondary roles. Thus, the most positively influenced were 15 – 19 year old bilingual Igbo/English speakers and the least influenced were 20 – 24 year old multilingual speakers of Igbo/English, and other indigeneous languages. In cases where sex was a factor, females were more positively influenced by the information carried than their male counterparts.

4. Significance of Findings The findings of the research showed that socio-psycholinguistic relationships exist in the perception of billboard advertisements texts. That billboard texts on subject matters such as hygiene, medical, food/drink and children/baby products recorded intended responses from certain groups. However, in these same classes contrary responses came from other groups. Also, billboard texts on subject matters such as beauty/cosmetics, employment, household equipment, employment, leisure and politics all recorded results that were not significant for socio-psycholinguistic relationships. The chi-square (2) test results indicate that relationships of age to the perception of information carried by billboards are significant for texts on subject- matters classified as B: Hygiene, C: Medical and F: Children/Baby Products. The chi- 93

Stemming LearningSay What Difficulties You Mean among and Mean Alternate What LearnersYou Say of Nigerian Languages square (2) test results of the other billboard classes indicate relationships do not exist that are significant with regard to age. Significant billboard classes B, C, D and F draw from the pool of linguistic devices employed which characterise billboard advertisement language. In such classes, we found syntactic structures of independent noun phrases or what we termed “noun phrase imperatives” with pre- modifying noun phrases that are either classifying or name the product enhanced by imperative clauses, adjective phrases with adverbs modifiers, preposition phrases or adverb clauses. These linguistic structures tend to interact primarily with socio- psychological factors of age, languages spoken, attitude and memory and secondly with sex. Interactions of such linguistic structures with these socio-psychological variables predispose positive or negative reader perception. Selections of the linguistic structures characteristic of billboard advertisement language is influenced by subject-matters. Thus, billboard texts on hygiene subject-matters which employ the use of independent noun phrases with a selection of individual lexical items subject to semantic manipulation gives the reader an impression of choice and effectiveness. Such linguistic structures interact with 15 – 19 year old female bilingual English/Igbo speakers to produce a positive attitude and prompt memory to influence positive perception of the information carried. However, for medical subject-matters, positive perception of the information carried employ more frequently imperatives sentences and “noun phrases imperatives” than hygiene subject-matters with mainly word groups that are lexically and semantically manipulated. For medical subject-matters this selection tends to interact with socio- psychological factors again of 15 – 19 year old female bilingual Igbo/English speakers to produce a positive attitude and memory to precipitate positive perception. Also generally, female perception is more positively influenced by independent noun phrases with adjective phrases in the comparative form than their male counterparts. In cases where perception is not as intended (i.e. negative) it suggests these same linguistic structures lead to miscues.

5. Conclusion Perception of the linguistic structures of billboard advertisement language is related to specific interactions of the types of linguistic structures with socio- psychological factors. Age is the most important factor. Age interacts primarily with attitude and memory towards influencing perception of billboard texts. Chi-square (χ2) test results for billboards in classes B: Hygiene, C: Medical, D: Food and Drink and F: Children/Baby Products are all significant at 0.05 level. In these classes, the 15 – 19 year olds are influenced more positively by the linguistic structures. The multiple linear analysis supports the chi-square (χ2) tests to show that age is a significant variable in perception.Significant classes A,B and F indicated an average of 85.49% of positvie responses for the attitude psychological factor for 15-19 year olds.The most marked psychological factors which interact with age to influence perception is attitude, followed closely by memory. Cognition plays a negligible role in influencing perception. The languages spoken by the respondents are also found to be important towards influencing perception. However, it is not as significant as age. Bilingual English and Igbo speakers are most positively influenced. An average of 88.26% of positive responses elicited from this group again co-occurs primarily with attitude. Also,females are more positively influenced than their male counterparts, but overall

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics sex is less significant than age or the languages spoken. However, for females, an average of 82.5% of positive responses co-occurs with attitude while an average of 78.35% of positive responses co-occurs with memory. In summary, the interaction of the linguistic, socio-cultural and psychological factors in the billboard texts studied produces the most positive perception from the 15 – 19 year old bilingual Igbo/English speaking female. The study shows that the types of the linguistic structures of billboard advertisement language interact with particular socio-psychological factors of readers to influence perception of the information carried. In certain subject-matter classes, the chi-square (2) tests identify significant relationships of these factors which indicate the presence of socio-psycholinguistic variables in the perception of the information carried by billboard texts. The study suggests that only the types of linguistic structures in significant billboard classes produce an intended response and only then for certain groups. The billboard subject-matters in significant classes concern bodily integrity, management of health and nutrition as well as child rearing matters. At the same time, in significant classes, the types of linguistic structures lead to negative responses or miscues for certain groups. Billboard texts on subject- matters related to the physical environment, employment, leisure, self-expression all indicate socio-psycholinguistic relationships do not exist in reader perception of information carried. This suggests the linguistic structures of billboard advertisements texts are not performing their expected communicative linguistic functions. Thus the texts are not perceived as intended and could lead to contrary responses or miscues. This knowledge of such socio-psycholinguistic relationships is expected to inform future strategies in the linguistic presentation of billboard advertisements. Once this is done, such stakeholders will be in a better position “to get their messages across” in a manner which is in the interest of readers.

References American Psychological Association (2004). Health Adolescents Project (HAP). Babington-Ashaye, A. (2004). What is beautiful in Na Boy. Thisday, Saturday November 20: 27. Barthes, Roland (1977). Image – Music Text. London: Fontana/Collins. Translated from Barthes R. (1964). “Rhétorique de l’image” (Rhetoric of the image) Communications. 4: 40 – 51. Bhatia, Tej K. (1988). “English in Advertising: Multiple Mixing and Media” World Englishes. Great Britain: Pergamon Journals Ltd. 6(1):33 – 48. Crystal, David (1991). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fries, Peter .H. (1992). “The Structuring of Information in Written English Text” in Language Sciences 14 (4): 461 – 488 Fuertes-Olivera, Pedro A., Velasco-Sacristan, M., Arribas-Bãno, A. and Samaniego- Ferńarndez, E. (2001). “Persuasion and Advertising English Metadiscourse in Slogans and Headlines” Journal of Pragmatics 33: 1291–1307. Goodman, K. S. (1996). Ken Goodman on reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers. Harris, Alan C. (1980). Sell! Buy! Semiolinguistic Manipulation in Print Advertising. Northridge: California State University Press. 95

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Hermerén, L. (1999). English for Sale: A Study of the Language of Advertising. Lund: Lund University Press. Kolawole, S. (2004). Mama Na Boy. Thisday, Saturday, January 15: 11 Leech, G. N. (1966). English in Advertising: A Linguistic Study of Advertising in Great Britain. London: Longman. Liontas (2002). That's All Greek To Me! The comprehension and interpretation of modern Greek phrasal idioms. The Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal 1.1: 1- 32. Available: http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/ john_Author/article.pdf Myers, G. (1994). Words in Ads. London: Arnold. Rush, Susan (1998). “The Noun Phrase in Advertising English” Journal of Pragmatics 29: 155 – 171. Vestergaard, T. and Schroder, K. (1985). The Language of Advertising. New York: Basil Blackwell

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Phono-Pragmatic Analysis of Three African Poems

Joy Oluchi Uguru Department of Linguistics, Igbo and other Nigerian Languages University of Nigeria Nsukka

and

Chioma Akaeze Department of Linguistics, Igbo and other Nigerian Languages University of Nigeria Nsukka

Abstract Sound and meaning are at the core of both written and spoken languages. In no other genre of literature is the need for good use of language important as in poetry. Such usage ensures easy appreciation of meaning because poetry, unlike other genres, usually lacks adequate contextual background from which meaning can be drawn (inferred) by the audience. Thus the poet has the dual function of choosing words that will make for poetic beauty as well as communicate intended meaning. It is against this background that this paper evaluates how phonological and pragmatic features are displayed in poetry. Above all, the paper suggests that poetic beauty and meaning can both be accommodated in poetry since it appears that the audience appreciates them.

1.0 Introduction In any work of poetry, the reader as well as the critic looks out for aesthetic use of sounds in addition to meaningfulness. To discover how aesthetics and meaning are combined in poetry, this paper analyses three poems – ‘Agbor Dancer’ by J. P. Clark, ‘Dear brothers and sisters’ by Jenudo Oke and ‘To the women of New Africa’ by Dennis Osadebay. In analyzing these poems, the phonological and pragmatic features of the poems are identified. Using the student’s ‘t’ test, the degree of usage of these features are compared to show whether phonological features are used more than pragmatic ones or vice-versa. The essence of this is to reveal if poetic beauty (aesthetic use of speech sounds) is achieved at the expense of meaning. This paper suggests that both can be adequately accommodated in poetry since it appears the audience appreciates them.

2.0 Phonology and pragmatics in verbal communication Though all aspects of language play important roles in ensuring communication, phonology and pragmatics are two major aspects that the speaker/writer and the hearer/ reader depend on for meaningful communication. The speech sounds of a language are what make up the language. Hence phonology can be said to precede syntax and semantics since there can neither be any arrangement of words nor their meanings without the existence and organization of speech sounds. It is the organized use of these sounds, in adherence to the phonological rules of a language, that yields meaning in verbal communication. Thus a language user needs to have a good knowledge of its sounds as well as the application of its phonological rules. The knowledge of the detailed aspects of the phonological rules of a

Phono-Pragmatic Analysis of Three African Poems Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

language enhances the speaker’s performance. Hence phonology is a veritable tool in verbal communication. On the other hand, meaning is the goal of any communication, that is, the resultant effect of the use of language. The speaker expects the hearer to understand him or her while the hearer expects the speaker to make meaningful utterances. Fabb (1997) points out that poetic function is dominant in verbal art. Poetic function is the use of language to draw attention to itself as a material and as a linguistic form. Rhyme and parallelism, for instance, perform poetic function. They are used to draw attention to a particular word thereby emphasizing a particular message. In this paper, we observe that sometimes, these phonological devices are only used for poetic beauty rather than focus. This hinders the communicative effect of such devices. Grice (1975) shows that for communication between a speaker and a hearer to be successful, the co-operative principle must be observed. According to Grice, under this principle, the speaker should ensure that his contribution meets the following requirements: Quantity: the speaker should make his contribution to have neither less nor more information than is required. Quality: the speaker should not give false information. Relation: the speaker should say what is relevant to the theme (topic). Manner: the speaker should avoid obscurity and ambiguity. He or she should be brief and orderly. In using language, it is vital for the speaker to meet the conditions mentioned above to enable the audience participate fully. In poetry, meeting these conditions will enable the poet to combine, effectively, the aesthetic use of language with the expression of intended meaning.

3.0 Phonology and pragmatics in poetry In poetry, the role of phonology is indispensable. Various phonological devices make for poetic beauty which appeals to the audience. Such phonological devices as rhythm, rhyme, assonance, alliteration, metre, phonaesthemes and so on are used in poetry. It can therefore be said that through poetry, one can know about the phonological structure of a language. Phonological theorists tend to validate their theories by explaining the operation of versification, that is, by showing that it can be applied in poetry (Katamba 1989:226). Hence poetry can be said to be dependent on phonology since such poetic features as rhyme, alliteration, assonance, scansion, rhythm and other features are based on phonology. Stress is a major phonological feature which plays an important role in poetry. In English poetry, metrical phonology tags stressed syllables as ‘strong’ while the unstressed ones are tagged ‘weak’. Stressed syllables have greater prominence than unstressed ones. In English utterances, syllables come in the stressed/unstressed sequence or vice versa. Hence a metrical foot may have the head (stressed syllable) coming before or after the unstressed syllable. The issue of metrical foot has enabled the classification of poetry based on stress. Katamba (1989:226) exemplifies this is this iambic verse by Shakespeare. H*e càn/no*t lìve,/I* hòpe,/a*nd mùst/no*t dìe Ti*ll Geòrge/be* pàck’d/wi*th pòst-/ho*rse ùp/t*o heàven I’ll in,/ to urge/his hat/red more/to Clarence With lies/well steel’d/with weigh/ty ar/guments It can be observed that the division into feet is based on the occurrence of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one, showing iambic parallelism. Consequently, the stress pattern is used to classify types of feet – iambic (a foot having an unstressed

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics syllable followed by a stressed one). Other kinds include trochaic (stressed and unstressed), anapest (two unstressed) and dactyl (one stressed and unstressed). Tone is akin to stress in a tone language like Igbo. The metre has many pragmatic functions. It shows the emphasized words, the content of a line and gives a number of phonological information like tempo and mood. The metre of a poem enables one to memorize it. Hoberman and Ramer (1999) report that Malone (1983) has used abstract phonology to analyze Sephardic Hebrew poetry just as other scholars have adopted it in accounting for poetic metre in other languages. They argue that the psychological effect of abstract phonology is seen from the way poets make use of it. Therefore, it is not just a tool for linguistic analysis but also a psychological reality. This implies that the use of phonological devices in poetry plays a psychological role. It is thus the phonological devices, not the pragmatic or semantic ones that play the psychological role of a poem to the audience. The rhythmic structure of a poem determines its appeal to the audience. To maintain this appeal the poet can apply phonological deviation, distorting the rhythmic structure of the words of a poem through aphaeresis (deletion of the initial sound of a word), syncope and apocope (deletion of middle and final sounds respectively). It is interesting to note that such deviations enable the audience to appreciate some other meanings in addition to that deduced from the lyrics. Hence, in addition to maintaining the cadenced rhythm of the poem, the message of the poem is effectively communicated to the audience. Phonological deviance can be used to achieve poetic effect and significance, that is, poetic beauty and communication of necessary information to the audience. Leech (1969) opines that poets use language that is fundamentally deviant from normal language usage. Phonological deviance enhances pragmatics (language usage) as it makes a word stand out among words of normal usage. Phonological deviance can therefore be used to show emphasis thus the co-operative principle of clarity is met. Macmahon (2007) uses a cognitive pragmatic model (relevance theory) to prove that sound patterning contributes to interpretation in poetry. However, she observes that it makes for instability in poetic interpretation probably because the poet goes out of his or her way to use rhyming words. Some of the reasons why a poet employs phonological deviance include scansion (rhythm), rhyme (having the same end sounds), maintenance of alliteration (repetition of consonants in certain positions of words), assonance (repetition of vowels in a line or consecutive lines) or some other phonological effects. Similarly, pragmatic effect can be achieved through phonological devices. With phonological license, the poet manipulates sounds in such a way that the different conventions of the co-operative principle are met. By applying phonological deviation for instance, the poet could achieve economy of words, hence adhering to the conventions of quantity and briefness. However, he/she must ensure that in manipulating phonological devices, obscurity and ambiguity are avoided. This is because the main aim of the poet is to convey some information through organization of sounds. Consequently, poetic diction, poetic license, phonological license and deviations should be done, bearing the co-operative principle in mind. Conditions stipulated by this principle have been shown in section 2.0. Ayemoni (2007) shows that pragmatic theory is apt, relevant and appropriate in studying and interpreting African poetry. He analyzed Lawrence Emeka’s “the kolanut” using the speech act theory. His discovery shows that the poem contained both direct and indirect speech acts. This means that some meanings of the lines were overt while others were covert. Grice’s co-operative principle would fault such a poem as covert meanings do not make for clarity. That is, meaning is obscure; which is against the co – operative principle.

Phono-Pragmatic Analysis of Three African Poems Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages

4.0 Phono-pragmatic analysis of the poems In this section, the phonological devices employed in the poems are analyzed. In addition, the extent of successful communication of intended meaning with the words of the poem is evaluated, using the conventions of the co-operative principle of Grice (1975). Here, we have converted the conventions to become seven in number. They are quantity, quality, relation, manner, brief, clarity and orderliness. The last convention, manner, has three other conventions subsumed under it – brief, clarity and orderliness. The phonological analysis will apply to the individual words of the lines making up the stanzas of the poems. The pragmatic analysis will apply to the individual stanzas. This is so because information (meaning) of the poem usually runs unto other lines. Alliteration and consonance are analyzed as repetitions here.

