A Magazine of the Americas Volume 23 • Summer 2014 • http://lacc.fiu.edu

How Free are Media in the Americas Today?

13657_SIPA_LACC_Cover2014-final.indd 2 6/11/14 10:46 AM

Latin American and Caribbean Center School of International and Public Affairs

An integral part of the School of International and Public Affairs, the Latin American and Caribbean Center (LACC) is one of the largest and most comprehensive area studies program at FIU. The center coordinates a robust program that spans across the disciplines, supporting and ehancing the university’s academic mission.

Designated as a National Resource Center for Foreign Language and Area Studies by the U.S. Department of Education, LACC fosters high quality research, education and services on Latin American and the Caribbean.

LACC’s academic offerings include graduate and undergraduate certificate programs and a variety of summer and foreign study opportunities. The center’s programs build on the unique assests of FIU’s inter-American setting and the expertise of approximately 200 faculty associates who work on Latin America and the Caribbean.

For more information, contact LACC at 305-348-2894 or by email at [email protected] Please visit our website at lacc.fiu.edu

Arts & Sciences Florida International University

13657_SIPA_LACC_Cover2014-final.indd 3 6/11/14 10:46 AM Hemisphere Volume 23 • Summer 2014 • http://lacc.fiu.edu In this issue

Letter from the Editor frank Mora...... 3

Letter from the Guest Editor raul Reis...... 4

Setting the Stage freedom in Latin America: What Press Monitors Say Leonardo Ferreira...... 6 TheT wo Americas and the Freedom of Expression Disconnect Alejandro J. Aguirre...... 12 digital Media Ethics: Reinventing Journalism in Latin America Leonardo Ferreira...... 16

Special Feature press Freedom, Democracy and Climate Change Reporting in Latin America Juliet Pinto and Mercedes Vigón...... 24

Focus on Cuba What Can I Say? Freedom of Expression in Cuba Jorge Dalmau and John Virtue...... 32 a Surprise Witness for the Prosecution John Virtue...... 34

Reports from the Field 90 Miles to Freedom of the Press Patrick Farrell...... 36 haiti: Land of Radios Bernard Diederich...... 40

Opinion a Disastrous Year for Press Freedom in the Americas Claudio Paolillo...... 44 Hemisphere

Editorial Staff

Founding Editor anthony P. Maingot

Editor francisco O. Mora

Guest Editor raul Reis

Associate Editor liesl Picard

Copy Editor alisa Newman

Graphic Designer rafael Avalos

Production Manager Kristina Mur

Editorial Advisory Board

Uva de Aragón ana María Bidegain David Bray carol Damian Eduardo A. Gamarra Sarah J. Mahler A. Douglas Kincaid félix E. Martín Andrea Mantell Seidel Juan Martínez Patricia Price raul Reis Mark B. Rosenberg ana Roca Richard Tardanico Victor M. Uribe-Uran

Hemisphere (ISSN 08983038) is published once a year by the Latin American and Caribbean Center, School of International and Public Affairs, Florida International University. Copyright © 2014 by the Latin American and Caribbean Center, Florida International University. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.

Hemisphere is dedicated to provoking debate on the problems, initiatives, and achievements of the Americas. Responsibility for the views expressed lies solely with the authors. Editorial, Circulation and Advertising Offices: Latin American and Caribbean Center, Florida International University, Modesto A. Maidique Campus, DM 353, Miami, Florida, 33199, Tel.: (305) 348-2894, Fax: (305) 348-3953, E-mail: [email protected], http://lacc.fiu.edu

Cover Image: A protester modeling miniature microphones protests 27 May, 2003, in front of the National Telecommunications Commission in Caracas. Hundreds of demonstrators protested a new controversial press law, which opponents see as censorship against media opposed to the rule of President Hugo Chavez. AFP PHOTO/ ANDREW ALVAREZ/Getty Images From the Editor

