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The Racial Politics and Possibilities of US Skateboarding Culture http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. Colour in the Lines: The Racial Politics and Possibilities of US Skateboarding Culture A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Waikato by Neftalie S. Williams 2020 Abstract This thesis examines the informal sporting culture of skateboarding as a contested site of racial politics in the United States of America (US). Action sports scholars have long identified the ‘whiteness’ of this sport but rarely created space for the voices of people of colour (POC) within skateboarding. Underpinned by Critical Race Theory (CRT), this project centralizes the previously unheard voices of POC and reveals the unique challenges, strategies, and successes of POC within the elite skateboarding culture across particular historical contexts of skateboarding and within US society. With the aim of understanding the complex and nuanced experiences of race within the skateboarding culture, sport, and industry, I conducted semi-structured interviews with forty male and seven female skateboarders of colour who have played critical roles in the culture as athletes, company owners, managers and media producers. Participants in the study are from a spectrum of racial backgrounds (African American, Asian American, Latinx/Hispanic) with their skateboarding participation ranging from the mid-1970s to the present day. Interviews were supplemented by a quantitative and qualitative examination of skateboarding magazines over this same time frame. Engaging the empirical material in dialogue with CRT, the key themes are organized into four chapters. The first explores the importance of family and community in forming the participants’ earliest understandings of race, racism, and politics. It then examines their initial participation in skateboarding, including the challenges of facing racial stereotypes from their communities and society in general. The next chapter outlines the path into II professional skateboarding and the racial politics of gaining ‘visibility’ from those in power positions within the industry. It also examines the formation of elite skateboarding teams and the critical role of mentorship and interpersonal relationships with other POC as well as with non-POC allies. The third chapter focuses on the critical role of niche media, and particularly the politics of visibility within skateboarding magazines. The fourth and final chapter focuses on SOC as agents of change within the skateboarding industry as designers of skateboarding artifacts (i.e., shoes, boards) and company owners. In this chapter, we see the power dynamics shifting with POC skaters holding key roles, and with their creative entrepreneurship and unique strategies impacting the iconography of global skateboarding. Ultimately, adopting a CRT approach, this project is supported by the politics of the researcher—an African American skateboarder, photographer, and critical scholar—who recognized the need to create a forum for the long-overlooked voices and experiences of racial minorities within skateboarding. In so doing, both narratives of the positioning of POC within skateboarding, as well as the politics of researching action sports communities, are challenged. Chronicling the endeavours of pioneering cultural intermediaries within the unique sporting culture of skateboarding, this thesis reveals how individual and collective actions have gained momentum over the past four decades and changed the racial possibilities for future generations. III Acknowledgements I would like to thank my fiancé, Rachele, for her love and support during this thesis and in life. I also thank my advisors, Professor Holly Thorpe and Professor Belinda Wheaton, for all the time and effort they contributed to making this thesis come to light. I also thank my proofreaders, Ms. Judy McDonald and Mrs. Jan McMurtry. Many thanks to Dr. Manuel Castells for convincing me that my voice and experiences belonged in academia and could inspire others. My heartfelt thanks to my mother Teresa Williams-Fortson and my uncle Luke Williams for the continued guidance. I also acknowledge the unwavering support provided by my brother and sister, Taurus Williams and Terresita Williams. Lastly, I thank every skater of colour who contributed to this project (mentioned and unmentioned) who paved the way for young skaters like myself. They provided the foundation for all skaters to believe that skateboarding could belong to everyone. IV Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................... II Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. IV Table of Contents ................................................................................................. V Lists of Figures ................................................................................................... VIII List of Tables ....................................................................................................... IX Prologue .............................................................................................................. X 1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 Primary Research Question .......................................................................................4 Secondary questions .................................................................................................4 1.1 Key literature ..................................................................................................5 1.2 Theoretical framework ...................................................................................6 1.3 Key Concepts ...................................................................................................8 1.4 Thesis overview .............................................................................................13 2 Bridging the Gap: Literature on Race, Sport, and Skateboarding .................15 2.1 Action sports – What they are and why do they matter? ............................15 2.2 Action sports literature: Key themes from past and present .......................17 2.3 Understanding race and sport: Key literature of past and present..............41 2.4 Theoretical Framings: CRT, sport, and skateboarding ..................................50 2.5 Summary: Bridging the gap from race and sport to skateboarding .............64 3 Methodology: Can the Black (action sport) Athlete Speak? ..........................66 3.1 Research paradigm .......................................................................................66 3.2 Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative ........................................................74 3.3 Race, relationships and reflexivity ................................................................90 3.4 Theoretical analysis .................................................................................... 101 3.5 Representation of narratives ..................................................................... 107 3.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 110 4 The Role of Family and Community: Skateboarders’ Early Exposure to Racial Politics ...................................................................................................... 112 4.1 Understanding race via family and community ......................................... 113 4.2 Contemporary experiences of US racial formation via family and community ............................................................................................................... 131 V 4.3 Race, skateboarding and the local community ......................................... 137 4.4 Early influences of skaters of colour: Local mentors, role models, and cultural shifts ....................................................................................................... 158 4.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 162 5 Taking the Stage: Navigating Racial Politics in the Transition into Elite Skateboarding .......................................................................................... 165 5.1 Sponsorship and the path to professionalism in skateboarding ............... 165 5.2 The road to visibility................................................................................... 169 5.3 Gaining membership of elite skateboarding teams .................................. 176 5.4 Moving beyond entrance: Informal sporting structures’ effects on mentorship ..............................................................................................................
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