4.1 Poem I: Agbor Dancer by J. P. Clark See her caught in the throb of a drum A Tippling from hide-brimmed stem A Down lineal Veins to ancestral core B Opening out in her supple tan C Limbs like fresh foliage in the sun C

See how entangled in the magic A Maze of music A In trance she treads the intricate B Pattern rippling crest after crest C To meet the green clouds of the forest C

Tremulous beats wake trenchant A In her heart a descant A Tingling quick to her finger tips B And toes virginal habits long C Too atrophied for pen or tongue. C

Could I, early sequester’d from my tribe, A Free a lead-tether’d scribe A I should answer her communal call B Lose myself in her warm caress C Intervolving earth, sky and flesh. D

4.1.1 Stanza I: Phonological Analysis In the first line, the poet makes use of what may be referred to as assonance and repetition. Assonance refers to the repetition of stressed vowels while alliteration is the repetition of initial consonants of some words in a sentence (Wales, 1989). In the first line, there is the effect of assonance in her /hə/ and the /ðə/; then there is consonance caused by the repetition of /r/ in throb and drum. These words are as follows: 1. ‘her’ /hə/ and ‘the’ /ðə/ /throb’ /rDb/ and ‘drum’ /dr٨m‘ .2 The first example is the case of assonance while the second is that of consonance. In addition to the repetition of these sounds, the poet makes use of a phonaestheme (combination of form and meaning), ‘throb’ to symbolize the sound of the beating drum. It

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics would have been easier for him to use ‘beating of’ but he uses this onomatopoeic word to show the sound of the drum as well as bring in consonantal effect (that is, to have a repetition of the /r/ sound as seen in ‘throb’ and ‘drum’). The second line of the first stanza has the features of consonantal repetition: “tippling from hide-brimmed stem”. The consonantal effect from the repetition of /m/ sound is obvious. It is important to point out that because of the initial consonant of ‘stem’, ‘brimmed’ is realized as //. The /d/ sound is not pronounced, thus we have the consonantal repetition effect from the following: ‘from…brim… stem’. There is an end rhyme between line (I) and line II. Both lines end with /m/. We have the case of assonance involving the /I/ sound as seen in ‘tippling’, and ‘brimmed’. In line IV, we have consonance involving the repetition of the sounds, /n/, /t/ and /p/ as seen below. Opening out in her supple tan. The last line displays two cases of alliteration as in / l/ and /f/ - limbs like fresh foliage in the sun, while the last words of lines 4 and 5 have end rhyme involving /n/. For stanza I of this poem, the phonological features that will be taken into account in our analysis appear below. Line I: assonance, consonantal repetition, and phonaestheme. Line II: alliteration and rhyme Line III: nil Line IV: nil Line V: alliteration /l/, alliteration /f/ and rhyme.

4.1.2 Stanza I: Pragmatic Analysis Quantity: This stanza does not seem to have sufficient information. Although the audience may easily understand that the character is dancing to the beating of a drum, other lines do not have adequate information to enhance appreciation. For instance, if the dancer was “tippling” the audience would have liked to know the kind of alcohol she was taking. It is obvious that the poet, in the bid to maintain poetic beauty, concentrated on the phonological aspect at the expense of the conveyance of information. Quantity: The second line makes the stanza to sound incredible. The audience may wonder how the dancer could be taking alcohol in the middle of a dance (caught in the throb of a drum). Relation: The information in stanza I, particularly with respect to line I, is relevant as it expresses the theme of the poem. Manner: The meaning of most words given in the stanza is obscure or ambiguous. A good language user should use simple words that can easily be understood to enhance communication. Some of the words are ambiguous. For instance, the audience could misinterpret the word, ‘stem’ to be that of a plant. The information in the stanza is brief but not orderly. Hence only two of the conventions of the co- operative principle are observed here.

4. 2 Stanza II: Phonological Analysis The poet uses elision in the first line. The phrase, which could have read as follows: See how she, being entangled in the magic is condensed to read: See how entangled in the magic 101

Stemming LearningPhono Difficulties-Pragmatic Analysisamong Alternateof Three African Learners Poems of Nigerian Languages

To economize words as well as conform to the rhythm of the poem, the poet elides some words. This however does not affect the meaning of the phrase. The phonological device of alliteration is seen in line II. This involves the sound /m/ in the words, ‘maze’ and ‘music’. This effect starts from the first line and runs on to the next line thus the full alliterative effect reads as follows: Magic maze of music. There is also an end rhyme involving the last words of the first and second lines. Line II displays the following phonological devices: assonance is seen in the first word of the line, ‘in’, and the last one, ‘intricate’. The syllable, ‘in’ is repeated in an aesthetic manner as it introduces and ends the line. Additionally, consonantal repetition involving the words, ‘trance, ‘treads’ and ‘intricate’ is used to beautify this line. One observes the recurring sounds - /tr/ in the three words. Also, consonantal repetition comes into play as the sound, /z/ is repeated in ‘maze’ and ‘music’. From line III, we observe that there is some elision. The line could either have read: Dance pattern rippling crest after crest Or Pattern of dancing rippling crest after crest However, the poet reduces the line to read as follows: Pattern rippling crest after crest The repetition of the word, crest in this line adds beauty to the poem as it creates sound effect through repetition and assonance. Also one observes an end rhyme in lines III and IV as both end with the consonant, /t/. The last line of the stanza displays the use of assonance seen in the repetition of the vowel, /i/, which is seen in the words, ‘meet’ and ‘green’. Also, there is an end rhyme with the fourth line since both lines IV and V end with the syllable /rest/ as seen in the words, ‘crest’ and ‘forest’. One observes how the poet carefully chooses words to give aesthetic effect to the stanza. The phonological devices accounted for in our analysis are as follows: Line I: elision Line II: alliteration (m) consonantal repetition (z) and end rhyme. Line III: assonance and alliteration Line IV: elision, repetition and end rhyme. Line V: end rhyme

4.2.1 Stanza II: Pragmatic Analysis Quantity: Adequate information is given here for the audience to appreciate the message the poet wants to pass across. Quality: From the last line, it appears that the message is incredible. One wonders how the rippling dancing patterns can be targeted at meeting “the green clouds of the forest”. The only explanation here is that the poet’s use of ‘forest’ is intrusive and was probably necessitated by the need to achieve an end rhyme with ‘crest’ the last word of the penultimate line. Relation: The information in this stanza is relevant since it explains the action introduced in stanza I of the poem. Manner: The language used here is clear. In line IV particularly, where the repetition “crest after crest” is used, one gets a picture of the dancing patterns of Agbor people. Also the message is brief and orderly. Hence six of the seven conventions of the co-operative principle are kept.

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics 4.3 Stanza III: Phonological Analysis Line I shows the use of consonantal repetition and assonance. The former involves the sounds /tr/ while the latter involves //. The second line displays the poet’s use of alliteration seen in the recurrence of the sound, /h/ as seen in ‘her’ and ‘heart’. Also, there is an end rhyme involving ‘trenchant’ and ‘descant’. In the third line, assonance and alliteration are used. The former involves the repetition of the sound /I/ as seen in the words, ‘tingling’, ‘quick’, ‘finger’ and ‘tips’. Alliteration is seen in the recurrence of the /t/ sound in ‘tingling’, ‘to’ and ‘tips’. In line V we observe alliteration and assonance in display. The first case of alliteration involves the repetition of /t/ in the words, ‘too’, ‘atrophied’ and ‘tongue’. Another case of alliteration is that of the repetition of the sound, /f/ in the words ‘atrophied’ and ‘for’. Assonance is seen in the repetition of the sound // in ‘for’ and ‘or’. Also the last words of line IV and line V rhyme as they both end with the nasal /n/. The phonological devices taken into account in our analysis appear below. Line I: alliteration and assonance Line II: alliteration and rhyme Line III: assonance and alliteration Line IV: nil Line V: alliteration (t), alliteration (f) assonance and rhyme

4.3.1 Stanza III: Pragmatic analysis Quantity: This stanza gives adequate information on the effect of music on the Agbor dancer. Quality: The information is credible. Relation: The information is relevant. Manner: It is clear. One observes a good combination of phonological devices and good use of language. Hence not only is poetic beauty achieved but also the audience can appreciate what is being said about the dancer and her expertise. The information is therefore not ambiguous. It is also brief and orderly. Hence all the seven conventions of the co-operative principle are observed.

4.4 Stanza IV: Phonological Analysis Assonance is displayed in line I where one observes the recurrence of the diphthong /aI/ in the words, ‘I’, ‘my’ and ‘tribe’. Line II shows the recurrence of // in ‘lead-tether’d’. Also, the last words of lines I and II rhyme – ‘tribe’ and ‘scribe’. In line III, alliteration is seen in the repetition of /k/ in ‘communal’ and ‘call’. Finally, the vowels of the last syllables of the last words in lines IV and V rhyme. In all, the following phonological devices are analyzed in stanza IV: Line I: assonance Line II: assonance and rhyme Line III: alliteration Line IV: nil Line V: rhyme

4.4.1 Stanza IV: Pragmatic analysis Quantity: Information is adequate Quality: not very credible Relation: information here is relevant 103

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Manner: The message is clear. It shows the poet wants to re-unite with his people.

5.0 Poem II: “Dear Brothers and Sisters” By Jenudo Oke Democracy favours majority rule tyranny enjoys minority rule.

Poverty befriends the majority and wealth clings to the minority

Democracy and poverty are twin sisters and tyranny and wealth twin brothers.

5.1 Stanza I: Phonological Analysis This poem is arranged in rhyming couplets. In the first line, we have assonance displayed in the repetition of the // sound seen in ‘democracy’ and ‘majority’. There is also consonantal repetition involving /r/ in ‘democracy’, ‘majority’ and ‘rule’. In the second line, there is also a repeat of assonance. We have end rhyme/repetition in lines I and II where ‘rule’ ends both lines. In this paper, ‘repetition’ is used to denote phonological repetition, rather than lexical, since there is a regular rhythm usually achieved through lexical repetition. This can be understood from the verse below quoted in Wales (1989: 403). Tell zeal it wants devotion Tell love it is but lust Tell time it is but motion Tell flesh it is but dust. Though the repetition of ‘tell’, ‘it’ and ‘it is but’ could be seen as lexical, it leaves some rhythmic effect which brings in phonological repetition. Thus while the lexical repetition makes for clarity, phonological repetition enhances the ability to memorize thus making a long - lasting impact on the audience. Oke also uses initial and mid rhymes between both lines – involving ‘democracy’ and ‘tyranny’ on one hand, and ‘majority’ and ‘minority’ on the other. Thus we have the following in our analysis. Line I: assonance Line II: assonance, end rhyme, initial rhyme and mid rhyme.

5.1.1 Stanza I: Pragmatic analysis Quantity: The information is adequate. Quality: Credible Relation: Relevant Manner: The meaning is clear. There is a good combination of phonological devices and meaning of the subject matter. There is no ambiguity as a sharp contrast between democracy and tyranny is shown using rhymes as well as repetitions. All seven conventions of the co-operative principle are observed.

5.2 Stanza II: Phonological Analysis of Jenudo Oke’s “Dear Brothers and Sisters” In line I, we have assonance, the repetition of /I/ in ‘poverty’ and ‘majority’. In line II we have an end rhyme because lines I and II end with ‘majority’ and ‘minority’ respectively. Also, there are two mid rhymes involving ‘clings’ and ‘befriends’ on one hand and ‘the’ on the other. The latter may also be seen as a case of repetition. In the former, we observe that

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics both end with a nasal and the voiced alveolar fricative, /z/ - / klIŋz/ and /frendz/. In pronunciation, the /d/ of friends is not audible. For this stanza, we analysed four phonological devices: Line I: assonance Line II: two mid rhymes and one end rhyme.

5.2.1 Stanza II: Pragmatic analysis Quantity: Generally, the information given here is adequate. Quality: Information is credible. Relation: It is relevant. Manner: The language is clear and not ambiguous. It is brief but not orderly. From the ordering of words in line II particularly, the audience may be led into thinking that wealth goes naturally to the minority. The poet is actually trying to show that the minority amasses wealth to themselves. In other words, they go for wealth and not vice versa. Hence six out of the seven conventions were kept.

5.3 Stanza III: Phonological Analysis Line I shows the use of assonance involving ‘democracy’ and ‘poverty’ where /I/ was repeated. In line II, we observe that lines I and II have initial rhyme, two mid rhymes and one end rhyme. These involve ‘democracy’ and ‘tyranny’, two ‘and’s, two ‘twin’s and finally, ‘sisters’ and ‘brothers’. We therefore analyzed five phonological devices”. Line I: assonance Line II: Four rhymes

5.3.1 Stanza III: Pragmatic analysis Quantity: The information here is adequate. Quality: It is credible. Relation: It is relevant. Manner: The message is clear and not ambiguous. It is brief and very orderly. Here, the phonological devices are beautifully used to show that poverty is the resultant effect of democracy while tyrant leaders tend to be wealthy. The seven conventions of the co-operative principle are observed. In this poem, we observe simplicity of language, which makes for clear understanding. Since the objective of the poet is to convey some idea he/she has created in his imagination to the audience, the co-operative principle demands that the poet does so in a clear language. The poet should use poetic and phonological devices in such a way that they enhance rather than hinder communication.

6.0 Poem III: To the women of New Africa - By Dennis Osadebay Proud mothers of the coming age, A ’Tis good to find you now engage A Your minds and time your lives to raise B Above the level of bygone days. B

’Tis good to see you play your part A With spirit and undaunted heart; A It gives Young Afric’s throbbing soul B A glimpse of a bright and glorious goal B 105

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God bless you, mothers of our Race, A God cause to shine on you His face; A And give you strength and all you crave B To bring forth sons and daughters brave. B

6.1 Stanza I: phonological Analysis In line II, the poet uses aphaeresis (deletion of the initial sound of a word) in order to conform to the rhythm of the verse. There is also the use of alliteration as /t/ is repeated in ‘tis and ‘to’. The first and second lines have an end rhyme, both ending with ‘-age’. In line III, there is assonance for the diphthong /a/ is repeated in ‘minds’, ‘time’ and ‘lives’. There is also alliteration (repetition) involving ‘your’. There is an end rhyme involving the third and fourth lines. We analyzed the following phonological devices in this stanza: Line I: nil Line II: aphaeresis, alliteration, rhyme Line III: assonance Line IV: rhyme

6.1.1 Stanza I: Pragmatic analysis Quality: The stanza has adequate information. Quality: It is credible. Relation: It is relevant. Manner: The message is clear, not ambiguous, brief and orderly. All the seven conventions are observed.

6.2 Stanza II: Phonological Analysis Line I shows the use of aphaeresis, alliteration involving the repetition of /t/ and another involving the repetition of /j/ in ‘you’ and ‘your’. In line II there is the use of assonance – repetition of /I/ in ‘with’ and ‘spirit’. The first and second lines have an end rhyme. Line III shows the use of syncope (deletion of a middle sound) in adherence to the rhythm of the poem. There is assonance involving the repetition of /i/ in some of the words. Line IV displays the use of alliteration involving /g/ in ‘glimpse’, ‘glorious’ and ‘goal’. Assonance is seen in the repetition of ‘a’. There is also an end rhyme. For this stanza, we analyze the following: Line I: aphaeresis and two cases of alliteration. Line II: assonance and rhyme Line III: syncope and assonance Line IV: alliteration, assonance and rhyme.

6.2.1 Stanza II: Pragmatic analysis Quantity: The information is adequate. Quality: It is credible. Relation: It is relevant. Manner: The meaning of the message is obscure. The arrangement of the second line is confusing. ‘Spirit’ should have come last but the poet, in the bid to achieve an end rhyme, fails to consider the importance of communicating the information properly. The information is therefore ambiguous. It is brief and orderly. The

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics stanza adhered to five of the seven conventions of the co-operative principle. These include quantity, quality, relation, briefness and orderliness.

6.3 Stanza III: Phonological Analysis Lines I and II manifest end rhyme and initial rhyme. The former involves a repetition of ‘God’. In line three, there are two cases of mid rhyme/repetition involving ‘and’ and ‘you’. Line IV displays the use of alliteration involving the repetition of /br/ in ‘brief’ and ‘brave’. The following phonological devices were analyzed: Line I – nil Line II – initial and end rhyme Line III – mid rhyme/ repetition Line IV: alliteration and end rhyme

6.3.1 Stanza III: Pragmatic analysis Quantity: The information here is adequate. Quality: It is credible. Relation: It is relevant. Manner: The language is clear and not ambiguous. It is brief and orderly. Thus, all the seven conventions were observed. The poet’s feelings and appreciation of motherhood are revealed clearly, briefly and orderly.

7.0 Discussion of Analysis From the foregoing, it can be observed that poets tend to pay greater attention to aesthetic use of language than to meaningful communication. According to Grice, flouting the conventions of the co-operative principle hinders communication. Hence, the poet needs to apply them to ensure his audience understands him/her.