Dear Hemisphere readers: The Latin American and Caribbean Center (LACC) is delighted to be partnering with FIU’s School of Journalism and Mass Communication (SJMC) to provide our readers with an in-depth look at a key challenge to democracy, security and transparency in Latin American and Caribbean: freedom of the press. Despite the significant progress made over the last twenty-five years to advance and consolidate political rights and civil liberties in the region, the situation currently facing media professionals is becoming more precarious with each passing day. Media seem to be under assault as efforts to close news outlets and restrict journalists’ abilities to inform the public intensify. Moreover, violence and intimidation targeting journalists are not abating; in fact, as you will read in this issue, in some countries homicide rates of journalists are on the rise and impunity continues to stand in the way of justice. Gag-orders and legislation that threaten reporters with fines or imprisonment in countries such as Ecuador and Venezuela have significantly increased the costs of reporting on important and controversial issues such as corruption, crime and violence, and the weakening of democratic institutions in the region. As a result, self-censorship and timidity in reporting have begun to settle in, with multiple and serious implications for the entire hemisphere. Fortunately, many media professionals and independent journalists, scholars and industry-related organizations continue to work hard to get news out, uphold the ethics of the profession, and serve as critical defenders of press freedom. They are among the contributors to this issue of Hemisphere and all have done a magnificent job of shedding light on a complex, agonizing subject. I’m extremely grateful to Dean Raul Reis, who embraced the opportunity to serve as the guest editor of this issue. He did a masterful job with the diligent editorial support of Liesl Picard, Associate Director of LACC, and Alisa Newman, and brought together an impressive cadre of exceptional academics and journalists who intimately understand the challenges facing media professionals currently covering the region. I also want to thank Dean Reis and his FIU SJMC colleagues, Leonardo Ferreira and Teresa Ponte, as well as LACC’s Sally Zamudio, for taking the issue of press freedom beyond the pages of Hemisphere and designing a program, as part of our 31st Annual Journalists & Editors Workshop on Latin America and the Caribbean, that further examines the topic and provides professional development training opportunities for both media professionals and Journalism students. I look forward to continuing the conversation.

Frank O. Mora Director Latin American and Caribbean Center Florida International University

Hemisphere Volume 23 3 From the Guest Editor

In 2013, Freedom House’s Freedom of the Press Index, an annual survey of media independence in 197 countries and territories, downgraded Ecuador and Paraguay from “Partly free” to “Not free,” joining a growing list of Latin American countries that also includes Honduras, Mexico, Venezuela and Cuba. Ecuador was demoted to “Not free” because of “state interference and a hostile environment for the press.” The justification probably applies to the other Latin American and Caribbean countries with the same ranking. Reporters Without Borders, a different NGO which issues its own press freedom index, ranks Argentina 55th and Brazil an embarrassing 111th out of 180 on its 2014 list of most to least “press free” countries. Brazil dropped nine places in the ranking from 2012 to 2013, in part because five journalists were assassinated in that country in 2013 alone. In the case of Argentina, which dropped eight places since 2012, the downgrading was justified by “the growing tension” between the government and privately owned media, culminating with the adoption of new media laws that some analysts see as designed to curb (if not silence) opposition voices. This issue of Hemisphere is dedicated to media freedom in Latin America and the Caribbean. Through a series of journalistic articles, opinion essays, academic pieces, and even beautiful photos by Pulitzer-winning photographer Patrick Farrell, we hope to shed light on the evolving situation and growing tensions in the region between governments and the media. The articles in this special issue not only evaluate the extent of press freedom in different countries, but also discuss the historical, social and political context to explain the issues involved. An essay by Claudio Paolillo, chairman of the Inter American Press Association (IAPA) Committee on Freedom of the Press and Information, gives a sobering assessment of the precarious situation of the media in Latin America in 2013, going into detail about why that year could be characterized as one of the worst in recent memory for press freedom in the region. In his article, Leonardo Ferreira, an FIU faculty member specializing in international communication and media law and ethics in Latin America, makes historical connections between journalistic integrity, ethical behavior, endemic corruption, and violence against the media to provide an overview of the challenges faced by anyone trying to do serious journalism in the region. An academic piece by two FIU journalism professors, Juliet Pinto and Mercedes Vigón, examines very interesting interconnected questions: How do and should media report on climate change? What does this reporting tell us about freedom of the press in democracies and democratizing nations? The authors tried to answer those questions by focusing specifically on the issue of climate change and how it is reported in Latin America. Alejandro Aguirre, former publisher of Diário Las Américas, the oldest Spanish-language newspaper in Miami, examines the media freedom question by focusing on an apparent disconnect between “Atlantic-facing” and “Pacific-facing” countries, and the tension between government control and market forces that permeates the region. Jorge Dalmau and John Virtue, from FIU’s International Media Center, try to assess the main contradictions (and evolving situation) of the Cuban media, including the latest challenge posed by blogs and other forms of electronic communication. With cautious optimism, they try to evaluate the positive impact of blogueros on the media and the general conversation in Cuba. By providing this collection of very different and far-reaching pieces and voices, Hemisphere hopes to contribute to the debate about the challenges (and small victories) that have come to define the past, present and future of media and press freedom in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Raul Reis Dean School of Journalism and Mass Communication Florida International University

