Consensus Statement of Definitions for Anorectal Physiology Testing

Home , Anismus, Anorectal manometry, Defecography, Obstructed defecation, Rectal prolapse

421 - This re 1 Although great effort and care have gone into the into gone Although have effort great and care METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM THE OF STATEMENT vision of the above-mentioned definitions was created vision was created of definitions the above-mentioned Floor Disorders ofASCRS Pelvic at the initiative the - Com Guidelines Practice and the Clinical Committee - is com Committee Floor Disorders The Pelvic mittee. posed of because they chosen have who members are of expertisedemonstrated and treatment in the care pel- lead to created was committee This vicconditions. floor - condi for effortsquality international in defining care by the approved Once the pelvic to floor. tions related was the document Committee, Floor Disorders Pelvic Practice ASCRS Clinical the also reviewed in detail by with- is charged which develop Committee, Guidelines on based practice and definitions guidelines ing clinical evidence. the best available that the terminology it is recognized will evolve process, A surgical in knowledge. advances with its use and future The ASCRS, the Colorectal Surgical Society of Australia, Surgical Society the Colorectal ofAustralia, ASCRS, The ofAssociation of Britand the Coloproctology - Great previously published definitions have ain and Ireland with se- consulting of after terms physiology anorectal society. lected experts within represented each As surgeons work to improve the quality of patient care, the quality of care, patient improve to work surgeons As communicated it is important are that data and results - the termi happen, that to For accurately. and compared medical With nology and uniform. be precise used must about the a consensus shared, information increasingly The purposeterminology of is desirable. this document terminology use in academic for standardized define is to pertaining publications and defecatory to presentations pelvic disorders. floor 61: 4 (2018) 61: OLUME V ECTUM 61: 421–427 61: R

& Prepared on behalf of the Pelvic Floor Disorders Committee and the Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee ofAmerican Committee The Guidelines Practice and the Clinical behalf on Committee Floor Disorders ofPrepared the Pelvic Society Surgeons of and Rectal Colon Liliana G. Bordeianou, M.D., M.P.H. • Joseph C. Carmichael, M.D. • Ian M. Paquette, M.D. M.D. Paquette, M. • Ian M.D. Carmichael, C. • Joseph M.P.H. M.D., Bordeianou, Liliana G. M.D. Bernstein, • Mitchell M.D. Hull, L. • Tracy Ph.D.(Hon.) M.D., Wexner, Steven M.D. Varma, G. • Madhulika M.D. Zutshi, • Massarat M.D. Keller, Deborah S. M.D. Steele, R. • Scott M.D. Gurland, H. Brooke OLON OLON C he American Society he of Surgeons and Rectal Colon ensuring high-quality to dedicated is (ASCRS) prevention, the science, advancing by patient care

It should be recognized that these guidelines should should that these guidelines be should recognized It

CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES PRACTICE CLINICAL ISEASES OF THE D Scott R. Steele, M.D., 9500 Euclid Ave, A30, Cleveland, Cleveland, A30, Ave, 9500 Euclid M.D., Steele, R. Scott Correspondence: [email protected] E-mail: OH 44915. None reported. None Disclosure: Financial None reported. None Funding/Support: T (Revised) Physiology Testing and Pelvic Floor Terminology Terminology Floor and Pelvic Testing Physiology Consensus Statement of Definitions for Anorectalfor of Definitions Statement Consensus Dis Colon Rectum 2018; Rectum Dis Colon DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0000000000001070 ASCRS 2018 © The and management of disorders and diseases of the colon, of ofdiseases and management and disorders colon, the - Com Guidelines This Practice Clinical and anus. rectum, withcharged is efforts mittee leadinginternational in colon, the to related conditions for quality defining care - Guide Practice Clinical developing by and anus rectum, - These guide evidence. the bestlines based available on for intended and are not prescriptive, inclusive, lines are and pa- workers, the use of healthcare all practitioners, ofinformationthe management about tients who desire in these covered the topics by addressed the conditions information on Their purpose provide is to guidelines. spe a dictate - can be rather made decisions which than to formofcific treatment. of methods ofall proper or benot inclusive deemed care of toward methods directed of reasonably care exclusive - judgmentregard Theultimate obtainingsame results. the must made be ing the propriety of specificprocedure any - all of pre considering the circumstances the physician by the individual patient. by sented