No. offeatures No. 4

0 1 2 3 4 Stanzas

Phonological Pragmatic

Fig. 1: Phono-pragmatic analysis of “Agbor Dancer”.

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3 No. of Features

0 1 2 3 Stanzas

Phonological Pragmatic

Fig. 2: Phono-pragmatic analysis of “Dear Brothers and Sisters”

No. ofFeatures 4

0 1 2 3 Stanzas

Phonological Pragmatic Fig. 3: Phono-pragmatic analysis of “To the Women of New Africa” The bar charts in figures 1 – 3 show the degree of usage of phonological/ pragmatic devices of the three authors. From the charts, we observe that in writing the ‘Agbor Dancer’, J.P. Clark centred on poetic beauty more than the other two poets. On the other hand, Jenudo Oke’s ‘Dear brothers and sisters’ appears to have been written with the major intent of communicating to the audience as can be observed from the bars for pragmatic features which are higher than those of phonological features. Though Dennis Osadebay’s ‘To the women of new Africa’ is simple to understand, the audience may 108

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics have difficulty understanding the second stanza as it has some ambiguity in its message, hence, flouting the co-operative principle. His emphasis on poetic beauty is observable from the chart where the bar of phonological features doubles that of pragmatic in height. Kempson (1977:70) shows that flouting this principle will make the hearer (audience/reader in this case) doubt the information or work out what is being said, using some information already known to both parties. Since the audience of poetry do not usually have any background information about the message of the poet, it is vital that he/she makes it as simple and clear as possible. A cursory look at the charts could mislead one to conclude that more of pragmatic features were used in the creation of the three poems. It is however vital to note that in those stanzas where pragmatic features outnumbered phonological ones, the difference was only marginal. This is contrary to those stanzas in which phonological features outnumber pragmatic ones where one observes a very significant difference in the number of the two sets of features. Thus the summary of our analysis shows that the authors used more phonological features than pragmatic ones. This is explained below. The student’s ‘t’ test carried out on the use of phonological and pragmatic devices employed in the three poems showed the calculated ‘t’ as 8.19 which is higher than the tabulated ‘t’ (1.73) at 95% level of confidence. This implies that the degree of phonological devices used by the three poets is significantly higher than the pragmatic devices. Phonological devices, as well as pragmatic ones, are important in poetry. The poet should use both to enhance communication. Neither should be used to the detriment of the other.

8.0 Conclusion Since, in this work, it has been discovered that the ratio of phonological devices employed by poets is significantly higher than that of pragmatic devices, it is vital to suggest that poets may need to strike a balance in the use of these two types of devices. This will enable them achieve poetic beauty as well as enhance communication. Though one may not be able to achieve an equal ratio (since poets particularly aim at using phonological devices to make their works rhythmic and easy to memorize) care should be taken in their usage to ensure easy appreciation of the poems. Phonological devices are important in poetry. However, they should be used in such a way that they enhance communication rather than hinder it. Wrong use of phonological devices amounts to breaking the co-operative principle of pragmatics and should be avoided by a poet. The fact that the audience is at the receiving end and there is no room for asking for explanation makes it rational and worthwhile for the poet to abide by the co-operative principle. The conventions of the co-operative principle should be borne in mind while making use of poetic and phonological devices. This could be the solution to communication problems in poetry.

References Ayemoni, M. (2007) “Pragmatics and African Poetry: A Case of Lawrence Emeka’s Breaking Kolanut”, Lagos Papers in English Studies. Vol 1. pp 38 – 48. Clark, J. P. (1975) “Agbor Dancer”, In Soyinka, W. (ed.) Poems of Black Africa. London: Heinemann. p. 315. Fabb, N. (1997) Linguistics and Literature. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Grice, H. P. (1975) “Logic and Conversation”, in Cole, P. and J. Morgan (eds.) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts, 41-58. Hoberman, R. D. and Ramer, A. M. (1999) “Sephardic Scansion and Phonological Theory”, Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 119 (2) 211- 217. 109

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Katamba, F. (1989). An Introduction to Phonology. London: Longman Group U.K. Ltd. Kempson, R. M. (1977) Semantic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leech, G. (1969) A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. London: Longman. Macmahon, B. (2007) “The Effects of Sound Patterning in Poetry: A Cognitive Approach”, Journal of Literary Semantics. 36(2) pp 103 – 120. Oke, J. U. (1982) “Dear Brothers and Sisters”, In Nwoga, D. I. (ed.) Rhythms of Creation. Enugu: Fourth Dimension. p.225. Osadebay, D. (1967) “To the Women of New Africa”, In Nwoga, D. I. (ed.) West African Verse. Essex: Longman. p. 20. Wales, K. (1990) A Dictionary of Stylistics. London: Longman.

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics An Optimality Account of the Cv Verb Root and Nye in Igbo Phonotactics

G. I. Nwaozuzu Department of Linguistics, Igbo and other Nigerian Languages University of Nigeria, Nsukka E-mail – [email protected] GSM - 08033023430

C. O. Okeke Department of Linguistics, Igbo and other Nigerian Languages University of Nigeria, Nsukka E-mail – [email protected] GSM - 0835987585

Abstract This paper is a study of how elison and vowel raising are achieved when the CV verb roots combine with the verb nye to form verb compounds in the Igbo language. When CV verbs combine with nye, the compounds that emerge undergo some modifications. The modifications appear to be ordered. First, the voiced palatal nasal of nye [] is deleted. Second, the mid vowel of nye [] is raised to a high vowel, [i] or []. The choice is determined by the harmony set that the CV verb belongs to. Third, the vowel of the CV verb, which is not high, is raised to a high vowel. An interesting fall-out from the modifications is that the resultant compounds are made to obey the rule of vowel harmony. The study uses faithfulness and markedness constraints of Optimality Theory (OT) to account for the modifications. Through ranking of constraints, we investigated whether it is the markedness constraints or faithfulness constraints that play more roles in deciding the best output in Igbo CV verb roots. The preliminary findings of this paper reveals that the choice of a particular verb compound in Igbo is due to the ranking of the markedness constraints above the faithfulness constraints and this leads to The Emergence of the unmarked (TETU). Also, the paper discovers that the much more rapid loss of the voiced palatal nasal // and the consequent raising of the vowels are plausibly attributed to rapid speech, especially in construction.

1. Introduction In linguistics, compounding is a common and frequent process of word formation in many languages. In their explanation, Fromkin, Rodman and Hygins (2007:95) note, “[t]wo or more words may be joined to form new compound words.” This definition is in conformity with the ones given by many linguists, Longe (1961), Matthews (1978), Altmann (1988), Nwaozuzu (1991), Oluikpe and Nwaozuzu (1995), Mbah (2004) etc. Compounds are of various types depending on the elements that combine to form them. A nominal compound combines two or more nouns, prepositional compound joins two or more prepositions, and verb compound involves two or more verbs. Our study focuses on verb compounding. Specifically, it studies the verbs whose constituents are CV verb root and the verb nye. The paper intends to buttress the fact noted in Fromkin, Rodman, and Hygins (2007) that sometimes the spelling of a word may not tell us what sequence of words constitute a compound; whether a compound is spelt with a space between the two words, with a hyphen, 111

An Optimality Account of the Cv Verb Root and Nye in Igbo Phonotactics

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages or with no separation at all depends on the idiosyncrasies of the particular compound. This is because in our case study, verb compounds in Igbo go beyond spacing, hyphenation or no separation. CV and nye verb in Igbo undergoes some phonological changes. The changes are so obvious that without reference to the underlying form, it is difficult to identify the surface form as two words or free morphemes joined together. Although the two variants (underlying and surface forms) are used in the Igbo language, the forms that have undergone some phonological changes are frequently used by the Igbo in rapid speech. Our aim in this paper therefore, is to illustrate the fact that the changes in the surface forms result in the grammar of the Igbo language. We argue that the Igbo language displays factorial typology in the sense that it ranks some universal constraints in order to get the language-particular constraints. Faithfulness and markedness constraints are permuted and a prediction is made on the ranking order specific to Igbo in relation to the CV verb. This work is organized into six sections. The present section is the introduction while the second and third sections are the theoretical and empirical studies. Section four investigates nye as a verb root. Conversely, section five analyzes the result of the previous section using OT. The last section presents the findings and summarizes the paper.

2. Theoretical Studies 2.1 Vowel Raising Vowel raising according to Chambers (1973) is usually associated with the Great Vowel Shift in English in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Great Vowel Shift refers to the rearrangement of the entire English vowel system from middle to modern English. Prior to the shift, words like five and house were pronounced [fiv] and [hu:s], with high vowels. The Great Vowel Shift lowered their low vowel pronunciation [fayv] and [haws]. It is believed that the diph-raising pattern is inherited from certain Middle English dialects in which the lowering of [i:] and [u:] at the mid-vowel height in some words are acceptable. In Vulgar Latin according to Dichabe (1997), under the influence of a nearby [] – which has a very high tongue position, the vowels [, , , e, o] were in many cases raised in stressed syllables to [e, e, o, i, u] respectively. This series of sound changes can be regarded as an instance of raising, a process that leads to the approximation of one vowel quality to that of another. The effect of [] across the vowel system was uneven, in that more vowels are affected in some phonetic contexts than in others. Presumably, according to Dichabe, this is due to the fact that [] itself survived longer in some contexts than in others and so had varying lengths of time to exercise an effect on a nearby vowel. Furthermore, in the 9-vowel Sotho-Tswana languages, according to Dichabe (1997), a much less common process also occurs, where the near-close vowels become raised to a position slightly lower than the close vowels (close to the English beat and boot than the very high Sesotho vowels /i/ and /u/) with ATR (or alternatively with both [+ATR] and [+RTR]. The above definitions of vowel raising show that vowel raising manifests in different forms and conditions in various languages. Also, the manifestation of vowel raising is restricted to certain contexts and conditions depending on the language under investigation.

2.2 Optimality Theory Optimality Theory (OT) according to Prince and Smolensky (2004) is a development of the Generative Grammar, a theory sharing its focus of formal description and quest for universal principles on the basis of empirical research on linguistic typology and first language acquisition. However, OT, according to the above authors differs from earlier generative models in various ways. It accommodates cross-linguistic variation within a theory

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics of Universal Grammar. OT assumes that universal constraints are violable, while earlier models assume parametric variation of inviolate principles. Moreover, OT is surface-based in the sense that well-formedness constraints evaluate surface forms only – no structural conditions are placed on lexical forms. The central idea of OT according to Wikipedia (2008) is that surface forms of language relies on resolutions of conflicts between competing demands or constraints. A form is optimal in the sense that it incurs the least serious violations of a set of violable constraints, ranked in a language specific hierarchy. Languages differ in the ranking of constraints; giving priorities to some constraints over others. Such rankings are based on strict domination. Prince and Smolensky (2004) aver that if one constraint outranks another, the higher-ranked constraints are higher placed regardless of violations of the lower-ranked one. Earlier models of OT according to Wikipedia assume that morpheme structure constraints result in the duplication of static and dynamic rules in phonotactics. OT also eliminates derivations, replacing them by parallelism: all constraints pertaining to some type of structure are evaluated within a single hierarchy. Optimality theory therefore, is a linguistic model proposing that the observed forms of language arise from the interaction between conflicting constraints. There are three basic components of the theory: 1) Generator (GEN) generates the list of possible outputs or candidates. 2) Constraints (CON) provides the criteria, violable constraints, used to decide between candidates and 3) Evaluation (EVAL) chooses the optimal candidates based on the constraints. Optimality theory assumes that these components are universal. Differences in grammar reflect different ranking of the universal constraints set, and CON language acquisition based on the above premises, can be described as the process of adjusting the ranking of these constraints. In the Igbo language, high vowels are crucial in arriving at the optimality of CV verb root. Hence, high vowels trigger-off optionality of CV verb root in Igbo. This optionality can be analyzed using optimality theory (OT). In OT, the grammar of a language or dialect is achieved through the ranking of universal constraints. The aim of the ranking is to resolve the tension between the markedness and faithfulness constraints, (Alderete, Beckman, Benua, Gnanadesikan, McCathy, and Urbanczyk 1999). When the decisive constraint is from the markedness family, the term technically used is ‘the emergence of the unmarked’ (TETU). McCarthy (2002:129) defines TETU thus: A markedness constraints M is crucially dominated in some language L, so M-violating structures are abundant in L. in particular, M may be ranked below its antagonistic faithfulness constraints dominating M. in just those situations, M can be visibly active, favouring the optimal candidate over some or all of its competitors. The structure that is unmarked with respect to M is then said to emerge, even though M’s presence in the grammar is generally hidden. Markedness constraints therefore govern the form of linguistic structure. Markedness constraints assign violatioAn Optimalityn marks Account to of candidatethe Cv Verb Root based and Nye on in itsIgbo outputPhonotactics form without reference to its input. Faithfulness constraints on the other hand, require that a structure preserves the characteristics of another, (Prince and Smolensky 1993). Various types of faithfulness constraints are generalized in correspondence theory of McCarthy and Prince (1995).

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2.3 Correspondence: Given two strings S1 and S2 related to one another as underlying and surface, base and reduplicant, etc, correspondence is a relation R between the elements of S1 and S2. Elements αS1 and S2 are correspondent of one another when α. S1 is the underlying form and S2 is the surface form in classic faithfulness constraints. Some of the faithfulness constraints that relate the surface to its underlying forms are: MAXIO (no deletion), DEPIO (no epenthesis) and IDENTIO (features must be identical). Language typology is arrived at when the universal constraints are permuted. As noted earlier in the definition of TETU, if some markedness constraints crucially dominate the faithfulness constraints such that the markedness constraints determine the optimal candidate, we say that there is TETU. A CV verb root in Igbo displays TETU. This is because some markedness constraints like *VV according to Mbah (2007), (penalize a palatal nasal if it begins the second word of the compounding that is, in a sense intervocallically), High (vowels must be high), and ONSET (a syllable must begin with a consonant) dominate the faithfulness constraints MAXIO and IDENTIO. If on the other hand, the faithfulness constraints crucially dominate the markedness constraints, the modified option would not be possible. Every segment of the input would have appeared at the output. We will illustrate how markedness constraints decide the optimal options using tableaux in the latter part of this paper. Tableaux display a perspicuous outline of the rows of competing candidates. The constraints are arranged in domination order from left to right. The cells contain the violation marks (*) incurred by each candidate in relation to the constraints. The best or optimal candidate is indicated by a finger symbol (). In this paper therefore, we will study the surface forms of the verb compounds and use Optimality Theory of Smolensky (2004) to account for the phonological changes that gave rise to it.

3. Empirical Study Many scholars have carried out researches on vowel raising, and optimality theory. In this section, some of these works are examined. 3.1 Vowel Raising Doke and Mofokeng (1974) investigate mid vowel raising in Sesotho and define mid vowel raising as a process where // becomes // and // becomes // under the influence of close vowels or consonants that contain hidden close vowels. Example in the Sesotho language; 1a. hotsheha = to laugh ([t])  hotshehisa = to cause to laugh ([]) b. ke  bon = I see ([])  kebone = I saw ([]) c. ho ken = to enter ([]) ho Kenya = to insert ([]) In (1a and c) [] changed to [] while in (1b), [] changed to []. The phonological process responsible for this is vowel raising. According to Doke and Mofokeng (1974), the above changes are usually recursive to varying depths within the word, though, being a left spreading rule, it is often bounded by the difficulty of foreseeing the raising syllable: Example: 2. diphoofolo = animals ([f])  diphoofolong = by the animals ([]).