4 Hemisphere Volume 23

Setting the Stage Freedom in Latin America: What Press Monitors Say By Leonardo Ferreira

Colleagues, relatives and friends of murdered journalists place candles and pictures in an altar erected at the Independence Angel monument in Mexico City on May 5, 2012 during a vigil to protest against violence towards the press. YURI CORTEZ/AFP/GettyImages

ver and over again, January 2010 and September 2012, (IPI) and Transparency International the media and the groups report, 74 journalists (TI) seek to reverse the trend that NGOs report data were murdered in the Americas, makes reporting on crime, politics about freedom of but only eight killing resulted and corruption a matter of life or the press around in a conviction, leading them to death in so many countries. the world. After some scandalized conclude: “The progress of the Routinely, in nations as different Ocommentary, the issue gets pushed investigations is often modest or as the Philippines, Bangladesh to the back burner, where it is non-existent. This raises a primary and Mexico, the latest IPI Death forgotten. A good example is the concern: The legal systems of the Watch (2013) points out, successive impunity surrounding the slaying region show a worrying inability to governments have expressed of journalists, a frustrating reality in investigate and punish attacks on commitments to fight the culture of Latin America. journalists.” impunity with little if any success, According to the global IFEX Joining forces in an International and despite major legislative and network (formerly the International Day to End Impunity (every institutional changes—Mexico Freedom of Expression Exchange) November 23 since 2011, being a most frustrating example. and the IFEX-ALC alliance (Alianza commemorating the 2009 True, only three journalists were de América Latina y el Caribe), Maguindanao or Ampatuan killed in Mexico in 2013 compared violations of freedom of expression Massacre of 32 journalists and 26 to the seven, 10, and 12 reporters and impunity have reached other civilians in the Philippines), murdered in 2012, 2011, and 2010, “alarming” numbers. Between the International Press Institute respectively. “But before we allow

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for talk of progress,” warns the IPI is important to point out, the rate of director Guillermo Cano (killed report, “let us consider another pair of two out of three unpunished four years earlier in front of the of statistics: 69 journalists have been murders in the Western Hemisphere newspaper office). You have to murdered in Mexico in the past 10 is “preferable” to the nine out of 10 understand,” Otálora insisted, “that years and ‘in zero’ of those cases cases of impunity worldwide. the region was as complicated as have the perpetrators been brought other zones of the country, places to justice. Today, even the decline Legal Limitations where landowners, narcos and the in the killing of journalists must be Why is there so much impunity in paramilitaries, with the complicity scrutinized in Mexico. Given that cases of murdered journalists? In his of the Colombian army, were at no material advancement has been Spanish-language master’s seminar war with the guerrillas and the made in fighting impunity, the fear at the FIU School of Journalism and political influence of a leftist is that statistical improvements are Mass Communication, Colombian- Patriotic Union allied with civic in fact due to the reestablishment born professor Leonardo Ferreira leaders and members of the Liberal of a corrupt balance of power explained that, in most Latin Party in several towns.” The same surrounding the new national American societies, paid criminals criminals (the Castaño brothers) government. Actually, it may can be just around the corner to suspected of the Segovia massacre simply be that a nexus of corrupt silence a dissenting voice without and of ordering the execution of interests between government legal consequences. A tragic irony Otálora’s colleagues warned him to officials, organized crimes, and the is the murder of fellow countrymen go into exile to protect his wife and media itself has replaced violence Julio Daniel Chaparro and Jorge young son. Sadly, the murders of as the easiest method for stopping Enrique Torres, both reporters for Chaparro and Torres, as well as the the free flow of information.” If the renowned daily El Espectador. 63 other journalists killed between this diagnosis is correct, Mexican Assassins killed them on the street 1977 and January 2014, “found democracy is in great peril. on April 24, 1991 while they a second death”: the Colombian According to the New York were covering the social impact of judicial system’s 20-year statute of City-based Committee to Protect violence, a 1988 massacre in the limitations, María Camila Rincón of Journalists (CPJ), 149 murders of northeastern municipality of Segovia, El Espectador noted. journalists have been committed Antioquia. This fatal stop was next “We are less than a week away in the Americas since 1992 and to last in a series of six chronicles from prolonging this pain forever,” 67 percent of them – 100 murders they wrote about towns terrorized by cried out Ruby de Torres, shortly – remain unsolved. The CPJ lists horrific massacres in Colombia. before the expiration of the criminal Colombia, Mexico and Brazil as At first, the news informed case investigating the murder of her among the world’s top 20 countries that FARC guerrillas had gunned husband, Jorge Enrique. On July 25, with the greatest number of cases in them down after mistaking the 2013, Reporters Without Borders “complete impunity”—36, 23 and 19 reporters for state intelligence (RWB) published a reminder: murders, respectively. Yet, reporters agents, but evidence pointed to “Statutes of Limitations are a Tragic have been shot to death without legal members of the region’s paramilitary Guarantee of Eternal Impunity.” punishment or consequence across forces uncomfortable with the Because a genuinely democratic the continent, including Argentina, pair’s investigative reporting on society cannot afford to forget past Bolivia, Canada, the Dominican rampant political violence and abuses, authorities must be urged Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, local power struggles. Julio Daniel “to do what is necessary to prevent Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, and Jorge died “in a murky a statute of limitations from taking Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay and context,” commented journalist effect […] and combat impunity not Peru. To this day, the United States Sergio Otálora, then a co-worker just for the sake of the families, who and Venezuela also shoulder partial at the Bogotá daily, “in confusing have a right to demand truth and impunity in the cases of journalists circumstances following a sequence justice, but also in order to guarantee Manuel de Dios Unanue, Dona St. of deadly attacks against the paper respect for freedom of information,” Plite and Orel Sambrano. Still, it which included the assassination the RFS press release stated.

