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Where Does Subjectivity Come From? Where Does Subjectivity Come From? Chris Kennedy University of Chicago Subjective Meaning: Alternatives to Relativism DGfS/Humboldt-Universität 25 February, 2010 Identifying subjectivity Two sources of subjectivity Introduction Where does subjectivity come from? Questions 1. What makes a predicate subjective? I What kind of meaning does it have? I Is there a representational correlate? I Are there different kinds of subjectivity? 2. Is there evidence to decide between a relativist vs. contextualist (vs. something else) account of subjectivity? Disclaimer: My focus will be on subjectivity in scalar predicates; I won’t talk about modals, conditionals, etc. C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Two sources of subjectivity Introduction Where does subjectivity come from? The players The words I Evaluative GAs: tasty, fun, stimulating, lazy, salty, sweet, ... I Dimensional GAs: rich, tall, heavy, old, salty, sweet, ... The hypotheses I Relativism: The character and content of a subjective predicate is fixed, but its extension is judge-dependent. I Contextualism: The character of a subjective predicate is fixed, but its content and extension are judge-dependent. I (Metalinguistic uncertainty, objectivism, expressivism, ...) C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Truth judgments and speech reports Faultless disagreement (1) a. Anna: “Trippa alla romana is tasty.” b. Beatrice: “Trippa alla romana is not tasty.” (2) a. Anna: “Trippa alla romana is next.” b. Beatrice: “Trippa alla romana is not next.” This phenomenon, together with object language truth assessments and object language speech reports, appears to argue against a contextualist analysis of subjectivity. C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates Some attitude predicates (e.g., Engl. finds, considers, feels that, ...) require their complements to be subjective (Sæbø, to appear): (3) a. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be tasty. b. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be vegetarian. (4) a. Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) tasty. b.?? Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) vegetarian. (5) a. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be tasty for me. b.?? Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) tasty for me. (OK if finds ≈ discovers) C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates Some attitude predicates (e.g., Engl. finds, considers, feels that, ...) require their complements to be subjective (Sæbø, to appear): (3) a. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be tasty. b. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be vegetarian. (4) a. Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) tasty. b.?? Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) vegetarian. (5) a. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be tasty for me. b.?? Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) tasty for me. (OK if finds ≈ discovers) C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates Some attitude predicates (e.g., Engl. finds, considers, feels that, ...) require their complements to be subjective (Sæbø, to appear): (3) a. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be tasty. b. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be vegetarian. (4) a. Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) tasty. b.?? Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) vegetarian. (5) a. Anna believes trippa alla romana to be tasty for me. b.?? Anna finds trippa alla romana (to be) tasty for me. (OK if finds ≈ discovers) C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates Stephenson (2007) proposes that find means the same thing as think, but has an extra requirement that the doxastic anchor have direct experience of the embedded proposition: (6) a. Anna thinks the cat food is tasty (because the cat ate it all up). b.?? Anna finds the cat food tasty (because the cat ate it all up). But, Sæbø points out, this doesn’t account for (7b), assuming that Homer has direct experience of his sexual orientation. (7) a. Homer thinks he is gay. b.?? Homer finds himself (to be) gay. C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates Stephenson (2007) proposes that find means the same thing as think, but has an extra requirement that the doxastic anchor have direct experience of the embedded proposition: (6) a. Anna thinks the cat food is tasty (because the cat ate it all up). b.?? Anna finds the cat food tasty (because the cat ate it all up). But, Sæbø points out, this doesn’t account for (7b), assuming that Homer has direct experience of his sexual orientation. (7) a. Homer thinks he is gay. b.?? Homer finds himself (to be) gay. C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates Sæbø argues that find is a radical judge-shifter, and provides both a relativist and a contextualist implementation of the analysis: I Relativist: find causes the extension of the embedded predicate to be determined relative to its subject. w;t;j w;t;x (8) [[x find [y tasty]]] = [[tasty he;ti]] (y) I Contextualist: find fixes the value of the judge argument of the embedded predicate to its subject w;t w;t (9) [[x find [y tasty]]] = [[tasty he;eti]] (y)(x) C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates These two versions of the analysis make different predictions about the unacceptability of Homer finds himself gay: I In the relativist version, adding finds is vacuous, since gay is not judge-dependent. I In the contextualist version, there is a type-mismatch, because gay does not have a judge argument. Sæbø provides several pieces of evidence that suggest that the contextualist version of the account is best. C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates (8) HANDSOME, PLEASANT AND UNDER 45 a. She finds him handsome and pleasant. b.?? She finds him handsome and under 45. (9) a. She finds all smokers unpleasant. b.?? She finds all pleasant people to be nonsmokers. (10) a. Jeg synes du er gift med en vakker mann. I seem you are married with a beautiful man ‘I find the man you are married to beautiful.’ (‘I find you to be married to a beautiful man.’) b.?? Jeg synes du kjenner en vakker mann. I seem you know a beautiful man (‘??I find you to know a beautiful man.’) C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates (8) HANDSOME, PLEASANT AND UNDER 45 a. She finds him handsome and pleasant. b.?? She finds him handsome and under 45. (9) a. She finds all smokers unpleasant. b.?? She finds all pleasant people to be nonsmokers. (10) a. Jeg synes du er gift med en vakker mann. I seem you are married with a beautiful man ‘I find the man you are married to beautiful.’ (‘I find you to be married to a beautiful man.’) b.?? Jeg synes du kjenner en vakker mann. I seem you know a beautiful man (‘??I find you to know a beautiful man.’) C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates (8) HANDSOME, PLEASANT AND UNDER 45 a. She finds him handsome and pleasant. b.?? She finds him handsome and under 45. (9) a. She finds all smokers unpleasant. b.?? She finds all pleasant people to be nonsmokers. (10) a. Jeg synes du er gift med en vakker mann. I seem you are married with a beautiful man ‘I find the man you are married to beautiful.’ (‘I find you to be married to a beautiful man.’) b.?? Jeg synes du kjenner en vakker mann. I seem you know a beautiful man (‘??I find you to know a beautiful man.’) C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Assessment Two sources of subjectivity Selection Where does subjectivity come from? Subjective attitude predicates These facts are not entirely conclusive, but to the extent that they have obvious explanations under the contextualist analysis and non-obvious explanations under the relativist analysis, they speak for the former and against the latter. C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Subjective standards Two sources of subjectivity Subjective orderings Where does subjectivity come from? Subjectivity and vagueness Richard (2004) points out that PPTs are not the only kinds of scalar predicates that display faultless disagreement; in fact, most (maybe all) vague predicates can show this effect: (11) a. Anna: “Carla is rich/thin/heavy/old/young/short.” b. Beatrice: “No she’s not!” This is perhaps not surprising, since a number of researchers have given what is essentially a relativistic semantics for vague predicates (Bogusławski 1975; Fara 2000; maybe even Kennedy 2007). C. Kennedy Where does subjectivity come from? Identifying subjectivity Subjective standards Two sources of subjectivity Subjective orderings Where does subjectivity come from? Description vs. evaluation However, there is a subtle contrast between dimensional and evaluative vague predicates (including PPTs) under find: (12) a. Anna finds her bowl of pasta tasty/delicous/disgusting. b. Anna finds Carla stimulating/annoying/boring/tedious. (13) a.?? Anna finds her bowl of pasta big/large/small/cold.
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