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Additionally, a right-spreading form of raising, according to the above scholars, occurs when a close-mid vowel is on the penultimate syllable (that is, the stressed syllable) and, due to some inflection or derivational process, is followed by an open-mid vowel. In this case, the vowel on the final syllable is raised. This does not happen if the penultimate syllable is a high close vowel: (/i/) or (/u/). Example: 3. -besa = roast []  subjunctive ke bese = so I may roast [] but -thiola = find [] subjunctive ke thiole = so I may find [] The vowels in (3) can occur phonemically, however, and may thus be considered to be separate phonemes, (see example 4 below) 4. mele = wisdom [m] horetla = to dismantle/mutilate [] Mid vowel raising is not only present in Sesotho, but also in other languages like English, Makonde, Vulgar Latin, etc. It is common knowledge that all raising of the long mid-front vowel [e:] to [i:], as in green, meat, tree, etc., is part of a sequence of changes known as the Great Vowel Shift, (see Hagiwara, 2005). Furthermore, according to Hagiwara (2005), classic studies of the English phonology, r- and o- raising as well as the remaining two changes (-raising, i-/u-diphthongisation) took place in the 15th century. However, from the beginning, such dating has been contested by historical linguists who adduce instances of spelling indicating a raised pronunciation of the vowel, proved to be i-spelling for the earlier e-spelling reflecting long close [e]. In Makonde dialects of Mozambique according to Clements and Rialland (2005), final vowels are raised. The final mid vowels [e] and [o] of certain non-verbal forms are raised to [i] and [u] respectively. Example: 5. muuti muutwe ‘head’ Chituudi Chituundwe ‘anger’ Lutaanu Lutaano ‘story’ ingoowu ingoowo ‘banana’ -mu -mo ‘a(n)’, ‘one’ -nu -no ‘this’ Furthermore, with some forms, according to Clements and Rialland’s (2005) investigation, the raising is found in non-final position. Example: 6. -umi < -omi ‘healthy’, ‘strong’ -ahi-ohe < -ohe-ohe ‘every’ In the work of Rachel (2006), in central Veneto dialect, he discovers that a post-tonic high vowel causes /e, o/ to raise to [i, u] in stressed syllables. Again, when stress is antepenultimate and the high triggers vowel is final, a mid vowel in the penult can undergo raising too. From Rachel’s findings, raising does not affect /, , /, e.g. gato/gati ‘cat’ (m sg/pl), vto/vtI ‘old man (m sg/pl). Of /, , /, only // occurs in an unstressed syllable, An and Optimality it blocks Account of harmony the Cv Verb Root between and Nye in aIgbo final Phonotactics vowel and the antepenult. Furthermore, Rachel avers that raising in an unstressed mid penult vowel only occurs when a stressed vowel undergoes raising. In other words, the raising harmony is non-myopic. Example: 7. (a) kalselo kalsiti ‘soak’ (m sg/pl) (b) movo muvi ‘move’ (l sg/2sg) (c) ordeno urdini ‘order’ (l sg/2sg) (d) la(v)orava la(v)oravi ‘worked, was working’ (l sg/2sg impf.) 115

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(e) angolo angoli ‘angle’ (m sg/pl) In Cameroon, Ngessimo and Chie (2006) investigate the phonological change of vowel raising in Babanki, a grassfield Bantu language of north-western Cameroon. They discover the manifestation of vowel raising, where the back vowels // and // alternate with // and // respectively in associative and possessive constructions, just in case they are part of the sequence  (where  stands for vowel). Example: Nouns 8. (a) mbag ‘walking stick’ mboghm ‘my walking stick’ (b) nta ‘rope’ ntowu ‘your rope’ The above instances of vowel raising across world languages show that vowel raising manifests in different forms and conditions in various languages. Some instances of vowel raising involve mid vowels as we observed in the Sesotho language while in the Makonde dialect of Mozambique, final mid vowels are raised. The situation is different in the Bantu language of the north-western Cameroon, where in the sequence of , vowel raising can occur in associative and possessive constructions. Also, the manifestation of vowel raising is restricted to certain contexts and conditions depending in the language under investigation.

4. Optimality Theory Accounts In Igala, Omachonu (2007) presents an optimality account of stress in Standard British English (SBE) as well as a comparative optimality theory account of stress in SBE and Nigerian English (NE) from the point of view of Igala users of English as a second language. Data for the study included ready-made exercises and already recorded cassettes, which deal directly with primary stress assignment in Standard British English. The method for elicitation of segments was mainly perceptual. From the analysis of data, the study demonstrates the markedness between stress assignment in SBE and that of NE using the constraint ordering approach. It shows that whereas the preference for NONFINALITY is higher in SBE, it is lower in ranking compared to the preference for UNEVEN – IAMB in Nigerian English. In conclusion, Omachonu posits that “…language specific grammar is but a means of resolving conflicting universal constraints. In other words, what marks individual grammar is the order in which these constraints apply.”

4.1 Optimality Theory and Vowel Harmony Oyebade (1997) provides an optimality account of vowel harmony in Ika (Agbor), using the constraint-based framework. The samples for his analysis are as follows: (9a) o ke rie ‘She will eat it.’ o re kpe  ‘She is sewing it.’

b)  ka k a ‘She will plant it.’  ra k a ‘She is scratching it.’

c) e ri  l m  ‘I have eaten it.’ e e  l m  ‘I have worn it.’

d) a gb  l ma ‘I have vomited it.’ a gba a l ma ‘I have shot it.’ (Adapted from Oyebade, 2004:206 - 207) Oyebade avers that ignoring the pronominal clitic o/, that every affix to the left of a root verb attests a low vowel ‘a’ if the root vowel is [-ATR], but a mid-low vowel ‘e’ when the root vowel is [+ATR]. Furthermore, Oyebade posits that after the root, all vowels are

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics invariably [-ATR] even though the alternation of the low vowel is maintained. However, instead of an ‘a/e’ alternation which is observed at the left of the root, it is an ‘a/’ alternation at the right. An interesting piece of evidence is the low-ranking of the constraint SCOPE, which is low-ranked and still produced an acceptable candidate.

4.2 Optimality Account of CV Verb Root and Nye Compound According to Longe (1961:383) “The category compound is made up of words that are divisible into components, all of which have the status of contemporary… word.” Compound words are of different kinds; nominal, prepositional and verbal. The Igbo language is among the languages that use compounding as a morphological process (cf Oluikpe 1979, Uwalaka 1995, Oluikpe and Nwaozuzu 1995, 1999, and Mbah 2004 etc). Mbah (2004:3) defines a compound verb as “…the verb, which has a minimum of two verbs that may act as independent verbs.” The above definition holds for the CV verb root and the verb nye in Igbo. In her study of vowel raising in Oba dialect of the Igbo language, Emekekwue (2000: 69 - 70) avers, “when there is a combination of any CV verb root and the verb nye, the following compounds are formed.” 10 Verb Nye Compound Gloss a. ma + nye > manye ‘give a measure to’ b. ta + nye > tanye ‘pour into’ c. be + nye > benye ‘cut for’ d. p[ + nye > p[nye ‘squeeze into’ e. si + nye > sinye ‘cook on’ f. go + nye > gonye ‘buy for’ g. kpo + nye > kponye  ‘scrape into’ h. dq + nye > dqnye ‘put into’ i. m[ + nye > m[nye ‘dry on’ j. du + nye > dunye ‘lead and give’ k. tx + nye > txnye ‘throw into’ l. nyo + nye > nyonye  ‘peep into’ m. nyaAn Optimality +Account ofnye the Cv Verb Root and> Nye in Igbonya Phonotacticsnye  ‘paste to’ The compounds in example 10 can in fast speech have some phonological changes. The first phonological change that occurs is the deletion of a segment. The voiced palatal nasal [] is deleted, (see Emekekwue 2000 and Mbah 2007). The structures in example 11 emerge after the deletion. 11 a. mae b. tae c. bee d. p[e e. sie f. goe 117

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages g. kpoe h. dqe i. m[e j. due k. txe l. nyoe m. nyae n. nyae The forms in 11 are unacceptable in relation to the phonology of the compounds. Another modification becomes necessary. The second modification is that the vowels of the compound verbs undergo raising, Mbah (2007). The first aspect of the raising affects the mid vowel of the verb nye. The mid-vowel is raised to a high front vowel /i/ or //, which aims at harmonizing with the vowel of the CV verb root. The process of raising is very important because it forces the compound to obey the rule of vowel harmony. In Igbo, compound words are exempted from the rule of vowel harmony, (see Emenanjo 1978, Mbah and Mbah 2000, Yusuf 2007). This exemption is cancelled in the case of the variant of the CV root and nye compounds in Igbo. The variant form of the compound verbs in Igbo does not stop at the vowel of nye changing to i/ through the process of deletion and raising. Some vowels of the CV verb roots are also affected. The affected vowels are the low vowels in the CV verb root. The low vowels of the CV verb root are raised to their high counterparts. The raising converts the grammatical forms of 12 to 13. 12a maị 13a. m[[ ‘give a measure to’ b taị > b. t[[ ‘pour into’ c bei > c. bii ‘cut for’ d p[[ > d. p[[ ‘squeeze into’ e sii > e. sii  ‘cook on’ f goi > f. gui ‘buy for’ g kpoị > g. kpui ‘scrape into’ h dqị > h. dx[ ‘put into’ i. m[ị > i. m[ị ‘dry on’ j dx[ > j. dx[ ‘lead and give’ k tx[ > k. tx[ ‘throw into’ l. nyoi > l. nyoi ‘peep into’ m. nya[  > m. nya[  ‘paste to’ Observe that the non-high vowels (both mid and low vowels) are raised to high vowels. Unlike in the case of raising the mid vowel of nye to high front vowels, the raising of the low vowel CV verb root is unrestricted. The raising can be to the front or back high vowels. Example 14 shows the vowels that underwent raising: 14a e > i b o > u d a > [ e q > x Example 14 above shows that there is harmony in roundness. Mid/low round vowels [o, q], change to high round vowels [u, x] while mid/low unrounded vowels [e, o], change to high unrounded vowels [i, []. High round and unrounded vowels remain unchanged, (see examples 12d, i, j and k above). The implication of the high vowels being unchanged is curious. The solution to the curiosity is given in the analysis and findings. It is worthy of note 118

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics to state that the above changes were very lucid because of the use of optimality theory. Earlier models of phonological analysis, like Generative Phonology was not lucid enough in its explanation of the above phenomenon. OT was able to handle this because “…it does away with rule-formulation Generative Phonology. Instead, phonotactics constraints are made the major bearers of explanatory burden and these constraints are universally present in any grammar. What differentiates individual grammars is the order in which these constraints apply”, Oyebade (2004). 4. Nye as a Root Verb It is worthy of note at this point to look at the manifestation of nye in other contexts. Consider examples 15 below: 15a. O nye m ego, aga m eje. – ‘ If he/she gives me money, I will go’ b. Nna m tara azu ma nye any[ qkpxkpx. – ‘ My father ate meat and gave me bone’ c. Obi nyeere m aka wuo xlq m. – ‘Obi helped me to build my house’ d. Ha nyetxrx any[ ego. – ‘They gave us a little sum of money’ In example (15) a-b above, the morphological structure of nye did not change. Also, in (15) c-d, nye still retained its original form. Here, we notice that nye is the root verb accepting affixes. But in the previous section where nye changed its morphological form through elision and vowel raising, it was joined to another root. Therefore, we can say that here, nye is in-situ while in other contexts, it is not. 5. Analysis This section of the paper presents the analysis of data based on the verb compounds discussed in (10) above. Consider the output of binye in Tableau 1 Tableau 1 Bu e *V V HIGH ONSET MAX IDENT   IO IO a. bue * * * b. bue * * c.  * * * bui An Optimality Account of the Cv Verb Root and Nye in Igbo Phonotactics d. bii * * **

In Tableau 1 above, it is observable that candidate C is the optimal candidate. But for its closest rival, candidate (d), the decisive constraint would have been high. High is very crucial to this option, hence, the two vowels of the optimal candidates are high. Candidate (b) is the worst candidate. It was eliminated right from the undominated *VV since it posses a banned segment. On the other hand, candidate (a) is disqualified at HIGH constraint because it retains its mid vowel. Let us further illustrate with manye in Tableau 2. Tableau 2 me *VV HIGH ONSET MAXIO IDENTIO a. mae ** * * b. mae * ** c. ma * * * * * * ** d.  119

Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages m In Tableau 2, candidate (d) is the best candidate. Compare this optimal candidate with candidate (d) of Tableau 1; also compare the optimal candidate of Tableau 1 with the optimal candidate (c) of Tableau 2. They appear similar (though superficially). Candidate (c) of Tableau 2 has a low vowel whereas a high vowel is expected. In Tableau 1, candidate (c) possesses high vowels. Thus, it reiterates the point that high vowels play important roles in this type of compounding in the Igbo language. Many dialects of Igbo will prefer candidate (d). This preference supports the fact that constraints are ranked rather than parameterized. In the dialects where candidate (c) is preferred, there will be a re-ranking of the constraints so that candidate (c) will emerge the winner. For candidates (d) in tableaux 1 and 2, that of tableau 1 is rejected because of fronting a high back vowel. Fronting is not operational in the CV verb root. We further illustrate with sinye in Tableau 3. Tableau 3

Sie *VV HIGH ONSET MAXIO IDENTIO a. sie * * * b.  sii * * * c. sie * * d. sui * * ** In Tableau 3 above, candidate (b) is the optimal candidate. It satisfies all the markedness constraint except onset, which every output that satisfies *VV violates. This is because the deletion of the palatal sound renders the nye syllable onsetless. Tableau 4 oe *VV HIGH ONSET MAXIO IDENTIO a. oe * ** b. oe ** * * * * ** c.  ui d. oi * * * *

Tableau 4 is used to illustrate the fact that it is only the voiced palatal nasal of the second word of the compound that can be deleted. The voiced palatal nasal of the first word never underwent deletion. Preliminary Findings and Summary This paper has investigated how a CV verb root and nye form compound verbs in Igbo. The findings of the paper establish the fact that such verb compounds undergo some phonological changes of deletion and raising so that an alternative form appears as a variant. The data analysis report in this study also indicates that the much more rapid loss of the voiced palatal nasal // and the consequent raising of the vowels are plausibly attributed to rapid speech, especially in construction. By using OT, the study proves the optionality result from the ranking of markedness constraints above the faithfulness constraints. The study discovers that the choice of a particular verb compound in Igbo is due to the ranking of the markedness constraints above the faithfulness constraints and this leads to The Emergence of the unmarked (TETU). The ranking results in having the unmarked structure appearing as the output. In fact, with the use of universal constraints from our data presentation and analysis, we have established the ranking order specific to 120

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics the Igbo language. This work supports the assumption that through the ranking of universal constraints, language/dialect particular order can be achieved. Also, it proves that nye can only undergo such a change when it serves as a suffix to another rV root verb and not when it is a CV root in isolation accepting affixes.

References Alderete, J., Beckman, J, Benua, L. Gnanadesikan, A., McCarthy, J., and Urbanczyk, S. (1999). “Reduplication with Fixed Segmentism.” Linguistic Inquiry, Vol.30. Pp. 327 - 364. Altmann, G. (1988). “Hypothesis About Compounds.” Glottemetrika, Vol. X. Antilla, A. (1995). “Deriving Variation from Grammar: A Study of Finnish Genitives.” Available in http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/roa.html. Accessed 15/09/2009. Chambers, J. K. (1993). “Canadian Raising.” Canadian Journal of Linguistics. 18:2, 113-35. Clements, G.N. and Rialland, A. (2005). “African as a Phonological Area.” In H. Bernd and N. Derck (Eds.), African as a Linguistic Area. Cambridge University Press. Dichabe, S. B. (1997). “Advanced Tongue Root Harmony in Setwana.” M.A. Dissertation, University of Ottawa. Doke, C. M. and Mofokeng, S. M. (1974). Text of Southern Sotho Grammar. Cape Town: Longman. Emekekwue, E.E. (2000). “Patterns of Sound Change in Oba.” An Unpublished B.A. Project, Department of Linguistics and other Nigerian Languages, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Emenanjo, E.N. (1978). Elements of Modern Igbo Grammar. Ibadan: Oxford University Press. th Fromkin, V, Rodman,An Optimality R. and Account Hygins, of the Cv Verb N. Root (2007). and Nye inAn Igbo IntroductionPhonotactics to Language. 8 Edition USA: Thompson Wadsworth. Hagiwara, R. (2005). Visualizing the Canadian English Vowels. A Paper Presented at the Joint ASA/CAA Meeting, Vancouver, BC. Kager, R. (1994). “Ternary Rhythm in Alignment Theory.” Available in http://ruccs.rutgers.edu.roa.html. Accessed 15/09/2009. Kager, R. (1999). Optimality Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kiparsky, P. (1993). “Variable Rules.” Handout of Presentation at Rutgers Optimality Workshop 1, 23 October, 1993. Available in http.www://cucc.rutgers.edu/ roa.htm. Accessed 13/09/2009. Longe, R. (1961). The Sentence and Its Parts. Chieago: Chieago University Press. Matthews, P. H. (1978). Morphology: An Introduction to the Theory of Word Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mbah, B. M. (1999). Studies in Syntax: Igbo Phrase Structure. Nsukka: Prize Publishers. Mbah, B. M. (2004). “Verbal Compound in Igbo: A Transformational Account.” Festschrift in Honour of Prof. P.A. Nwachukwu. Pp. 83-93. Mbah, E. E. (2007). “Elision in Oba Igbo: A Synchronic Study.” In B. N. Anasiudu, G.I. Nwaozuzu, and C. N. Okebalama (Eds.) Language and Literature in A