Hemisphere Volume 23 7 Setting the Stage

Since its founding by four In December 2013, in a country with the recapture of Joaquín journalists in Montpellier, France, with a 97.5% impunity rate and 40 Guzmán Loera, El Chapo, “but in 1985, RWB has monitored murders against journalists in the Mexican officials are yet to effectively attacks on media and freedom of last decade, Honduran National combat the murderous crime groups information worldwide, assisted Human Rights Commissioner targeting news media in vast parts of persecuted journalists and their Ramón Custodio asked his the nation,” affirmed the latest CPJ families morally and financially, government to conduct a diligent Special Report on the subject (2012). and fought against censorship and investigation to convict the Immediate action on impunity is laws aimed at restricting freedom of perpetrators and masterminds of imperative: Latin Americans cannot information, including all statutes of these unpunished homicides. “We wait or rely on complex, lengthy limitations on murdered journalists. regret that so many requests, like and costly truth and reconciliation “The fight against impunity for the one being made right now by commissions to learn what happened those who attack and kill journalists the Human Rights Commissioner, to their dead or disappeared. As is unfortunately still absolutely continue to fall on deaf ears,” stated Javier Garza, deputy director of El essential,” RWB Secretary-General Claudio Paolillo, chairman of the Siglo de Torreón in the northern Christophe Deloire declared recently. IAPA Committee on Freedom Mexican state of Coahuila, so aptly “Defining certain murders as crimes of the Press and Information. If put it, “impunity is the oxygen for against humanity is a step forward.” corrective action is not taken, attacks against the press and the With roots going back to 1926, Custodio warned, Honduras engine for those who seek to silence the world’s oldest press freedom will remain “a country without the media.” monitor, the Inter American Press justice for victims and without Association, has also expressed punishment of the murderers.” What Rankings Reveal outrage over the inaction Since 1992, 614 journalists Closing 2013 with a big wish, surrounding murders of journalists have been killed with complete Ecuadorian journalist Emilio in the Americas. On September 15, impunity worldwide, according to Palacio, currently in exile in Miami, 2011, the IAPA called on UNESCO the CPJ. Politics, war, corruption wrote: “My true desire for new year’s and the United Nations “to use their and denunciation of both common is that everyone, in every corner of influence for governments to be criminals and human rights the globe, in both free countries more dedicated and effective in the violators are the top five motives and enslaved countries, defend defense and protection of the work for slaying a reporter anywhere, but freedom of expression, fighting like of the press.” This complaint came in the Americas, half of the killings a cat: claws out, tooth and nail.” even after Colombian lawmakers involved reports on some type of According to Palacio, a former responded to international pressure corruption in government, politics editorial page editor of Guayaquil’s by increasing the statute of or business, especially in provincial El Universo (Ecuador’s largest daily, limitations for crimes (kidnapping, areas. Indeed, the problem of which published his polemical torture and homicide) committed impunity in Latin America and piece in February 2011 accusing against journalists and human rights the Caribbean has deep roots in President Rafael Correa of ordering advocates from 20 to 30 years. Other the 1950s through 1980s: Cold the army “to open fire at will and countries should imitate Colombia, War decades of major political without warning on a hospital primarily Mexico, Brazil and confrontation, brutal military full of civilians and innocent Honduras, urged Juan Francisco Ealy and civil dictatorships, the first people” during a police protest), of the Mexican daily El Universal peak of the drug cartels and, not six countries in Latin America now and former president of the IAPA’s coincidentally, the worst violence have no press freedom: Ecuador, Commission against Impunity, while against journalists. Mexico, Paraguay, Honduras, lamenting that murder and impunity Like Colombia following the Venezuela and the endemic case continue as the main problems for downfall of Pablo Escobar, Mexico of Cuba (as of February 2014). A journalists in these and other Latin can now have renewed hope of trend toward increasing attacks, American nations. defeating its culture of impunity threats and violations of freedom