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process for review and refinement will be instituted. In ad- Cul-de-Sac Hernias (Peritoneocele, Enterocele, dition, terms from other areas of colon and rectal surgery Sigmoidocele, and Omentocele) will be added if these definitions are found to be useful. A cul-de-sac hernia (peritoneocele) is a protrusion of the peritoneum between the rectum and vagina that does not contain any abdominal viscera. An enterocele is a protru- DEFINITIONS sion of the peritoneum between the rectum and vagina containing the small intestine. A sigmoidocele is a pro- Definitions of Functional Bowel trusion of the peritoneum between the rectum and va- and Pelvic Floor Disorders gina that contains the sigmoid colon. An omentocele is a Anismus protrusion of the omentum between the rectum and the Anismus is failure of striated muscles of the pelvic vagina. These conditions may be internal (only visible on floor (puborectalis and external anal sphincter) to re- defecography) or external (associated with clinically vis- lax appropriately during attempted defecation. It may ible rectocele or rectal prolapse). be suspected clinically in patients presenting with obstructed defecation syndrome, but the diagnosis needs Fecal Incontinence to be additionally confirmed on anal EMG, anorectal Fecal incontinence is identified as the uncontrolled passage manometry, and/or defecography. Anismus can mani- of feces or gas over ≥1 month’s duration, in an individual fest as either simple nonrelaxation of the puborectalis, of ≥4 years of age, who had previously achieved control. or, in extreme cases, as paradoxical contraction of the puborectalis (instead of relaxation) during evacuatory Irritable Bowel Syndrome effort. IBS is a functional bowel disorder in which patients report Anismus can be additionally categorized into 4 types recurrent abdominal pain in association with defecation and on anorectal manometry based on patient ability to gen- a disordered bowel habit (ie, constipation, diarrhea, or mix erate adequate pushing force and the type of sphincter of constipation and diarrhea). IBS is additionally defined by contraction. the Rome IV criteria2 as recurrent abdominal pain that oc- curs ≥1 day per week in the last 3 months and is associated Type 1: The patient can generate and adequate rise in with ≥2 of the following: pain that is related to defecation, intra-abdominal pressure, yet there is a paradoxical associated with a change in frequency of stool, and associat- increase in anal sphincter pressures. ed with a change in form (appearance) of stool, with symp- Type 2: The patient is unable to generate an adequate tom onset ≥6 months before diagnosis. IBS is additionally rise in intrarectal pressures and has a paradoxical differentiated into IBS with constipation, IBS with diarrhea, anal sphincter contraction. IBS with mixed symptoms, and IBS indeterminate based on Type 3: The patient can generate an adequate intra- the type of bowel dysfunction associated with the condition. abdominal pressure but either has absent or incomplete (<20%) anal sphincter relaxation. Mucosal Prolapse Type 4: The patient is unable to generate and adequate Mucosal prolapse is a circumferential protrusion of rectal pushing force and demonstrates an absent or mucosa into or beyond the anal canal. incomplete sphincter relaxation.

Obstructed Defecation Syndrome Constipation Obstructed defecation syndrome (ODS) is a subset of func- Constipation is a dysfunction of colonic motility and the tional constipation in which patients report symptoms defecation process, best defined by the Rome IV criteria.2 of incomplete rectal emptying with or without an actual A patient is labeled as having constipation when they pres- reduction in the number of bowel movements per week. ent with ≥2 of the following symptoms during ≥25% of The presence and severity of ODS are suspected and mea- defecations: straining, lumpy or hard stools, sensation of sured by querying patients on the mean time spent on the incomplete evacuation, sensation of anorectal obstruction toilet, number of attempts to defecate per day, use of en- or blockage, relying on manual maneuvers to promote emas and laxatives, sensation of incomplete or fragmented defecation, and <3 spontaneous bowel movements per defecation, need to strain with defecation, and a report of week. Additional Rome IV diagnostic criteria specify that, very hard stools.3,4 ODS can coexist with other functional in these patients, loose stools are rarely present without bowel disorders, such as slow transit constipation or IBS. the use of laxatives. Furthermore, Rome criteria suggest Additional characterization and confirmation of ODS re- that a patient cannot have both the diagnosis of irritable quire anorectal manometry and/or anal EMG, as well as bowel syndrome (IBS) with constipation and functional defecography. ODS can be caused by either anismus or constipation. pelvic organ prolapse (POP).