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Developing Country: Essays in Honour of Professor Benson O.A. Oluikpe, Pp. 36 – 41. Onitsha: Africana First Publishers Limited. Mbah, B.M. and Mbah, E.E. (2000). Topics in Phonetics and Phonology: Contributions from Igbo. Nsukka: AP Express Publishers. McCarthy, J. J. (2002). A Thematic Guide to Optimality Theory. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. McCarthy, J. J. and Prince, A. (1995). “Faithfulness and Reduplicative Identity.” In J. Beckman, L. Dickey and S. Urbanczyk (Eds.) University of Massaclusetts Occasional Papers in Linguistics, vol.18. Massaclusetts: Amherst, M. A. GLSA Publications. Pp. 249 – 384. Ngessimo, M.M. and Chie, E.P. (2006). Vowel Raising in Babanki. A Paper Presented at the 25th WALL, at the University of Benin, Cotonou. Nwachukwu, P. A. (1983). The Igbo Verb. Onitsha: Africana – Feb Publishers. Nwaozuzu, G.I. (1991). “Igbo Nominal Compounds: A Semantico – Typological Analysis.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Oluikpe, B. O. (1979). Igbo Transformational Syntax: The Ngwa Example. Onitsha: Africana FEP Publishers. Oluikpe, B. O. and Nwaozuzu, G. I. (1995). “Igbo Nominal Compounds: Fact or Fiction?” In E. N. Emenanjo and O.M. Ndimele (Eds.) Issues in African Languages and Linguistics: Essays in Honour of Kay Williamson. Aba: National Institute for Nigerian Languages. Omachonu, G.S. (2007). “From Rule-Based to Constraint-Based Analysis: Issues in English Suprasegmental Phonology.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Oyebade, F.O. (1997). “Domain and Scope in Ika Vowel Harmony.” Paper Presented at the Annual Conference of the Linguistics Association of Ghana, June 27th and 28th, 1997, University of Ghana. Oyebade, F.O. (2004). A Course in Phonology. Illorin: Belowdan Nigeria Enterprises. Prince, A. and Smolensky, P. (1993). Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar, Technical Report 2. NJ, Cambridge: MIT Press. Prince, A. and Smolensky, P. (2004). Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Rachel, W. (2006). Gradualness and Fellswoop Derivation. London: Edward Anorld. Reynolds, W.T. (1994). “Variation and Phonological Theory.” Ph.D Dissertation, Philadelphia. Smolensky, P. (1993). “Harmony, Markedness and Phonological Activity.” Handout to Talk Presented at Rutgers Optimality Workshop 1, 23 October, 1993. Available in http://cucc.rutgers.edu/roa.htm. Accessed 13/09/2009. Uwalaka, M. A. (1995). “Xo – Movement and Igbo Complex Predicate.” In K. Owolabi (Ed.) Language in Nigeria: Essays in Honour of Ayo Bamgbose. Ibadan: Group Publishers. Wikipedia (2008). “Vowel Raising.” Available in http. www.wikipedia.html. Accessed 20/02/2009. Yusuf, O. (2007). Basic Linguistics for Nigerian Language Teachers. Port Harcourt: M & J Grand Orbit Communication Limited.

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Templatic Pattern and Lineation in Poetry

Templatic Pattern and Lineation in Poetry: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Igbo Verbal Arts

Francis Oyebade [email protected] Adekunle Ajasin Univ. Akungba-Akoko

and

Evelyn Mbah [email protected] University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Abstract Delimiting lines in Oral Poetry has been argued to be a complex task. There two criteria that can help one overcome the complexity, namely breath-pause criterion, in which the artiste pauses for breath and the lexico-structural unity criterion, which establishes the semantic and structural unity within a line. Some Yoruba scholars, propose the inclusion of a phonological criterion in delimiting lines in oral Poetry. 123

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They propose that a set of prosodic templates, which are attached to the morae of the poem form a unique pattern. This paper compares the moraic pattern and lineation in Yoruba and Igbo verbal art so as to establish whether or not there is any element of similarity in the templatic structures and lineation in the verbal art of the two languages. The study shows that the two languages can effectively use the phonological criterion in the analysis of oral poems. Consequently, the recourse to such phonological criterion leads to a structural symmetry in lines of the arts that accounts for their beauty. It seems to us that Yoruba and Igbo poems share some elements of similarity with the Welsh poetry French, Alexandrine poetry and Japanese Haiku poetry and these elements appear universal.

Introduction The Yoruba and Igbo peoples are two culturally different ethnic groups which share, apparently, among some other similarities: the fact that they are syllable-timed tone languages. It is therefore expected, by this fact, that there should be similarities and differences in their verbal art. The aim of this study is to explore such similarities with special emphasis on the phonological template provided by the moraic pattern of poetic lines. A mora is an abstract phonological unit. It is a rhythmic unit based on syllable length. Light syllables have one mora and heavy syllables have two moras (Hayes 1989). Diphthongs and long vowels are bimoraic, and short vowels, syllabic nasals, coda consonants are monomoraic (Cole and Miyashita 2006).Templates are the authentic units of prosody. In Yoruba and Igbo, templates are tone bearing elements. It will be argued that moraic template analysis provides one more tool in the interrogation of the poetic ingenuity of the verbal artist perhaps in a similar way to the constraining effect of the rhyming system of English poetry. Olatunji (1984) in his seminal study of the features of Yoruba Oral Poetry identifies repetition, parallelism, tonal counterpoint, word-play, non-casual language, figurative language and rhythm as the most obvious features of Yoruba verbal arts. For our purpose, we shall choose two of these features – repetition and parallelism -- as the tools for comparing the verbal art strategy of the two literary traditions. The reason for this choice, as we will show in this study, is because these are the more apparent points of similarity in the two traditions. The paper is organized into six sections; the first section introduces the study, the second section discusses some points of similarity between Igbo and Yoruba Verbal Arts while the third section looks at the theoretical framework that underpins the study. The fourth section looks at the moraic template patterns in Yoruba and Igbo verbal arts and the fifth section explores the role of the moraic template in the lineation of many verbal art forms in both literary cultures. The sixth section concludes the study.

Repetition and Parallelism Repetition can be defined as an act of performing a function all over so as to achieve emphasis, draw attention and clarification (Preminger 1965). On the other hand, parallelism is a “ state of correspondence between one phrase, line or verse with another … the basic aesthetic principle of poetic utterance” (Preminger 1965: 599). Repetition and Parallelism are the commom features of Yoruba and Igbo verbal arts. Egudu and Nwoga (1971:9) describe life in Igbo society as one that is: … full of cultural activities which follow a rhythmical pattern from the womb to the tomb. Each stage of a man’s life is marked by one important cultural performance, which turns out a drama of the particular stage. Thus, at birth we 124

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics have the names given to the child, which are a wish and blessing, and which dedicate the baby born to the care of the gods. There is also a special ritual which marks the transition from adolescence to adulthood, with utterances of encouragement and vindication. Later in life, one takes one or more of the numerous titles, the occasion of which is one of pomp and self-glorification. Finally, at the time of death, ceremonies follow some cultural pattern. Beside these, are three cultural features which sometimes accompany them and sometimes stand on their own; namely, religion, magic and festivals. Also moon-light play in which children and adults may take part is an important feature of traditional Igbo society. Egudu and Nwoga further note that each of these cultural activities is accompanied by significant poetic expression, which not only beautifies and records the occasion but also perpetuates it. All of the cultural features noted for Igbo have their equivalents in Yoruba. Significantly, the cultural attitude which informs many of the verbal art expressions in Yoruba as noted by Beier (1956:23) is the fact that, … There is no occasion in Yoruba life that is not accompanied by songs. Births, marriage, and funeral are all occasions for lyrical songs of great beauty: Everyday life is also accompanied by a great deal of impromptu singing, a kind of musical thinking, in which the singer puts everything to a tune, which happens to pass through his head. The Verbal art of the Yoruba and Igbo people present good justification for comparison as many of the groupings of subject matter for verbal art expression have equivalents in both languages. Abu maka olulu Nwanyi (Igbo marriage songs) relate to the Yoruba Ekún ìyàwó; Abu Nhiura Nwa (Lullabies) in Igbo is equivalent to Yoruba Ewì ìremolékún; Abu Egwu Onwa in Igbo finds its equivalent in Ewì tàbí orin Erésùpá Omodé (Moonlight Songs); Abu Otito (Praise Poems) in Igbo (Egudu and Nwoga, 1971:26-51) relate to Yoruba Oríkì (Babalola 1967). (invocation) and (incantation) poems in Igbo (Egudu and NwogaTemplatic 1971) Pattern haveand Lineation equivalents in Poetry in Yoruba Iwúre and ofò respectively. Olatunji (1984) characterizes repetition in Yoruba Oral Poetry as a doubling of lexico- structural, lexical or semantic elements of a poem. For example1, (Olatunji 1984:17):

Ojojúmó ni láàńtètèé dáràn It is daily that the láàntètè cricket gets into trouble Yánpanyánrin yánpanyánrin Ojojúmó ni láàńtètèé dáràn It is daily that the láàntètè cricket gets into trouble Yánpanyánrin yánpanyánrin

He argues that full repetition “…is used to emphasize and intensify the theme of the repeated sentences.” (Olatunji 1984:19). This feature is common in Igbo Verbal Art as the following examples show2. Nwá nné m ebele (My brother / sister do not cry Nné gi jere ahia-o-o your mother has gone to the market Nné gi jere oru your mother has gone to work Ebelá ha nà-abiá-o-o do not cry, they are coming (back)

Nwá nné m ndó My brother/sister sorry Nné gi jere ahia-o-o Your mother has gone to the market Nné gi jere oru Your mother has gone to work 125

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Ebelá ha nà-abía-o-o Do not cry, they are coming (back)) (Ogbalu 1974:70)

As we will try to show later, this repetition may be driven by the desire to satisfy templatic pattern requirement as well as drawing emphasis as observed by Olatunji. Bamgbose (1969:12) defines parallelism in Yoruba oral poetry as “…a juxtaposition of sentences having a similar structure, a matching of at least two lexical items in each structure, a comparison between the juxtaposed sentences and a central idea expressed through complementary statements in the sentences.” Olatunji (1984:25) observes that parallelism “…has been shown to exist in the poetry of many people (…Hebrew Poetry; … Vedic poetry and … Russian, to mention a few) …”. Following Vidal (1952), Olatunji (1984) identifies: gradational parallelism where the second clause rises above the first either in significance or in expression; antithetical parallelism where sentences are connected by contrast instead of similarity; synthetic parallelism which lies in the construction of the sentences, noun answering to noun, and verb to verb, in such a way that sentences display purely grammatical congruencies. These characterizations can be exemplified in the Yoruba examples below: Ta ló gbójúu fífò ládìe àgádá? (Who expects a fowl with tied legs and wings to fly? Ta ló gbójúu yíyanyíyan lálágemo? Who expects a chameleon to saunter?) or Mo jí mo wewóò mi nù iténí-iténí (I wake, I wash my hands scrupulously clean Mo jí mo wesèè mi nù itènì-itènì I wake, I wash my feet scrupulously clean.) (Olatunji 1984:27). A similar feature can be found in Igbo verbal art with a typical example as shown below. Nwánné ozo Nwa Ezè-ígwé diké The brother of the ozo, son of the hard iron-king …… Nwánné ozo ji ogenè elí ihé The brother of the ozo, who eats accompanied with the music of the gong) (Egudu & Nwoga 1971:26)

We shall argue that the repetition of moraic templatic patterns from one stanza to another may be driven by the urge to maintain prosodic phonological parallelism in the verbal art.

Metrical System and the Moraic Template Literary scholars in African verbal Arts have always been, suspicious whenever the issue of metrical systems in the verbal Arts is mentioned. This suspicion is clearly expressed for Yoruba in Olatunji (1984:3) when he says that such discussions are an attempt to “… transfer to Yoruba studies … categories derived from European or other languages and literatures … Babalola’s use of rhythm units and stresses -- and Abimbola after him -- represents an attempt at transferring to Yoruba poetry the alternation of stress and non-stress which is the basis of meter in English poetry.” In spite of the justification of this conscious approach to comparison of art forms from one culture to another, it is pertinent to point out that the fundamental verbal origin of all poetic outputs across cultures and the similarities in the organizational capabilities of the human mental process suggest that some similarities – especially phonological ones -- must exist between the verbal and poetic art forms of different cultures. Fabb (1997:59) has

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics clarified this universal tendency in literature when he suggests that (cross-culturally), poetic literature can be classified into two types: the patterning meter and the counting meter. The former “…has a metrical position, labelled S and W, and the matching rule is sensitive to the difference; it specifies that a strong syllable in a lexical word must not match a W position in the metrical template…” (Fabb 1997: 59). Such a metrical system is exemplified by the English iambic pentameter which stipulates a template with ten positions labeled as: WS WS WS WS WS The English matching rules then account for the regular intervals in stress as it interacts with this template. He illustrates with these two lines. w s w s w s w s w s o learn to read what silent love hath writ w s w s w s w s w s to hear with eyes belongs to loves fine wit

Counting meter, on the other hand, has a metrical template which “… (consists) of undifferentiated metrical positions. Each metrical position is matched to a prosodic phonological constituent, typically either a syllable or a mora…” (Fabb 1997:56). Many syllable-timed languages are now being shown to possess some measure of metricality in literature. Japanese HAIKU verse system has long been identified as one which operates a counting meter at the moraic phonological level. The mora is a timing unit that determines temporal duration in an utterance. It is projected by the nucleus of a syllable (any vowel or syllabic nasal ) as well as the coda of any syllable (if available ). Basically, this study assumes that Yoruba and Igbo Verbal Arts operate a counting metrical system displaying various systematic templatic regularities at the moraic level. It remains to show how the creative ingenuity of the Yoruba and Igbo Verbal artistes manipulate the variety of combinations available to them.

Templatic Pattern and Lineation in Poetry

Template Arrangement Moraic Templatic Arrangement in Yoruba and Igbo Poetry Moraic Templates in Verbal Art forms could be organized in an isometric pattern (whereby all of the lines have exactly the same number of moras each) or heterometric pattern (in which more than one template is used but arranged in a discernably organized pattern). A typical isometric template can be exemplified in many Yoruba children’s moonlight songs. For example Woru o, Woru r’oko Woru o! Woru went to the farm Woru o, Woru r’odo Woru o! Woru went to the stream Woru p’aka f’eye je Woru threshed corn to feed birds Mo délé mo ro fun baba When I got home I reported (this) to father Baba na Woru jojo Father thrashed Woru thoroughly

A count of the number of moras (in this case, represented by the number of vowels) shows that all of the lines (except the penultimate one) have seven moras. Oyebade and Agoyi (2006:309-310) argue that in performance, all of the lines show up equally with eight moras as some of the seven-mora lines have one or other of their moras lengthened. A similar case

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Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages is found in the Yoruba children’s mnemonic poetry, which is used by children to enhance their numeration skill, as the example below shows

Ení bí ení, l’omodé n ka’wó Two by two, the Elders play the Ayo game; Èjì bí èjì l’àgbàlagbà n ta’yò Three by three, let us be generous to each other; Èta bí èta , e jé ká ta’ra wa l’óre Four by four, we smile back to the one who smiles at us; Èrin bí èrin, eni rín’ni (in) là á rín Five by five, may the almighty one protect us from prodigality? Àrún bí àrún,Oba má se wá l’árungbún Six by six, let us bind ourselves together (through love); Èfà bí èfà, e jé ka fa’ra wa mó’ra Seven by seven, Olúgbón celebrated the orò festival and survived the seventh day; Èje bí èje, Olúgbón s’orò ó kìje Eight by eight, one resembles the one who bore one; Èjo bí èjo , ení bí’ni là á jo One by one , a child counts money; Èsán bí èsán, Oba j’álé ó san wá Nine by nine, Almighty One, let the night- time of our life be profitable; Èwá bí èwá, Oba má wàhálà a wa Ten by ten, Almighty One, do not place hardship upon us.