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of expression is evident around the World Press Freedom Index for Freedom of Information world, including Latin America, especially in the last couple of years. Ranking of Countries in the Americas; Highest Degree of Freedom to Least Global indicators, specifically Country 2014 2013 those of the US-based Freedom Jamaica 17 13 House (Global Press Freedom Canada 18 20 Rankings) and the French Reporters Without Borders (World Press Costa Rica 21 18 Freedom Index), differ markedly in Uruguay 26 27 some respects. The United States, Belize 29 NA for example, ranks 23rd on the Suriname 31 31 Freedom House index, alongside El Salvador 38 38 Barbados, Costa Rica and Jamaica. Trinidad and Tobago 43 44 On the RWB list, in contrast, it is United States 46 32 46th, next to Haiti and downgraded Haiti 47 49 as sharply as Paraguay in just one Argentina 55 54 year. Policy and media circles in the United States tend to criticize Chile 58 60 RWB’s rankings as misguided or Guyana 67 69 exaggerated, whereas European Dominican Republic 68 80 critics often deem the FH rankings Nicaragua 71 78 self-serving and patriotic. Savvy Panama 87 111 reporters, in the meantime, Bolivia 94 109 realize that the truth mostly Ecuador 95 119 likely lies somewhere in between. Peru 104 105 Both organizations have stable Paraguay 105 91 methodologies based on rigorous criteria: Freedom House, with its Brazil 111 108 focused, contextual approach (legal, Venezuela 116 117 political and economic, although Guatemala 125 95 cultural factors are missing), and Colombia 126 129 RWB with its inclusive criteria Honduras 129 127 built on issues of pluralism, media Mexico 152 153 independence, self censorship, Cuba 170 171 legislative frameworks, transparency and infrastructure. They are not Source: Reporters without Borders World Press Freedom Index perfect measurements, however, and http://rsf.org/index2014/en-index2014.php researchers and evaluators are often Taken from general index of 180 countries across the globe. victims of their own methodological Key: 1=Most Free; 180=Least Free tradition and inflexibility. Among the top five best media As for the worst places to speak in the Western Hemisphere as environments for freedom of the one’s mind, the two indices also Colombia, Brazil and Mexico. press, FH and RWB both give high agree on the shocking situation in Killing journalists with impunity marks to Jamaica and Costa Rica, Cuba, Honduras and Venezuela, as does not always translate into poor as well as other members of the well as Paraguay, Mexico, Ecuador, rankings. Distinctive examples Caribbean Community (St. Lucia, Colombia, Guatemala and Brazil. are Colombia and Brazil, which St. Vincent and the Grenadines, The CPJ, for its part, lists the Freedom House categorizes as Barbados, Belize and Suriname). deadliest countries for journalists “Partly Free.” Mexico, with the

