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Amenorrhea:​ a Systematic Approach to Diagnosis and Management David A Amenorrhea: A Systematic Approach to Diagnosis and Management David A. Klein, MD, MPH; Scott L. Paradise, MD; and Rachel M. Reeder, MD Fort Belvoir Community Hospital, Fort Belvoir, Virginia Menstrual patterns can be an indicator of overall health and self-perception of well-being. Primary amenorrhea, defined as the lifelong absence of menses, requires evaluation if menarche has not occurred by 15 years of age or three years post- thelarche. Secondary amenorrhea is characterized by cessation of previously regular menses for three months or previously irregular menses for six months and warrants evaluation. Clinicians may consider etiologies of amenorrhea categorically as outflow tract abnormalities, primary ovarian insufficiency, hypothalamic or pituitary disorders, other endocrine gland disor- ders, sequelae of chronic disease, physiologic, or induced. The history should include menstrual onset and patterns, eating and exercise habits, presence of psychosocial stressors, body weight changes, medication use, galactorrhea, and chronic illness. Additional questions may target neurologic, vasomotor, hyperandrogenic, or thyroid-related symptoms. The physical examination should identify anthropometric and pubertal development trends. All patients should be offered a pregnancy test and assessment of serum follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, and thyroid-stimulating hormone levels. Additional testing, including karyotyping, serum androgen evaluation, and pelvic or brain imaging, should be indi- vidualized. Patients with primary ovarian insufficiency can maintain unpredictable ovary function and may require hormone replacement therapy, contraception, or infertility services. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea may indicate disordered eating and low bone density. Treatment should address the underlying cause. Patients with polycystic ovary syndrome should undergo screening and intervention to attenuate metabolic disease and endometrial cancer risk. Amenorrhea can be associ- ated with clinically challenging pathology and may require lifelong treatment. Patients will benefit from ample time with the clinician, sensitivity, and emotional support. (Am Fam Physician. 2019; 100(1): 39-48. Copyright © 2019 American Academy of Family Physicians.) Menstrual patterns can be an indicator of overall health Secondary amenorrhea is the cessation of previously status and self-perception of well-being.1,2 A broad dif- regular menses for three months or previously irregu- ferential is important to avoid missing rare or emergent lar menses for six months and warrants evaluation.1,3,6 pathology because many underlying conditions can pres- Oligomenorrhea, the lack of menstruation for intervals ent as amenorrhea.3 Primary amenorrhea is the lifelong longer than 35 days in adults or 45 days in adolescents, is absence of menses.3 Evaluation should be considered if approached similarly.1,3,6-8 menarche has not occurred by 15 years of age or three Clinicians should offer a safe and welcoming environ- years post-thelarche.1,4 Lack of any pubertal development ment where patients feel comfortable discussing repro- by 13 years of age should prompt investigation for delayed ductive health concerns by establishing confidentiality, puberty.4,5 building rapport, and allotting the requisite time needed to talk about possible long-term treatments and sequelae of chronic medical conditions. Preventive health visits should Additional content at https://www.aafp.org/afp/2019/0701/ include menstrual cycle education, such as measurement p39.html. from the first day of menstruation to the first day of the CME This clinical content conforms to AAFP criteria for next cycle; intervals are typically 21 to 34 days.1 Smart continuing medical education (CME). See CME Quiz on phone apps (e.g., Clue) are useful for determining patterns.9 page 13. Etiologies of amenorrhea can be categorized as: outflow Author disclosure: No relevant financial affiliations. tract abnormalities, primary ovarian insufficiency, hypotha- Patient information: Handouts on this topic are available lamic or pituitary disorders, other endocrine gland disor- at https:// family doctor.org/condition/amenorrhea/, https:// 3,6 family doctor.org/condition/female-athlete-triad/, and ders, sequelae of chronic disease, physiologic, or induced 1-3,5,6,10-12 https:// www.aafp.org/afp/2013/0601/p781-s1.html. (Table 1 ). Abnormal pelvic anatomy is important to consider in the evaluation of primary amenorrhea.3 All Downloaded from the American Family Physician website at www.aafp.org/afp. Copyright © 2019 American Academy of Family Physicians. For the private, noncom- Downloaded from the American Family Physician website at www.aafp.org/afp. Copyright © 2019 American Academy