All of the lines of this poem have thirteen moras except for the first line (11 moras), the second, the eight and the ninth lines (12 moras each); nonetheless, Oyebade and Agoyi (2006:310-315) show that in performance, some of the moras in these lines are lengthened until all of the lines display a thirteen point template. A similar penchant for isometric templates can be demonstrated in the following Aro (chain) poetry in Yoruba, where all of the lines, save for the last one, display an eight- point template: … omí kò, omí ò paná Water refused, water did not quench the fire, iná kò, iná ò j’ógo Fire refused, fire did not burn the club, Ògó kò, ògo ò p’ejò Club refused, club did not kill the snake Ejò kò, ejò ò sánde Snake refused, snake did not bite the hunter, Odé kò, ode ò pekùn Hunter refused, hunter did not kill the leopard, Ekùn kò, ekùn ò pajá Leopard refused, leopard did not kill the dog Ajá mà kò, ajá ò kómí je--Fèrèkun Dog refused, dog did not eat the excrement – (Fèrèkun!) (Olukoju, 1993:69-70)

Similar isometric templatic pattern can be found in Igbo Verbal Arts as in the following example from Ogbalu (1974:99). Túfùonú nwa ruru àla-ò Throw away the abominable child; úbòchí òzó àmúta òzó Another day she will bear another. Túfùonú nwa ruru àla-ó Throw away the abominable child; úbòchí òzó àmúta òzó-ò Another day she will bear another.

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Túfùó yá nà ó zùru órí … ó Throw him away because he stole;

úbòchí òzó àmúta òzó … ó Another day she will bear another. Túfùó yá nà ó gbàra àma ... ò Throw him away because he revealed secret; úbòchí òzó àmúta òzó … ó Another day she will bear another.

This poem could be analyzed in a number of ways: if its lineation is as presented above (which is exactly as it is in the text), it will seem to be an eight-line verse with a ten-point3 metrical template, except for the first and third lines which have nine points each. On the other hand, the poem could be considered to be a four-line verse with the repeated form representing the end half of each line. In that case, it will be a four-line verse with the first two lines registering as nineteen-point moraic template and the last two as a couplet of a twenty-point template. The difference is not trivial as the former lineation will suggest that in performance, some moras of the degenerate lines (1st and 3rd) will be lengthened to produce an isometric verse; on the other hand, the second kind of analysis will suggest that this is a heterometric verse with twenty templates of 19 and twenty points occurring as couplets respectively. A careful analysis of performance may address this question in the subsequent section. Another example of isometric verse comes from Igbo children’s moonlight play song below. This song accompanies a game of ‘catch’ where two groups face each other to form a human bridge by slapping hands together while other children bend underneath this bridge running in and out, trying to evade being caught under the bridge when the song stops. Kpú kpu m kpu ógéne Ó-géne ò-géne ge Ònyé n’èkpú ogéne Ó-gene ò-géne ge The above verbal art form is clearly an isometric poem with a seven-point moraic template repeated in four lines.

Template Repetition as Doublets and Couplets Olatunji (1984:17) shows that lexico-structural repetition in Yoruba quite often appears as couplets as in Ojojúmó ni láàntètèé dáràn yánpanyánrinTemplatic Pattern andIt is Lineation daily inthat Poetry the láàntètè cricket gets into big

trouble

Ojojúmó ni láàntètèé dáràn yánpanyánrin It is daily that the láàntètè cricket gets into big trouble. And again Ojó atá bá bó sójú ní í bàwà ojúú jé It is on the day that pepper gets into the eye that it spoils the beauty (behaviour) of the eye.

Ojó atá bá bó sójú ní í bàwà ojúú jé It is on the day that pepper gets into the eye that it spoils the beauty (behaviour) of the eye.

He notes that the repetition need not be in couplets “…that is in consecutive lines, …, [but] there may be intervening lines…” (Olatunji 1984:17). He presents some fine examples which include the following Iwo akúápá Preparation to afflict one with epilepsy 129

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Ó mbe l’ájà baba re It is in your father’s ceiling Iwo oníjàkùtè Preparation to afflict one with elephantiasis Ó mbe l’ájà baba re It is in your father’s ceiling. A parallel to this lexico-structural doubling can be argued to hold at the prosodic phonological level where templatic couplets can be found in the following children’s lullaby

Dààda nkó o, o wa n lé o Where is Dada? He is at home; Kó má su pupo o, kó má sàìsu May he not stool much, may he not fail to stool; Kó mà gbóná jan-jan-jan4 bí èko òní o May he not grow hot as maize- porridge prepared just today; Kó mà tutu rin-rin-rin4 bí èko àná o May he not grow cold as maize- porridge prepared since yesterday. (Oyebade & Olumuyiwa 2003:219)

Observe that the first two lines form a couplet of eleven moras each while the last two lines also constitute a couplet of thirteen moras each. Templates can also occur as doublets with an intervening different template: Iya ran mi l’akara o (Mother (in-law) sent me to purchase bean- cakes, Mo wa bu die s’ereke  (I say) mother sent me to buy bean- cakes; Mo be’ya iya ò gbaa I hid some inside my cheeks, Orogun ile o je e I pleaded but mother rejected my plea; Orogun ilee My co-wife is the cause (of the rejection). Orogun ile o My co-wife Onipepele leenu (I repeat) my co-wife, the one with mouth like a raised mud-bed). In this vituperative poem, the oral artiste structures the moraic template in the pattern, 8, 8, 8, 6, 6, 8. The first two lines form a couplet; the fourth and fifth lines form a different couplet while the third and the sixth (last) line form a doublet with the intervening couplet of the fourth and fifth lines. The same kind of variety can be clearly discerned in Igbo verbal art forms:

Mx na nwa5 nne m gara oh[a nku My brother/sister and I went to the forest to fetch wood Nkx oma Fine wood Kpachaa nkx ghara nwa nne nke m I gathered wood and left my brother/sister behind Nkx oma Fine wood Okporoko iji ab[ala nga any[ na-ete uri Big housefly should not come where we were designing with camwood Nkx oma Fine wood Onye anya mkpo ab[ala nga any[ na-ete uri Blind one must not come to where we are designing with camwood Nkx Oma Fine wood

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Ignoring the responsive ‘Nku oma’ which seems to just mark the end of a line, we end up with a four-line verse with each pair of lines forming a couplet – the first pair with a thirteen- point moraic template each and the last pair with a nineteen-point template each. The Igbo Verbal Artiste makes very creative use of this device as the next example shows: Nwanyi6 sibe esibe – egheghe when woman cooks, cooks and the food is never done Nwanyi sibe esibe -- egheghe-e when woman cooks, cooks and the food is never done Omeludike anoba anoba-- anana Die-hard caller stays, stays without going: Iyo iyo iyo anana Yes, Yes, Yes, without going Iyo iyo iyo anana-a Yes, Yes, Yes, without going Omeludike anoba anoba-anana Die-hard caller stays, stays without going. Nwanyi ghebe eghebe – ebebe When woman fries, fries without ending Nwanyi ghebe eghebe -- ebebe-e When woman fries, fries without ending (repeat lines 4-6) Nwanyi suba asuba -- agwuagwu When woman pounds, pounds without finishing Nwanyi suba asuba -- agwuagwu-u When woman pounds, pounds without finishing (repeat lines 4-6) (Egudu and Nwoga 1971:90)

This is a three-stanza poem with six lines per stanza. The templatic interplay in the poem is intricate and very creative. The first two lines of each stanza forms a couplet of ten-point moraic templates (except, perhaps for the last stanza which seems to have eleven points). The end of this couplet is registered by an extrametrical lengthening of the final syllable of the second member of the couplet. Next, a fourteen-line template follows, a doublet which ends the stanza but this doublet has an intervening couplet of a nine-point template – which also marks the end of its couplet with an extrametrical lengthening. Each stanza is structurally parallel to the others in templatic organization. It is interesting to note that this poem combines both types of repetition (couplet type and doublet with intervening materials) which Olatunji (1984) notes for lexico-structural repetition in Yoruba. Another example of creative doubling of templatic materials in Igbo verbal art can be seen in the following: Ozo-gada-gidi Ozo Ozo fulfilled as Ozo Ozo nwa obodo ngwu TemplaticOzo Pattern of Ngwu and Lineation town in Poetry

Ogbu ebune ude Killer of famous Ram Aji ebune bu ude ya Ram’s hair is its fame Mpu ebune bu ude ya Ram’s horn is its strength Ogbu ebune ude Killer of famous Ram Nde d’ihe ije eme-e? But what do you do it with? Opu-ozala gi di we e? Where is your musical horn? Ishi ezi gi di we e? Where is your cow-head? Ishi ehi gi di we e? Where is your pig-head? Metu onu n’opu Blow the musical horn Odo Nkwo na-awa gi Odo by Nkwo market inspires you Ishi-ino na-awa gi Four-headed Odo inspires you Odo ukwu-ugwu na-awa gi Odo by Ngwu tree inspires you Metu onu n’opu Blow the musical horn 131

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(Egudu and Nwoga 1971:68-69)

The first pair of lines form a templatic couplet of eight points each; the fourth and fifth lines also form a templatic couplet but of nine-point moras; the third and sixth lines form a doublet of seven mora each. The seventh and eighth lines are a nine-mora couplet; the ninth and tenth lines are a couplet of eight moras each. The last five lines are interesting: the eleventh and fifteenth lines (like the third and sixth) form a doublet but of six moras each while the twelfth and thirteenth lines form a couplet of eight moras. The only discordant line is the fourteenth one (the penultimate line) which has a template of ten moras. This intricate interplay of line patterning is analogous to the creative patterning of rhyme in many English poems and convinces us that it is deliberate and not accidental.

Templatic Pattern and Lineation Olatunji (1984) observes that, “[e]stablishing criteria to delimit lines in oral poetry is a complex task, since the oral poet has been brought up in a tradition that may not follow the linear convention”. He notes that the difficulty is not a new one as the same problem confronted Beier and Gbadamosi (1959:8) when they state that “in writing down this poetry it is even difficult to decide what constitutes a line as there are in fact no regular lines.” Olatunji (1984) follows Babalola (1966) in adopting the criterion of the breath-pause (when the oral poet pauses for breath before proceeding to the next level) although he notes other useful devices such as the use of the weak emphatic item ‘o’ or the strong emphatic lengthening on a low tone of the final syllable of the emphasized word, he nevertheless draws attention to the inadequacy of these criteria. As he notes, there are occasions when the artist rushes through a long utterance without taking any perceptible breath. However, there are cases of the oral artist pausing in the middle of a syntactic group especially when he has been struggling for breath. In the light of the performance difficulties, he suggests a supplementary criterion of lexico-structural and semantic considerations to support the criterion of breath- pause in identifying line endings. Oyebade and Olumuyiwa (2003) point out that even with this supplementation, ambiguity in lineation may still occur. A case in point is the following lullaby song which is presented in Olabimtan (1988:48) in three lines as follows: Pé é pé ye òwúbàǹtutu (The duck, grossly rotund, Óó bímoo It gave birth Kò réyìn pon’mo But has no back to carry its young) Oyebade and Olumuyiwa (2003:219) suggest a different lineation: Pé é pé ye òwúbàǹ ̀tutu óó bímo kò réyìn pon’mo Oyebade and Olumuyiwa (2003) argue that their suggested lineation does not conflict with any of the earlier criteria established but also meets the conditions of a new supplementary criterion which they suggest is prosodic phonological templatic symmetry. The first sample (Olabimtan’s) has three lines with moraic structure of 10, 5, 5 respectively; Oyebade and Olumuyiwa’s example displays two lines with moraic structure of 10, 10. In other words, the second alternative presents an isomorphic verse with a couplet structure. An even more telling example is one which adopts all of the earlier prescribed criteria (breath-pause, weak emphatic ‘o’, lexico-structural and semantic considerations) and yet produces ambiguous lineation. Olabimtan (1988:49) presents the poem thus: Dààdá nkó o Where is Dada? Ó wà nlé o He is at home

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Kó má su púpò o May he not stool much Kó má sàìsu May he not fail to stool Kó má gbóná jan-jan-jan May he not grow hot Bí èko òní o As maize porridge prepared just today Kó má tutu rin-rin-rin May he not grow cold Bí èko àná o As maize porridge prepared since yesterday

Oyebade and Olumuyiwa (2003: 217-219) propose an alternative lineation: Dààdá nkó o, ó wà nlé o. Kó má su púpò o, kó má sàìsu Kó má gbóná jan-jan-jan bi eko òní o Kó má tutu rin-rin-rin bi eko àná o Oyebade and Olumuyiwa (2003) argue that this is a better lineation as it displays the poem as a four-line poem with each pair of lines forming couplets of eleven and thirteen moraic points respectively. In fact, the elegant structural juxtaposition of parallel structures that this lineation presents does more to justify this as a better lineation than the former. The point in all this, as argued in Oyebade and Olumuyiwa (2003) is that moraic templatic patterning as a tool of verbal art analysis may present us with more insight into the poetic ingenuity of the oral artist. A case in point is the following: Ada o bu ka i ghara any[ Laba be di gi Ada o bu ka i ghara anyi Laba be di gi Ada Chukwu gozie gi Ma i laba be di gi Ada Chukwu gqzie gi Ogbalu (1974:11). On the face of it, this song poem does not seem to present any organized templatic pattern, as the seven lines display the following moraic structure respectively: 10, 5, 10, 5, 8, 7, 8. However, if the poem is viewed as an isometric one, a different lineation is produced. Ada o bu ka i ghara any[, laba be di g[ Ada o bu ka [ ghara any[, laba be di g[ Ada Chukwu gqzieTemplatic gi, mPatterna i l aandba Lineation be di g in[ Poetry

Ada Chukwu gqzie g[ This new lineation presents a three-line isometric templatic pattern of fifteen moras each with a fourth degenerate line of eight moras which repeats the first half of the last (third) regular line. Confirmation of the probability of this analysis comes from a similar (perhaps alternative?) poem also provided by Ogbalu (1974:11): Ada Chukwu nyekwo gi nwa Ma i ruo be di gi Ada Chukwu nonyere gi Ma i ruo be di gi The confirmatory poem has a more regular templatic pattern of 8, 7, 8, 7 moras respectively in the four lines; however, a different lineation makes it an isomorphic poem similar to the other alternative analyzed above. Ada Chukwu nyekwo gi nwa, ma i ruo be di gi 133

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Ada Chukwu nonyere gi, ma i ruo be di gi This new lineation presents a couplet of fifteen moras each and an elegant parallelism of structure that shows the surprisingly delicate genius of the verbal artiste who produced the poem. Another example is the moonlight song presented in the compilation by Ogbalu (1974:111) Égwu onwá bù nké ónye - o Ó bù nké ányi o Égwu onwá bù nké ónye o Ó bù nké ányi o Ónye si nà ya áma ábia o Òtolo gbagbuó ya - ó Ónye si nà ya áma ábia o Ó bù ónye mmuo o Presented this way, the poem comes in an eight-line verse with the following templatic pattern: 10, 7, 10, 7, 11, 8, 11, 8. Although this looks systematic, the number of templates used (10, 7, 11, 8) seems to be too many for such a short poem. An alternative lineation may look like this: Egwu onwa bu nke onye o, o bu nke anyi o Egwu onwa bu nke onye o, o bu nke anyi o Onye si na ya ama abia o, otolo gbagbuo ya o Onye si na ya ama abia o, o bu onye mmuo o This new lineation presents a four-line poem with two pairs of couplets: the first pair with seventeen moras each and the second pair with nineteen moras each. Observe that, with this lineation, the repetition (first two lines) and parallelism (last two lines) in the poem become really obvious. It will seem, therefore, that an appeal to the criterion of moraic templatic patterning in delimiting the lines of oral poetry has the distinct potential of deepening our analytical insight into the beauty of form and structure inherent in the verbal art forms of our oral artists.

Conclusion This paper shows that the Yoruba and the Igbo verbal art forms share a lot of similarities, which make a comparison of the oral poetry of both cultures a justifiable exercise. This study has used two common features of Yoruba and Igbo verbal art form, repetition and parallelism – to establish similarities in the two cultural art forms. Moreover, the paper has shown that repetition and parallelism are not restricted to lexico-structural and semantic elements alone, but also at the phonological level. At this level, repetition and parallelism are identified in the moraic template patterning in many poetic expressions. However, the paper argues that the introduction of moraic template patterning as a complementary tool of literary analysis of verbal artforms, to lexico-structural, semantic and sociological forms, has the potential of providing greater indepth analysis as well as a better appreciation of the creativity of the verbal artiste. It is the contention of this paper that moraic template patterning as a literary device is as challenging and constraining to the African verbal artiste as rhyming and metrical patterning is to the English literary artiste.