TABLE 1. Stages of the Pelvic Organ Prolapse–Quantification System Measurement Stage Description Stage 0 No visible prolapse demonstrated. Stage 1 The most distal portion of the prolapsing organ (posterior vagina, anterior vagina, cervix) is >1 cm above hymen. Stage 2 The most distal portion of the prolapsing organ (posterior vagina, anterior vagina, cervix) is <1 cm above the hymen or at the hymen. Stage 3 The most distal portion of the prolapsing organ (posterior vagina, anterior vagina, cervix) is ≥1 cm beyond the hymen but <2 cm. Stage 4 Prolapse of >2 cm past the hymen or complete organ eversion.

labeled as negative when the organ is above the hymen or positive when the organ is below the hymen. Prolapse grades are assigned based on the degree of prolapse in relationship to the hymen (Table 1).

Perineal Descent Perineal descent is the abnormal caudal movement of the pelvic floor with straining. It is measured clinically by the position of the anal verge in relationship to the plane of the ischial tuberosities at rest and during maximal straining. Normally, the anal verge lies just below an imaginary line drawn between the coccyx and the pubic symphysis. Peri- neal descent is diagnosed when the anus is observed to be several centimeters below this imaginary line at rest, with or without additional downward movement during straining.

FIGURE 1. A, Points and landmarks for pelvic organ prolapse (POP)–Quantification system examination. Aa = point A anterior; Rectal Prolapse Ap = point A posterior; Ba = point B anterior; Bp = point B posterior; Rectal prolapse is a circumferential, full-thickness intus- C = cervix or vaginal cuff; D = posterior fornix (if cervix is present); susception of the rectal wall.5 The degree of prolapse can gh = genital hiatus; pb = perineal body; tvl = total vaginal length. B, An example of measurements using the pelvic organ prolapse vary from intrarectal prolapse to intra-anal prolapse to (POP)–Quantification system. Reprinted with permission from external rectal prolapse, which can be additionally clas- Journal of Medicine and Life 2011;4:75–81. sified through the Oxford Prolapse Scale.6 External rectal prolapse can sometimes be visualized on the physical Pelvic Floor Dysfunction examination on patient straining. Sometimes clinical ex- Pelvic floor dysfunction includes imprecise terminology amination with the patient straining in the sitting position that does not represent a particular pelvic floor disorder better visualizes the prolapse. Internal prolapse (intussus- and should not be used in medical literature without ad- ception) can only be demonstrated on defecography or ditional clarification. proctoscopy.

Pelvic Organ Prolapse Rectocele Pelvic organ prolapse is the descent of ≥1 of the anterior A rectocele is a bulging of the rectum into the posterior vaginal wall, posterior vaginal wall, uterus, cervix, or apex wall of the vagina. Possible clinical symptoms include of the vagina (or vaginal cuff after hysterectomy). This symptoms of rectal emptying difficulties, constipation, can occur with or without concomitant rectal prolapse. need to splint/digitate to facilitate rectal emptying, vaginal This can be quantified using the POP-Quantification sys- bulge, and fecal incontinence. Rectoceles can clinically be tem, which describes the relationship of the anterior and classified through the POP-Quantification system into 4 posterior walls of the vagina, the cervix, and the uterus in stages.7 This quantitative clinical description is based on relationship to the vaginal hymen (Figs. 1A and B). The the relationship between the mobile posterior vaginal wall distance of each structure is marked in centimeters and and the anatomically fixed hymen (Table 1).