Hemisphere Volume 23 9 Setting the Stage

same level of killings and impunity, the secret interventions customarily Recent media legislation, such as is labeled “Not Free.” Rankings seen in US, Russian, British and Ecuador’s 2013 Communications are even more complicated and other European relations. Law, also represents a significant unreliable when one considers Colombia, for example, is threat to news entities and discrepancies in the death toll. The engulfed in a mutual blame game government critics, Human International Press Institute, for inside the military for illegal Rights Watch’s World Report instance, reports 85 journalists killed interceptions of the President’s 2014 warns. HRW, established in Colombia since 1997, whereas email, confidential communications in 1978 and based in New York CPJ counts only 79 since 1992. among government negotiators, City, writes with concern about Neither international press monitor and information exchanges between the Ecuadorean policy of treating mentions cameraman Yonni foreign and local journalists, sources all communications as a public Steven Caicedo, assassinated on and editors during peace talks with service and subject to anti-lynching February 19, 2014. These apparent the FARC guerrillas in Havana, media rules – defined as persistent inconsistencies are due to different Cuba. Similar complaints about critical reporting with the purpose conceptualizations and qualitative government surveillance have been of undermining the prestige or considerations, another reason why heard in Cuba, Venezuela and credibility of a person or legal entity. analysts must review all possible Honduras. Costa Rica introduced Excessively broad notions such as human rights monitors, particularly legislation to increase penalties for communicating “with responsibility local ones (rarely done in practice), political espionage, but after a major and quality,” contributing to before making any judgments. outcry by journalists the proposal “the good life of the people,” and was ultimately shelved. publishing “verified, contrasted, Biggest Worries Today precise, and contextualized” In addition to unsafe media Defamation Issues information also open the door to environments and the murder of Spying on citizens, including censorship and arbitrary decisions journalists—including netizens or journalists, is a favorite about “truthful” reporting. bloggers—which, ironically, only intimidation tool today among Some observers have praised the occasionally make top headlines in secret agencies and their supporters Ecuadorean law for promoting the digital age despite the enormous worldwide. In addition, however, media pluralism, local content significance of communication highly placed authorities are willing production, and indigenous and in these modern times, freedom to engage in deliberate campaigns other ethnic communication. monitors believe the main challenges to discredit journalists, their However, placing all at the moment are: reports and news organizations. communications, including private Accusations range from soft claims community and commercial media, Espionage and Privacy of “irresponsible” or “unethical” under the control of the government Breaches of national security and reporting to more heavy-handed – specifically, the Council of privacy with unlawful interceptions charges of journalists as “trash- Regulation and Development for of communications have become talkers” with no sense of patriotism, Information and Communication ever more public and scandalous honor, morality or respect for the and the Superintendent of in the region. As in the United law or the authorities. Presidents Information and Communication – States and Europe, Latin American and cabinet ministers in Argentina, appears to contravene the American and Caribbean intelligence actors Bolivia, Ecuador and Venezuela, as Convention on Human Rights (Art. are immersed in monitoring other well as law enforcement authorities 13), signed and ratified by Ecuador. government offices and private in Mexico, Honduras and Even as Venezuela has increased citizens (through wiretapping, Paraguay, are known for insulting its prison terms for libel, media Internet surveillance and the like). news media professionals as “liars,” internationalists are calling for The illegal and unconstitutional “deceivers,” “malicious people who greater decriminalization of manipulation of antiterrorism laws deserve what they get,” and so on defamation in Latin America has become the norm, modeled after and so forth. and the Caribbean, including