Notes 1. The tone marking of the Yoruba examples follow the orthographic tradition of Yoruba

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics whereby all syllables have one or another tone mark where the acute mark (´ ) stands for High tone, the grave mark ( ` ) stands for Low tone and (no mark) stands for Mid tone. 2. Tone marking of Igbo examples follows the Igbo orthographic tradition, which marks only contrasting pitches or tones using only two symbols – the High ( ´ ) and the Low ( ` ). Any two consecutive high tones are interpreted as high followed by downstep. A series of similar tones is marked only on the first syllable of such series. 3. The expletive ‘o’ is considered to be extrametrical and only a device to mark line end (or half-line end as the case may be). Indeed the compiler of this volume seems to instinctively consider this to be the case as he separates this expletive from the main text either by a ‘dash’ or by dotted lines. 4. A nasal consonant written after a vowel in Yoruba orthography and without tone mark represents a nasalized vowel and not a nasal coda; it is therefore not a mora. 5. The consonant in this lexical item is a labialized nasal and not a syllabic nasal, therefore it does not constitute a mora. 6. The nasals in this lexical item do not constitute syllabic nasals as they are respectively a labialized nasal and (together with the palatal approximant) a palatal nasal. They therefore do not project moras.

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References Babalola, A. 1966. The Content and Form of Yoruba Ijala, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Babalola, A. 1967. Àwon Oríki Orílè, Glasgow: Collins. Bamgbose, A. 1966. ‘Lexical Matching in Yoruba Poetry’ in Afolayan, A. (ed) Yoruba Language and Literature, Ibadan: University Press Ltd. pp 82-97. Beier, U. 1956. ‘Yoruba Vocal Music’ in African Music, Vol 1. No 3, pp 23-28. Beier, U. and B. Gbadamosi 1959. Yoruba Poetry. Ibadan: Government Printers. Cole, D. and Miyashita, M. (2006) “The function of pauses in metrical studies:acoustic evidence from Japanese verse” In B. E. Dresher and N. Friedberg (eds) Formal Approaches to Poetry: Recent Developments in Metrics PP 173-192. Egudu, R. N. and D. Nwoga, 1971. Poetic Heritage: Igbo Traditional Verse. Enugu: Nwankwo- Ifejika & Co. (Publishers) Ltd. & Caxton Press (W.A) Ltd, Ibadan. Fabb, N. 1997. Linguistics and Literature. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Hayes, B. (1989) Compensatory lengthening in moraic phonology. Linguistic Inquiry 20: 253–306. Ogbalu, F. C. 1974. Igbo Poems and Songs. Onitsha: University Publishing Co. Olabimitan, A. (ed) 1988. Àkójopò Ewi Àbáláyé àti Ewì Àpilèko. Ibadan: Paperback Publishers Ltd. Olatunji, O. O. 1984. Features of Yoruba Oral Poetry. Ibadan: University Press Ltd. Olukoju, E. O. 1993. ‘Notes on the Form and Value of Traditional Set-Verbal Formula in Yoruba’ in Journal of Nigerian Languages, No 2, pp 57 -75. Oyebade, F. and O. T. Agoyi 2006. ‘The Moraic and Rhythmic Structure of Yoruba Children’s Poetic Singing’ in Egbohare, F. and C. Kolawole (eds.) Globalization and the Future of African Languages. Ibadan: Ibadan Cultural Studies Group, pp 304-318. Oyebade, F. and O. T. Olumuyiwa 2003. ‘Metrical Structure and Lineation in Ewi Iremolekun (Yoruba Children’s Lullaby)’ in Ozo-Mekuri Ndimele (ed). In the Linguistic Paradise: A Festschrift for E. Nolue Emenanjo. Aba: National Institute for Nigerian Languages, pp 215 -221. Preminger, A. (1965). Encycopaedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press. Vidal, E. O. 1952. ‘Introductory Remarks on the Yoruba Language’ in Crowther, S. A Grammar and Vocabulary of the Yoruba Language. London: Seeleys, Fleet Street.

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics The Structural Details, Decorative Motifs and Symbolisms on Women’s Title Stools in Anambra

H.C. Ogbu Department of Industrial Design, School of Environmental Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Yola

Abstract The women title stool typology and their decorative symbols are seen to conceptualize women’s title institution ideals of power in relation to position, leadership and authority. This study revolves around Ekwe and Odu title association of Urum, Amanuke, Isualaocha and Achalla all in Anambra State of Nigeria. They are among the Igbo east of the Niger whose territory lies within latitude 5-7o north, 6-8o east and covers 15, 300 square miles. The distribution of the Igbo population per square kilometer is 800 persons. Studies have reveled the existence of Igbo settlements, and also suggested that the Igbo language has been spoken for four thousand years, a fact that attest the antiquity of Igbo culture and society. The existence of Igbo sub-cultures reflecting their migration pattern underlies Igbo cultural diversity including Igbo art. The methodology employed includes typology through the stylistic classification of the title stools using the formal qualities of the stools into their basic types. We further use the style category to classify and analyze the title stools structure and interpret their symbolic essence within the context of the art object under study. The research design is based on research questions whose aims are to elicit reliable information from our respondents. Photographic evidence of the title stools was used for accumulation of visual date for physical/structural analyses. The study also depended extensively on oral information. This enabled us to accumulate extensive information, which was crosschecked with visual date to ascertain the authenticity of the information gathered. In the final analyses, the nature and structure of women’s title stools, as art object of power in women’s title institution was unfolded. The study was able to establish their typology as well as symbolic meanings so encoded in the art object orderwise known as iconography in an art historical dimension.

Introduction The tussles for power are of no less effect among Igbo women as it is among the men. Among the Igbo to the west of Niger, the omu title is the highest expbression of female power laden with high status and social influence. This is analogous to the men’s title association. In the northeast of Igbo land among the Izzi and Ezeikwo who constitute the Nkaliki communities, there is a corresponding women’s masking which is a countervailing force to men’s masking (Aniakor and Cole 1984). In the same way, the Ndichie men’s title society among the Onitsha Igbo has its correspondence in the women’s prestigious odu title association (Aniakor 1978). These various title institutions suggest that the construction of power and its ideals of male expression hold true of female construction of power and its ideals of expression throngh the ownership of institutionalized art object as stools. Studies by Henderson (1972), Onwuejeogwu (1981) and Cole and Aniakor (1984) have shown that the ideal of achievement registers well is the Igbo women’s quest for status. According to Cole and Aniakor (1984), in the areas where men’s ozo and related title exist, women can also achieve an analogous status shown off 137

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by several visible prerogatives. Costly bracelets and anklets are the most widespread of these regalia, which are worn by prominent Igbo women in Nri, Onitsha, Achalla, Isualaocha and Urum (Ogbu 2005). Onwuejeogwu (1981) rightly noted that a successful Nri woman is one who has taken all the women titles, is married and has children. As an elderly wife in her husband’s lineage, she can be a leader in the married women’s group called “Iyom”. As a daughter in her father’s patria lineage, she can be a leader of the daughters of lineage group called Umuokpu (Ogbalu, n.d.). Women title stools typology with their decorative symbols are seen to conceptualize women’s title institutions ideals of power with emphasis on status, position, leadership and authority.

The problem facing us is to identify the nature and structure of these title stools as art object of power in women’s title institution. The following research questions are therefore asked: - What are the nature and structure of women’s title stools? - What are their institutional levels of manifestations? - What is the typology of women’s title stools as icons of power? - What is the distribution pattern of women’s title stools in view of the reconstructed typology? - How is the distribution pattern of women’s title stools related to women’s title stools typology and function? - What is the iconography of the women’s title stools as institutional icon of power?

Another issue here is to establish the typology as well as the symbolic meanings which are encoded in the art object otherwise known as iconography in an art historical dimension. Two research procedures are adopted in this study. The first is stylistic and typological as a means of classifying art objects in order to establish art object typology as institutional icons of power. The rationale lies in the fact that art historical (Kleinbauer, 1982) emphasizes the use of a classificatory method of analysis which enables a researcher to distinguish a corpus of art objects into their type and style categories. By this method, women’s title stools are stylistically classified into their type categories. This is because the types of art objects as type categories correspond to style categories in this mode of classificatory system. In other words, women’s title stools are subjected to stylistic analysis for the purpose of establishing thier basic types. This is simultaneously conceived as a typology of art objects as well as a typology of functions. A typology of art objects vis-a-vis style analysis is simultaneously a typology of function. Secondly, we extend this framework to include meaning here referred to as iconography. Here an iconographical method of analysis is adopted because an art object typology presumes a typology of functions as well as iconography. Their analysis at, the synchronic level is matched against a diachronic analysis for establishing time depth as a way of understanding their developmental sequence. All said, it should be noted in this context that a stylistic methodology is related to art object typology and in turn to art object functions when based on functional analysis. This extends to iconographic analysis in direct correlation. In addition, Turner’s study quoted in Ejizu (1986) on rituals with accent on symbolism or meaning is of analytical aid because art objects symbols are simultaneously icons. He recommended a three-level model of analysis, namely:- the exegetical level of analysis of symbols, that is the kind of meanings derived

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics from indigenous interpretation. Here there are esoteric (expert) and exoteric (Lay) interpretation. The operational level derived from observation of the art objects in use noting the type of personnel involved and the effective quality of reactions. The positional level, that is the meaning of the art object (stools) derived from their relation to other symbols in a patterned totality. The research design of this study admits various kind of data gathered with as appropriate research instruments as stated. Synchronic data depend on extensive field trips. Research method also relied on the observer participant mode of data gathering. An accompanying research questionnaire details out the field research questions whose primary aim is to elicit reliable data from field informants. This is finally cross-checked in order to substantiate their validity. Textual and archival dates are used in order to lend time depth to women’s title stools as institutional icons of power as a historical process of development. Visual data also depended on extensive photographic coverage of women’s title stools for the accumulation of considerable visual date for analysis and interpretation and for their insitu value and resource. Women’s Title Stools Onwuejeogwu (1981) and Ogbukagu (1987) have it that women have their own titles although fewer in number. They also stated that women’s stools are not known to be very high in their frequency and distribution pattern in Igbo land. “However, Geary (1981) and Aniakor (1984) wrote that” women take titles, which permit them the use of exclusive materials. This assertion is true of women in our study areas as mentioned above. In these areas, women’s title stools are called oche ekwe for the Ekwe women’s title association and oche odu for the odu women’s title associations respectively, plate 1 and 2.

Plate 1: Ekwe title stool Plate 2: Odu title stool

Structural Details of Odu and Ekwe Titles Stools The structural details of these title stools are revealing. Plate 3 belongs to Elizabeth Ekemezie from Umueze village in Isu Anaocha. She is aged seventy years according to field estimate. Her title stool has a spherical top with deep groove in like similarity to that of an earthen bowl. It is supported by four wooden legs, which form part of the stool structure and tends to flare out as they touch the ground. 139

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Chip-carved decorations of vertical markings adorn the central portion of the stool legs. Apart from this, the rim is also embellished with decorative indentations, which do not carry overt symbolic references (plate 3)

Plate 3: Elizabeth Ekemezie Ekwe stool

Another stool example in plate 4 and it belongs to the wife of Chief Udegbunam Okika digbo of Achalla and is like the previous stool called Oche Ekwe. This stool is composed of a spherical top and a spherical bottom held in position by four loop-like forms. The overall stool has a brown patination achieved with camwood colour painted all over it and burnished with leaves, the juice of which imposes a protective surface sheen on the stool. Decorations as ornament are applied to the top of the stool for added visual effect. The outer ring of the spherical top is adorned with a circular ring of rhythmical zig-zag motif probably, a reference to coral beads from this kind of decorative abstraction. The side of the top surface is also adorned with a similar zig-zag motif, sandwiched between decorative lines that re-echo the spherical form of the stool surface. The same method of ornamentation is repeated at the base of the stool. A few hints of abstract patterns are confined to the middle of the looped supports and at the point of contact of the top of the stool. There is visual strength to the stool in terms of ruggedness and the monochromatic quality of the exterior patination. More overt than other decorative element is the central placement of an elephant symbol on top of the stool surface. The elephant seems to hold a suspended tree branch in the grip of its nose. This is made more tangible by the carved boundary incisions into the rugged wood medium. On the surface of the lower support base are symbolic inscriptions of a crown and a pair of elephant tusks. The inscriptions make references to the fact that her title stool reflects her title elevation under the sponsorship of her husband (plate 4).

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Plate 4: Chief Udegbunan citing beside his wife’s Ekwe title stool (Detail of the stool structure as in plate 1)

Another variation on the women’s title stool Oche Ekwe is this stool model from Urum village. This is a rather complex stool with some captivating structural elements. It is carved in three tiers of round base from single block of wood, which gives it a vertical orientation. It also shapes the alignment of structural elements as a whole. The three structural bases, spherical in shape, are interconnected by four loop-like supports. The visual effect of an openwork technique can easily be seen in the structural composition of the stool. Linear designs have been at strategic areas to enhance the aesthetics of form. And the visual delight of the stool derives from the use of polychrome (earth colours) used in wall painting to dramatize the heightened visual effects. Most of the decorative elements and patterns are developed with the aid of the incision technique. The top bears some decorative symbols of an enlarged star. There are also other two small stars and a complimentary crown symbols enclosed inside a circular motif painted in white colour pigment (plate 5).

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Plate 5: Another variation of the women’ Ekwe title stool

Another striking variation of women’s title stool is the “oche odu” because of its association with the women’s odu (elephant tusk) title. It is from Odowa in Achalla. There are notable visual characteristics to this women’s title stool. It is carved from Mbachaleku wood and this explains the boldness of its linear decorative designs. The top is adorned with complex decorative and figural composition. The background of the decorative surface consists of textural designs, which generate a negative space into which the artist has carved bold linear incision of a sword symbol overlaying a linearised fan, which in turn overlies an elephant. It is the simplification of these symbols in a schematic style of presentation that delights one in optical effects. Complimentary decorations appear at the top base. These consist of clusters of triangles linked to a decorative ring of zig-zag patterns and re-echo the spherical shape of the stool base. The external sheen of the wood surface may have derived from the smooth burnishing and years of use and handling. “Let it be noted that all women’s title stools are carved from the various types of wood, namely: egbu, okwe and soft wood obtained from Mbachaleku tree (Oral Communication by Tonny Akanne, 2005). See Plate 2 for structural details).

Stools’ Decorative Designs, Motifs and Their Symbolisms Women’s title stools are embellished with a number of symbols and decorative designs. They consist of the following as shown on fig 1.

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Fig. I: Consisting symbols/motifs numbered 1-15

These symbols/motifs are fifteen (15) on the whole. Some of the symbols convey important meanings while others are simply decorative as explained by our respondents during oral interview. Some of our respondents spoke in Igbo proverbs to drive home their point which buttresses Achebe (1964) that proverbs are the palm oil with which Igbo eat their words. 143

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The most important of these symbols are an elephant tusk, Fig 1, No 1 which is associated with high status and prestige as detailed Oba Okikadigbo “e ji akara odu amata ndi nwere ugwu na nd[ qkwa ha gbagotelu n’obodo”. (Oral Communication By Oba Okikadigbo 2004). A horse tail fig 1, No 2 is associated with high status and social influence “odu anyinya naegosi nd[ ogaranya na nd[ aka ji aku n’ala any[” (Oral Communication by Ozo Chimere 2004). Coral bead fig. 1, No. 15, is an emblem of economic achievement titleship and prestige” Aka bu ihe e ji amara nd[ chiri echichi, nd[ nwere akx na xba nakwa nd[ nwere ugwu n’ala Igbo” (Oral Communication by Mama Elizabeth Ekemezie, 2005). Other symbolic motifs are a sword fig 1, No 4 with its symbolism of strength, economic and political leadership “abana bx akara e ji amata nd[ nwere ego, nd[ nwere ikiki aka nd[ ndu na nd[ qch[ch[ n’ala any[” (Oral Communication by Nne nwam buliem 2004) an elephant symbol with a branch under the grip of its nose fig 1, No 9. Signifies nobility, might, strength and personal achievement “any[nya ji imi abx osisi naegosi nd[ nwe obodo, nd[ odogwu o mee q kachie na nd[ nnukwu mmanwx” (Oral Communication by Nne nwa mmaku 2005). The other symbols in fig 1, nos 4 –8, 10- 11 and 13-14, are simply used for the sake of surface ornament or simple decorations with their female undertone characteristic “ak[ka nd[ qzq fqdxrx n’qch[r[ anya ihe xmx nwanya ji achq onwe ha mma” (Oral Communication by qzq Ugonwa onye Uke, 2005). Qba Igwe bx qba concluded the interview in the following proverbs “Xfqdx mmadx s[ na nwanya adaa abqq eketefu m, ma chefue na ihe d[ abxq abxq, na ihe kwuru, ihe akwxdebe ya, na mma nwanya bx di, na e menyere Udo e menyekwara Ogwugwu. Some people believe that women are never enstooled. They forget that things are in twos, and that when something stands, something else stands beside it. Marriage makes and empowers a woman. The researcher inquiries why the symbolic motifs, which are associated with men’s title institution feature on women’s title stools. At this, ‘Qba Igwe bx qba” explains with another proverb “if a man worships a god to a perfection such as the male deity, Udo, he may be killed by the female deity, Ogwugwu”. Incidentally, “Udo and Ogwugwu are both husband and wife (Aniakor, 1973). In their similarity and difference, they demand binary obligation so that people can tap their power according to their status and spiritual influences and authority” (Aniakor 1973). Therefore, the symbolic motifs on women title stools have political, social and economic undertone as well as complementarizing men’s title institutions and their associated art objects.