of Family Physicians. For the private, noncom- ◆ 39 mercial use of one individual user of the website. All other rights reserved. Contact [email protected] for copyright questions and/or permission requests. Julymercial 1, 2019 use ofVolume one individual 100, Number user of 1the website. All other rightswww.aafp.org/afp reserved. Contact [email protected] for copyright questionsAmerican and/or Family permission Physician requests. AMENORRHEA TABLE 1 Select Causes of Amenorrhea* Outflow tract abnormalities Hypothalamic or pituitary disorders (continued) Other endocrine gland disorders Acquired Constitutional delay of puberty Adrenal insufficiency Cervical stenosis Empty sella syndrome Androgen-secreting tumor (e.g., ovarian Intrauterine adhesions Functional (overall energy deficit or stress) or adrenal) Congenital Eating disorder Cushing syndrome 5α-reductase deficiency Stress Diabetes mellitus, uncontrolled Androgen insensitivity syndrome Vigorous exercise Late-onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia Imperforate hymen Weight loss Polycystic ovary syndrome (multifactorial) Müllerian agenesis Gonadotropin deficiency (e.g., Kallmann syndrome) Thyroid disease Transverse vaginal septum Hyperprolactinemia Amenorrhea attributed to chronic disease Primary ovarian insufficiency Adenoma (prolactinoma) Celiac disease Acquired Chronic kidney disease Inflammatory bowel disease Autoimmune Medications or illicit drugs (e.g., antipsychotics, Other chronic disease Chemotherapy or radiation opiates) Physiologic or induced Congenital Physiologic (pregnancy, stress, exercise) Breastfeeding Gonadal dysgenesis (other than Infarction (e.g., Sheehan syndrome) Contraception Turner syndrome) Infiltrative disease (e.g., sarcoidosis) Exogenous androgens Turner syndrome or variant Infection (e.g., meningitis, tuberculosis) Menopause Hypothalamic or pituitary disorders Medications or illicit drugs (e.g., cocaine) Pregnancy Autoimmune disease Trauma or surgery Brain radiation Tumor (primary or metastatic) *—Conditions may span multiple categories. Adapted with permission from Klein DA, Poth MA. Amenorrhea: an approach to diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2013; 87(11): 782, with additional information from references 1, 2, 5, 6, and 10 through 12. causes of secondary amenorrhea may present as primary presence of circulating estrogen.6 Atrophic vaginal mucosae amenorrhea and the evaluation is similar (Figures 1 and 2).3 suggests low estrogen, and a shortened vagina may indicate outflow tract obstruction or Müllerian agenesis.6,16,17 Signs of Evaluation virilization suggest hyperandrogenic conditions. Evidence HISTORY of dysmorphism may suggest a congenital syndrome.6,10,17 A detailed history should include menstrual patterns (if any), pregnancy and breastfeeding history, eating and LABORATORY AND OTHER TESTING exercise habits, psychosocial stressors (e.g., perfectionist In all cases, pregnancy should be excluded with a pregnancy behaviors), changes in body weight, fractures, medication test.2,3,6 Serum patterns of follicle-stimulating hormone, or substance use, chronic illness, and timing of breast and luteinizing hormone, prolactin, and thyroid-stimulat- pubic hair development2,3,6 (Table 21-3,5,6,10-12). Galactorrhea, ing hormone identify most endocrine causes of amenor- headaches, or visual field defects can indicate hypothalamic rhea2,3,6,10-12 (Figure 13). Serum free and total testosterone, or pituitary disease,13,14 and acne or hirsutism can indicate and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels may be obtained hyperandrogenism.15 Vasomotor symptoms such as hot if there is evidence of hyperandrogenism8,15,18,19 (Table flashes or night sweats may indicate primary ovarian insuf- 32,5,6,10-12). A 17-hydroxyprogesterone level collected at 8 ficiency.10 A family history should include the age of men- a.m. assesses for late-onset congenital adrenal hyperpla- arche of relatives and any chronic disease history.2,3 sia.2,15 Low anti-Müllerian hormone correlates with ovarian reserve and may indicate primary ovarian insufficiency or PHYSICAL EXAMINATION menopause (Table 4).2 Clinicians should review trends in height, weight, and body Karyotyping should also be considered in patients of mass index.2,3 Normal breast development indicates the short stature to evaluate for Turner syndrome.6,20 Patients 40 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 100, Number 1 ◆ July 1, 2019 AMENORRHEA FIGURE 1 Perform history and physical examination (Table 2) Pregnancy test; serum LH, FSH, TSH, and prolactin levels; pelvic ultrasonography or other laboratory testing if clinically indicated Pregnancy test positive: pregnant, treat as appropriate Uterus present? Abnormal TSH level: order thyroid func- tion tests and treat thyroid disease Abnormal prolactin level: magnetic
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