Slow Transit Constipation sphincter and levator muscles during muscle activity. This Slow transit constipation is a subset of functional constipa- test is usually performed with surface electrodes or an tion in which patients report <1 bowel movement every 3 intra-anal sponge with electrodes. Needle electrodes are days. The presence and severity of STC are suspected and painful and not used. Patients with normal anorectal func- measured by querying patients on the degree of the de- tion are expected to show a relaxation of the puborectalis crease in their bowel movements, the extent of the loss of when asked to push and a contraction of the puborectalis urge to defecate, the degree of need to use laxatives to as- when asked to squeeze the anus closed. sist a bowel movement, and the degree of bother caused by these symptoms.4,8 STC can coexist with other functional Rectal Sensation bowel disorders, such as obstructive defecation syndrome Evaluation of rectal sensation is performed by placing a or IBS. Additional characterization and confirmation of balloon catheter above the anorectal ring. The balloon is STC require documentation of delayed colonic transit. gradually inflated with air. Rectal pressure is the pressure generate by the rectum Definitions of Common Anorectal Physiology with rest, squeeze, and push. Sensory threshold is the mini- Testing Terminology mum rectal volume perceived by the patient. Urge sensation is the volume associated with the initial urge to defecate. Maxi- Anal Pressures mum tolerated volume is the volume at which the patient ex- Evaluation of anal pressures is performed by placing a periences discomfort and an intense desire to defecate. manometry catheter inside the anal sphincter, below the puborectalis. The high-pressure zone is the length of the anal canal with resting pressures ≥30% higher than rectal Definitions of Defecography Terminology pressure. Resting pressure is the pressure in the high-pres- Defecography is a dynamic examination performed to sure zone at rest after a period of stabilization. Maximum study the anatomy and function of the anorectum and pel- resting pressure is the highest resting pressure recorded. vic floor during defecation. Movement of pelvic structures Mean resting pressure is the mean of the resting pres- in relationship to the pubococcygeal and ischiococcygeal sures recorded within the high-pressure zone. Maximum lines and in relationship to each other are then described voluntary pressure is the highest pressure recorded above and quantified. These dynamic rectal emptying images can the baseline (0) at any level of the anal canal during maxi- be captured with fluoroscopy, pelvic ultrasound, or MRI. mum squeeze effort by the patient. Squeeze pressure is the pressure increment above resting pressure after voluntary Dynamic Fluoroscopic Defecography squeeze contraction and is a calculated value that is the The rectum, and preferably also the vagina, are opacified difference between the maximum voluntary pressure and with radiographic contrast. Sometimes other organs such the resting pressure at the same level of the anal canal. as the small bowel and/or bladder are also opacified. The Cough pressure is the pressure increment above resting patient is asked to evacuate the rectal contrast into a ra- pressure after a cough and is a calculated value that is the diolucent commode while dynamic images are captured difference between the maximum pressure recorded dur- fluoroscopically for additional analysis. ing cough and the resting pressure at the same level in the anal canal. Sphincter endurance is the length of time that Dynamic MRI Defecography the patient can maintain a squeeze pressure above the rest- The rectum is opacified with ultrasound gel. The patient ing pressure. is then asked to evacuate gel (supine or sitting) while the MRI captures dynamic evacuation images. Anal Sensation Anal sensation is the sensation in the anal canal measured Dynamic Ultrasound Defecography by anal mucosal electrosensitivity. It reflects the somatic The rectum is opacified with ultrasound gel. The patient is sensory component of the pudendal nerve. then asked to evacuate gel (in lithotomy or in a left lateral decubitus position) while the ultrasonographer captures Balloon Expulsion Test dynamic evacuation images with an intrarectal or a peri- The balloon expulsion test evaluates the ability of the pa- neal ultrasound probe. tient to expel a balloon inflated with 50 to 60 mL of water. Patients with normal anorectal function are expected to Anismus (Nonrelaxation of the Puborectalis and expel the balloon. Paradoxical Contraction of the Puborectalis) Anismus is defined by the either the observation of a Electromyography Recruitment nonrelaxation of the puborectalis or actual paradoxical Electromyography recruitment records the change from contraction of the puborectalis at the anorectal junction basal electrical activity of motor units of the external anal during evacuation.

FIGURE 2. Anorectal angle. A, Images at rest: the anorectal angle is measured from the midline of the anal canal to a tangent to the posterior rectal wall. B, Images with squeeze: normally the anorectal junction narrows. C, Images with evacuation: normally the anorectal junction widens. Reprinted with permission from Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics of North America 2013;21:427–445.

Anorectal Angle A. H line measures hiatal width. This measurement is taken The anorectal angle is the angle created by a line drawn from the inferior aspect of the symphysis pubis to the through the central axis of the anal canal and a line drawn posterior wall of the rectum at the level of the anorectal through either the central axis of the distal rectum or a line junction. drawn parallel to the posterior wall of the distal rectum B. M line measures the movement of the pelvic floor (Fig. 2). It can be measured at rest and during evacuation. away from pubococcygeal line. This measurement is Normal values range from 90° to 110° at rest. Normal val- taken by extending a perpendicular line from the pu- ues increase at evacuation. bococcygeal line to the posterior end of the H line. C. Abnormal perineal descent is present when the H line Enterocele exceeds 6 cm and when the M line exceeds 2 cm in On defecography, enterocele is classified as small bowel length (Fig. 5). present between the rectum and vagina, reaching lower than the upper third of the vagina during evacuation effort. A first-degree enterocele is above the pubococcygeal line. A second-degree enterocele is below the pubococcygeal line but above the ischiococcygeal line, and a third-degree enterocele is below the ischiococcygeal line (Fig. 3). Alter- natively, herniations of the peritoneal sac with contained peritoneoceles, omentoceles, sigmoidoceles, and enteroceles can be graded as small (<3 cm), moderate (3–6 cm), and large (>6 cm) by measuring the largest distance between the pubococcygeal line and the most inferior point of the sac.