Conclusion Women title stools have shown themselves to be art historical products which mirror history in their formal/structure as well as symbolic/motif components. This assertion is buttressed by the fact that central to the Igbo world is the quest for status, wealth and social influence within Igbo title institutions of which women title association forms a part. The manifestation is seen in the individual membership of women’s title association in our study areas.

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics There exists an important relationship between title stool typology and title institution ideals of power. This is to say that various levels of title institution leadership exist among women, which provided avenues for the use and display of variety of title stools. However, while these stools define levels of social and title hierarchy, details of their structure and decoration are revealing and underscore the status of individual wealth and personal aggrandizement. Thus, women title stools define traditional realities in terms of their ownership and display as title emblems among individual associations. These title stools in their various typology/structure provided the frame for discussing their various symbolic essences. Hence, women title stools signaled the individual’s title status, position and made them visible in the context of community activities and private exhibition in the owner’s domestic domain and other events. In effect, they underscore the Igbo notions and ideals of power in women leadership and authority as art object made visible in the visual configuration of their structure and symbolisms. The symbolic motifs further embellish the stools with surface sheen and richness. At a deeper level, it enriches their extrinsic qualities as well as iconography. The study provides a more ample scope for understanding the Igbo ideals of power and their constructions by means of stools as visual objects of power and leadership. It also provides the relationship between stools, functions and meaning as significant indicator of Igbo ideals of power. It is believed that this study will offer research prospects for more comprehensive studies of other categories of Igbo art as they bear upon and express Igbo ideas of power.

Reference: Achebe, C. (1964) Arrow of God. London: Heinemann. Aniakor, C.C. (1973), “Structuralism in Ikenga: An Ethno-aesthetic Approach”. Journal of African Studies. (Pp 8, 9 – 11). Aniakor, C.C. (1978), …Igbo Ijele Mask … African Arts Vol. xi, No. 4 (pp 42-47). Cole, H.M. and Aniakor, C.C. (1984), Igbo Arts: Community and Cosmas: University of California, Los Angelis: Museum of Cultural History. Ejizu, C.I. (1986). Ofo: Igbo Ritual Symbol. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Company Limited Geary, C. (1981) “Bamum Thrones”. African Arts, xiv (4), 32-43. Henderson, R and Umunna, I (1988) “Leadership Symbolism in Onitsha, Igbo Crowns and Ijele”. African Arts, xxi (2) 28 – 37… Kleinbauer, W. E. (1972). “Modern perspective in Western Art History”. London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. London. Ethnographica. Ogbula, F. C. (N. D). Igbo Institutions and Customs Onitsha. University Press. Onwuejeogwu, A.M (1981), An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony. Ogbukagu, I. (1997). “Traditional Igbo Beliefs and Practices: A Study of Culture and People 145

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of Adazi-Nnuku Owerri: Novelty Industrial Enterprises Limited. The Structural Details, Decorative Motifs and Symbolisms on Women’s Title Stools in Anambra

Appendices Oral interviews are typed, hand written and transcribed in the falling format. 1. What is a stool? 2. What is a title stool? 3. What is your community’s belief about a title stool? 4. Are there other types of stool? If yes, which types do you know? 5. Why do women commission title stools? 6. Are there title stools here and why? 7. Do you have any proverbs, myths, epics etc. that make reference to title stools 8. Is there any real life story to tell about title stools 9. Can any woman own any form of title stool she likes, if so why? 10. Do all title stools have the same shapes, sizes and motifs, if so why? 11. Can any person choose any type of symbol for her title stool if so give reasons. 12. What particular role do motifs and symbols serve on title stools 13. Who are the odu/Ekwe are they graded? 14. What are their symbols of authority? 15. Are their title stools also graded and why? 16. Do they also use symbolic motifs on their title stools? If yes what and why? 17. How do you differentiate one grade of title stools from the other? 18. Why do women choose title stools as their symbols of authority? 19. What specific notions do Igbo people have for title stools 20. Can a person sit on any title stool especially strangers? What of ones son’s husband, daughter etc? If so why? 21. Do title stools represent the same thing in Igboland? Give reasons for your answer? 22. What are the names of the following stool samples? 23. Can you explain the meaning of their names? 24. At what age does a woman own a title stool and for which reason? 25. What is the location of title stools in a family house and why? 26. Can you identify which title stools belong to men and which ones belong to women? 27. Are there physical features that differentiate men’s title stools from women’s title stools? 28. Are all title stools carved only in wood? 29. What types of woods are used and why? 30. What is the general Igbo name for title stools. 31. Have title stools anything to do with title taking? If so why? 32. In what ways are title stools related to title status? 33. Do title stools have anything to do with power? If so expkain 34. What do Igbo people mean by power? 35. How are types of power related to types of title stools? 36. Some title stools have more decorations than others, why? 37. Do different sizes suggest different thing and why? 38. Are there title stools that belong to individuals as different from those possibly belonging to the community if any? 39. Why is the notion of individual critical to individual and to title stool ownership? 40. What are the functions of female associated title stools?

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics 41. Are there title stools that are associated with women and what are their names? 42. What are the functions of female associated title stools? 43. Can a woman own more than one title stool? If so why? 44. What is the location of female associated title stools? 45. Can one inherit a title stool and from whom? 46. Can title stools be found in shrine houses and why? 47. Are there particular areas in Igboland associated with wider occurrence of title stool than others and why? 48. Can you explain some symbols on title stools? 49. Can you identify some decorative motifs and their sources? 50. Can you give names of title stool carvers who are still alive? 51. How are the title stools commissioned? Who are the artists? When was your title stool carved? 52. How do you introduce decorations? 53. Are the title stools for specific occasions or for everyday use? 54. What is the connection between ownership of title stools and town meetings and assembly? 55. What are the symbols of authority? 56. Do you have women in authority? Can you name some? 57. Are women’s power also graded and why? 58. Can women choose any symbol for their title stools, if no why? 59. What is the modern Igbo concept of power? 60. What is the traditional Igbo concept of power? Are there changes in the concept? Give reasons. 61. How is the modern Igbo concept of power related to modern title stools and their ownership is any?

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The Structural Details, Decorative Motifs and Symbolisms on Women’s Title Stools in Anambra

Oral interview S/No Name Age Town Date Status . 1. F.A Onwuemelie 90 years Umuelechi awka S. 10/03/2005 Kingmaker 2 Udegbunam 85 years Achall. Awka N. 12/05/2005 Chief Priest Okikad Igbo 3 Nwabunye Ego 60 years Umuesele. Onitsha 14/05/2005 Odu Ikobi 4 Chief Felix C.O 63 years Ogboli-Olisa 14/05/2005 Ozo Odiare 5 M.D Ofunwa 50 years Umudioka Awka S. 11/05/2005 Nze/Artist 6 Innocent Udefune 32 years Okpuno Awka S. 11/05/2005 Carver 7 Igwe Gibson 67 years Eze Uzo II 11/05/2005 The Obi of Awka 8 Ikegbunem 65 years Diodo Nri 10/06/2005 Ozo 9 EmmanuelNwofo Diodo Nri 10/05/2005 Nze/Chief Alisi Priest 10 Odebuchukwu Aghaji 49 years Diodo Nri 10/05/2005 Nze/Chief Priest 11 jiugu Agbonma Obiora 70 years Nri 10/05/2005 Iyom 12 Tabansi Charlse 49 years Nri 9/05/2005 Nze 13 Igwe Onyeso Obidiegwe 60 years Nri 9/05/2005 Eze Nri 14 Chief S.O Mbanefo Nri 8/05/2005 The Adama Nri/Ozo 15 P. U. Are Onitsha 13/05/2005 16 Chukwuemeka Aniemena 75 years Ogebendidu 14/05/2005 The Diokpa in the Obi’s Onitsha Palace. 17 Ogbuefi U. N. Onyeuke 95 years Achalla Awka N. 12/05/2005 Ozo 18 Igwebuobu Ogbuanyinya 119 Amanuke Awka N. 12/05/2005 Ozo years 19 Mrs. Onwuralu Onitsha 14/05/2005 Isi Odu 20 Nnanyelugo Osita O. 75 years Onitsha 14/05/2005 Agbalanze 21 Chief Chudi Onoli Umuariola Onitsha 14/05/2005 Agbalanze 22 Cheux Wood Finish 52 years Awka S. 11/05/2005 Artist/nze 23 Mather E. Okafor 68 years Achalla Awka N. 11/06/2005 Ozo 24 Eze Nwanya Nri 56 years Nri 14/05/2005 Odu/Iyom 25 Chief T. O. T. Muoto 35 years Amauda. Awka S. 11/05/2005 Nze/Artist 26 Igwe Peter Ogbumuo 1946 Nri 8/05/2005 Eze 27 Akunnia O. Envenuu 60 years Onitsha 12/06/2005 Agbalanje 28 Chinyelugo 64 years Onitsha 14/05/2005 Ikporo Onitsha 29 Tonnye Akunne 49 years Nri 7/05/2005 Nri Museum 30 Chief O. Onyechi 75 years Umujagwo Awka S. 11/05/2005 King maker/Ozo/ Otochala Akwa 32 Okechukwu Nwofo 35 years Uno-Ogbu Awka S. 11/05/2005 Artist 33 Chief C. Okoye 62 years Isu Aniocha Awka 13/05/2005 Ozo N. 34 Robert Igwe 1942 Ugbenu Awka N. 11/05/2005 Born Again Xtian 35 Elizabeth Ekemezie 70 years Isu-Anocha Awka 13/05/2005 Ekwe N. 36 Nne Nwanmaku 105 Isu-Anocha Awka 13/05/2005 Ekwe years N. 37. Felicia Okafor 70 years Isu-Anocha Awka 12/05/2005 Ekwe N 38. Palace Attendant to Igwe Achalla Awka N. 12/05/2005 Nze/attendant to obi of Charles Nwokedi Achalla 39. Ekwunife Sylvester 1953 Nri 08/05/2005 Nze 40. Prince C. Agwuna Enugwu-Ukwu 11/05/2005 the crown prince of umu- Nri 41. Mama Ikegbunem 1918 Diodo, Nri 08/05/2005 Iyom 148

Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics 42. Ofili Udo Onitsha 14/05/2005 Red caped Chief

Having made a general statement on Igbo women’s association and their quest for power, we shall now discuss the structural details as well as the symbolic motifs on women’s title stools. The title stools of our focus are the ekwe and odu title stools of isualaocha, amanuke, Urum and Achalla all in Anambra Igbo who also constitute the Igbo sub-cultural areas vis a-vis diversity in Igbo arts.

Fig. 1: Location of the study areas in Anambra State. Source: Idemili North Local Planning Authority

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The Structural Details, Decorative Motifs and Symbolisms on Women’s Title Stools in Anambra

Occupational Specialization in Igbo Cultural Area Source: Onwuejeogwu 1981

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Fig. 3: The Igbo Culture Area Source: Onwuejeogwu 1981

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ISBN 0794-6961 NSUKKA JOURNAL OF AFRICAN LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS (NJALL) Vol. 3, 2009

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Nsukka Journal of African Languages & Linguistics Published by the Department of Linguistics, Igbo and other Nigerian Languages, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

NSUKKA JOURNAL OF AFRICAN LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS ISSN 0794-6961

The Nsukka Journal of African Languages and Linguistics is devoted to the studies of African Languages and their literatures. Published annually, the Journal welcomes contributions from scholars all over the world. All contributions are expected to follow guidelines printed on the last page of every issue of the journal.

Editor Editorial Board E.S. Ikeokwu G.I. Nwaozuzu B.M. Mbah C.U. Agbedo S.O. Babarinde C.U. Akaeze

Treasurer to the Editorial Board C. I. Ojobor

Typographer C. I. Ojobor

Editorial Consultants Chidi Maduka - University of Port Harcourt Okon Essien - University of Calabar Inno. N. Xzqma Nwadike - University of Nigeria, Nsukka Chibiko Ndubuisi Okebalama - University of Nigeria, Nsukka Ahmed H. Amfani - Usumanu Dan Fodio University, Sokoto Monday C. Qnxkawa - Abia State University, Uturu Okigwe Francis Oyebade - Adekunle Ajasin University, Akoko Akungba Sam Uzochukwu - Anambra State University, Igboariam

Subscription Rates Within Nigeria – Students N500.00 per copy Others N750.00 per copy (650) (post free) Outside Nigeria - $20 per copy ($15) (post free).

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Printed by: Paschal Communications, Nsukka, Enugu State - 08064063079

CONTENTS

Contents Notes on the Contributors Editorial

Articles

Modesta Ijeoma Iloene - Stemming Learning Difficulties among Alternate Learners of Nigerian Languages 1

P.A. Ezema Enhancing Peaceful Inter-Religious Coexistence in Nigeria through the Use of Language 13

Clara Vande-Guma The Experiential Fabric of the Tiv Bard’s Text 21

Collins N. Obasi A Stylistic Study of Segun Okunoren’s A Gift to the Troubled Tribe 37

Nsolibe, Obiageli Theresa - Setting and Characterization in the Igbo Novel: A Reflection of Forster’s Aspects of the Novel 46

Okpara, Tochukwu Felicia - Integration of African Tie-Dye, Batik and Non-Fabric Materials into the Teaching and Learning of Quitmaking 63

Babarinde, Olusanmi - Functional Bilingual Programme for Literacy and Language Teaching Skills: The Nigerian Primary School Situation 71

Amechi B. Oha Igbo Culinary Field and the Structure of Metaphor 78

Ngozi Lillian Nwodo and Gabriella Ihuaru Nwaozuzu - Say What You Mean and Mean What You Say: The Use of the English Language in Advertisement Texts and Perception By the Young Igbo in Nigeria 88

Joy Oluchi Uguru and Chioma Akaeze - Phono-Pragmatic Analysis of Three African Poems 97

G.I. Nwaozuzu and C.O. Okeke - An Optimality Account of the Cv Verb Root and Nye in Igbo Phonotactics 111

Francis Oyebade and Evelyn Mbah - Templatic Pattern and Lineation in Oral Poetry: A Comparative Study of Yoruba and Igbo Poems 124

H.C. Ogbu The Structural Details, Decorative Motifs and Symbolisms on Women’s Title Stools in Anambra Igbo

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EDITORIAL

In the last edition of this Journal, we did promise that this Departmental Journal will become a regular banquest of academic harvest. We are pleased to present to you a journal of articles from a wide range of academic institutions and topics covering different issues in languages and linguistics. The table of contents and notes on contributors are a highlight of these topics and the institutional affiliations of the contributors.

We are most grateful to all the members of the Editorial Board and the consultant editors who assessed the papers and ensured that the articles, which were eventually cleared for publication fulfilled the vision of the editorial policy of the Journal.

We are also grateful to the Head of Department, Professor C.N. Okebalama. He was very anxious to have the Journal published. He offered to help of even financing the Journal from the Departmental coffers. However, in compliance with the saying that he who must fly must first learn how to walk, the editors was determined to publish the journal independently of any assistance which may eventually turn out to be albatross on the progress of the Journal. We are happy to have succeeded in publishing this Journal from money generated from the Journal itself. We hope that with this feat, the Journal can stand on its own and appear even more regularly than we had it previously.

We welcome you to this current edition while we encourage you to send well researched papers and reviews for the forthcoming edition due in December 2011.

E. S. Ikeokwu (Ph.D) Editor

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