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substituting monetary violate national constitutions and dedicated analysis, but merits at compensation as a penalty instead of international law. least a mention here. imprisonment. According to Article On October 29, 2013, after four 19, a UK-based organization that years of litigation, the Argentine A Tool for the Future takes its name from Article 19 of the Supreme Court of Justice ruled in Thanks to digital communications, Universal Declaration of Human favor of the national government experts predicted the early twenty- Rights, on freedom of expression, and against Grupo Clarín S.A. et al., first century would be a period of the most advanced nations in this declaring that Law 26.522 of 2009 unprecedented global economic process are Argentina, Grenada, on Audiovisual Communication progress and stability, widespread Jamaica and Mexico (at the federal Services was consistent with the knowledge and education, increased level, in the Federal District, and in federal constitution and international social justice, and harmony with 17 of its 31 states). Although lacking accords. Under this decision, Clarín mutual understanding. This a federal statute, the United States is obligated to divest or separate its optimism has evaporated quickly. also has a working decriminalized media holdings. A major judicial Despite extraordinary breakthroughs system, although criminal controversy is also expected in Peru in the physical and social sciences, defamation is still on the books in following Grupo El Comercio’s the planet is more polluted and 16 of the 50 states. Costa Rica and acquisition of a controlling interest in stressed than ever, with more Peru have partially decriminalized Grupo Epensa, its closest competitor. mismanagement and abuse, fear of libel but desacato rules (special Together, the two companies control sudden lethal violence or devastation, protection for public officials) a combined 78% of the Peruvian inequality and unfairness. Intolerance continue to punish reporters under newspaper market. It has also of a free press is simply another sign military (as in Chile) or criminal become fashionable for some Latin of our ongoing degradation. Unless codes, and occasionally press American states to threaten to we act now and together, reinvent laws. Other countries, including suspend, revoke or refuse renewal ourselves, and stop looking at the Uruguay and Paraguay, strictly of broadcast licenses for critical media as a mere instrument to maintain the Roman law tradition media, charging alleged violations manipulate voters or buyers, we will of full criminal libel even in matters of the public interest or the terms of be missing a golden opportunity to of public interest. their concessions—as in the case of build a humane and viable future. o Venezuela’s RCTV and Globovisión. Antimonopoly Regulation These stations have been driven out Leonardo Ferreira is Worlds Ahead Antitrust or pro-competition of business or forced to sell to actors Scholar in International Communica- legislation has been a priority in friendly to the licensor. tion and Professor of Journalism and countries with constant tensions Mass Communication at Florida In- between the government and Internet Restrictions ternational University. He is an expert opposition media, such as Across the Americas, government on ethnic mass media, mass media Argentina, Ecuador, Nicaragua and regulators and lawmakers have communication and international Venezuela. Other Latin American proposed or imposed increasing communication policy, and has served countries, Panama and Colombia numbers of antiterrorism measures, as a consultant for UNESCO, OAS, among them, have raised similar police inspections, license CIESPAL, UNICEF, IAPA, Bloom- berg News and Grupo de Diarios concerns. Knowing that freedom of withdrawals, content monitoring, América, among others. expression, speech or the press are privacy intrusions, sanctions for not absolute rights, communication blogging, and other website or Additional contributors include policy experts legitimize online restrictions. In Cuba, for MMC 5440 students: Vanessa Arango, government efforts to pursue market example, despite the population’s Natalia Bolívar, Esther Emergui, Juan democratization or diversity in limited access to online services, the Camilo Gómez, Manuela Guardia, media ownership. Nevertheless, Cuban authorities implement strict Stephanie Harrison, Andrea León, antimonopoly regulations that use surveillance and Internet controls. Mayra Quiroz, Grisell Rodríguez, selective or discriminatory criteria This topic deserves detailed and Ana María Solís and César Vigo.

Hemisphere Volume 23 11 Setting the Stage

TheT wo Americas and the Freedom of Expression Disconnect By Alejandro J. Aguirre

DEMOCRACY

HUMAN RIGHTS

ACCESS TO INFORMATION FREEDOM TO ASSEMBLE

FREEDOM TO PETITION

¡ CENSUR FREE SPEECH

A ! FREE PRESS CENSORSHIP!

n recent years, an obvious Generally speaking, the Atlantic- Revolution of 1959. breach has opened within facing countries can be described The dream of an integrated the Western Hemisphere, as those that favor greater state Western Hemisphere seemed especially with regard to control in different aspects of closer to becoming a reality when Latin America. Analysts their citizen’s lives and economies, President Clinton convened the frequently describe the division as and the Pacific basin countries as Hemispheric Summit of the Ithe Atlantic bloc vs. the Pacific bloc, looking more toward free-market Americas in 1994. The policies and it is mostly a South American models, individual freedoms and that grew out of that summit and phenomena. The political changes entrepreneurship. This continental continued under the George W. that created this divide have had divide is the product of complex Bush administration, however, were profound effects on freedom of economic, social, and political issues thwarted by political and economic the press in the hemisphere and on that have taken on a new dimension events in Latin America. journalists who try to practice their but date back many years, in some At a time when the last profession. cases as far back as the Cuban dictatorship of the twentieth century