Ischiococcygeal Line The ischiococcygeal line is a line extending from the inferior border of the ischium to the last coccygeal joint. It is drawn on defecography to serve as a landmark against which movement of pelvic organs is characterized.

Perineal Descent Perineal descent is measured on defecography as the differ- FIGURE 3. Pubococcygeal line, extending from the most inferior ence between the position of the anorectal junction at rest portion of the pubis symphysis to the last horizontal coccygeal and during maximal straining in relationship to the pubo- joint. Descent of any particular structure is measured along a coccygeal line. Additional measurements of the degree of perpendicular line from the pubococcygeal line to the structure. This case shows a large enterocele (grade 3). Reprinted with permission descent can be generated with 2 additional reference lines from Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics of North America (Fig. 4). 2013;21:427–445.

FIGURE 4. Pubococcygeal (green) line is the line drawn between the lower part of the pubis and the lowest coccygeal joint. H (red) line is the line drawn from the lower portion of the pubis symphysis to the posterior wall of the rectum. M (blue) line is the line drawn from the pubococcygeal line to the H line. Reprinted with permission from Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics of North FIGURE 5. Perineal descent with a grade 3 enterocele (small bowel is America 2013;21:427–445. below pubococcygeal line) and grade 4 vaginal prolapse (complete eversion). Also note that the H line (red) is widened and the M line (blue) is elongated. Image reprinted with permission from Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics of North America 2013;21:427–445. Peritoneocele/Omentocele On defecography, peritoneocele is a protrusion of the peritoneum between the rectum and the vagina that does not Sigmoidocele contain any abdominal viscera. A first-degree peritoneocele/ On defecography, sigmoidoceles are classified by the posi- omentocele is above the pubococcygeal line, a second-de- tion of the lowest loop of the sigmoid during evacuatory gree peritoneocele/omentocele is below the pubococcygeal effort. A first-degree sigmoidocele is above the pubococcy- line but is above the ischiococcygeal line, and a third-de- geal line, a second-degree sigmoidocele is below the pubo- gree peritoneocele/omentocele is below the ischiococcygeal coccygeal line but is above the ischiococcygeal line, and line. Alternatively, herniations of the peritoneal sac with a third-degree sigmoidocele is below the ischiococcygeal contained peritoneoceles, omentoceles, sigmoidoceles, line. Alternatively, herniations of the peritoneal sac with and enteroceles can be graded as small (<3 cm), moder- contained peritoneoceles, omentoceles, sigmoidoceles, ate (3–6 cm), and large (>6 cm) by measuring the largest and enteroceles can be graded as small (<3 cm), moder- distance between the pubococcygeal line and the most in- ate (3–6 cm), and large (>6 cm) by measuring the larg- ferior point of the sac. est distance between the pubococcygeal line and the most inferior point of the sac. Additional comment on Pubococcygeal Line the ability to empty with and without digitation and the The pubococcygeal line is a line extending from the infe- degree of sigmoid redundancy can help to additionally rior border of the pubic symphysis to the last coccygeal guide therapy.9 joint that is drawn on defecography to serve as a landmark against which movement of pelvic organs is characterized REFERENCES (Figs. 3 and 4). 1. Lowry AC, Simmang CL, Boulos P, et al. Consensus statement Rectocele of definitions for anorectal physiology and rectal cancer: report On defecography, a rectocele is a bulging of the rectal of the Tripartite Consensus Conference on Definitions for Ano- wall toward the vagina. A comment regarding its size and rectal Physiology and Rectal Cancer, Washington, D.C., May 1, 1999. Dis Colon Rectum. 2001;44:915–919. whether the rectocele empties with defecation with or 2. Mearin F, Lacy BE, Chang L, et al. Bowel disorders. Gastroenter- without digitation can help to guide treatment. Radio- ology. 2016;S0016-5085:00222–00225. graphically, rectoceles are graded as small (<2 cm), mod- 3. Altomare DF, Spazzafumo L, Rinaldi M, Dodi G, Ghiselli R, erate (2–4 cm), and large (>4 cm). Additional comment on Piloni V. Set-up and statistical validation of a new scoring the ability to empty with and without digitation can help system for obstructed defaecation syndrome. Colorectal Dis. guide therapy. 2008;10:84–88.

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