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seemed to be floundering amidst advances have made it possible for among other things, live broadcast its own failed economic and social these “independent journalists” to of any speech or “presidential event” policies and the loss of its Soviet do their work with some measure of he decreed. This practice is now benefactor, a new player came to success. Such efforts are dangerous, in effect in Ecuador, Bolivia and the Cuban government’s rescue: however, and those who attempt Nicaragua, as well. Lieut. Col. Hugo Chávez, who them are aware that they are Making matters worse, Chávez, sought the violent overthrow of the constantly being monitored. On who was very fond of his own government of President Carlos occasion, they are subjected to presence in the media, had his own Andrés Pérez in Venezuela and later mental and/or physical abuse. television show, “Aló Presidente.” went on to become that country’s For many years, the plight of He used this forum to speak for democratically elected president. the Cuban journalist has not been hours on end, frequently making As is well known, Mr. Chávez considered newsworthy, with some policy out of ad-libbed content turned his country into what exceptions: Several organizations, from the show. In the days following he described as a 21st-Century including the Inter American Press one of his broadcasts, people were Bolivarian Socialist Republic. Association and the Committee sometimes arrested and investigated Ironically, it was the because of comments the liberalization of economies President made on his show. all over the world, including Government In addition to the laws that China, that enabled him were being institutionalized to pursue this course. As to control the press, Chávez economies improved and assumed powers and authority production grew, demand for that put journalists’ work and crude oil rose. Prices reached lives in peril. His attacks on record highs, allowing the Censorship Globovision, RCTV, Correo Venezuelan government to de Caroni and El Nacional, gain tremendous influence in among others, were constant the hemisphere. Protecting You From Reality and unrelenting. His abuse Chávez frequently and misuse of rules and praised the Cuban model regulations to financially of government and cited Fidel to Protect Journalists, have fought strangle any media not toeing the Castro as his mentor. In Cuba, for the right of the people of Cuba government line was notorious, the Venezuelan president used oil to have a free press. Certainly, the and the atmosphere of fear that diplomacy in exchange for the only activities of blogger Yoani Sánchez surrounded advertising created commodity the island had to trade have created a buzz all around the tremendous economic pressure on - the transfer of systems to impose world and generated great interest. such outlets. stricter government controls in With Cuba’s support, Chávez A common method to discredit Venezuela and systematically cut became the leader and principal media not in synch with the official off most opposition from access spokesperson for all those seeking government message was to accuse to due process, rule of law and to move their countries into a the organization or its owners of the democratic institutions that, non-democratic socialist realm being CIA operatives. Those who however imperfect, existed to prevent while maintaining the appearance follow Latin American politics authoritarian and dictatorial rule. of a democratic regime. Invoking know that this is a tactic various Cuba has long lost any semblance classic anti-Washington rhetoric, governments have used for the past of a free press. In recent years, the Venezuelan leader was able to 60 years. many brave women and men rally people to his cause and create What was not so apparent at the have challenged the government a critical mass that allowed him to time of Chávez’s first election was and reported on events that the rewrite the nation’s constitution and his ambition to take “his revolution” official media ignore.T echnological enact oppressive laws that required, beyond the borders of his country.

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Once in office, he helped finance governments a political advantage. phenomenon was growing in many elections in Nicaragua, Bolivia, With social mobility stagnant and parts of the hemisphere, especially Ecuador and Argentina, using the promises made by the new wave Honduras and Mexico. Particularly the monies pouring in from the of democratic governments that worrisome was the fact that many of high price of oil. Venezuelan succeeded the military dictatorships these crimes were being committed economic support helped establish failing to improve standards of living with impunity. During the years governments that eventually for the lower economic classes, of military dictatorship, attacks on became part of the ALBA bloc, ALBA presidents were able to frame journalists were frequently at the which followed Chávez’s model and the issues within the context of direction of national governments. declared war on independent media. the bourgeois media’s abuses at the In the post-dictatorship era, state In all of the ALBA nations, expense of the common person. This and municipal governments were internal economic, social and strategy has allowed governments orchestrating many of the abuses, political problems helped fuel to bypass serious discussion of the targeting journalists on the trail the rise and initial popularity free flow of information and create of corruption. Organized crime of these governments. After the a dialogue with mostly false options. syndicates tied to the drug trade

One journalist I met in Durango, Mexico pleaded with me, “Please tell people what is happening here... you are our only hope, that we will not be forgotten by the rest of the world!”

military dictatorships and the Basically, the conversation has been also worked to silence reporters by Berlin Wall fell, Latin Americans one way. intimidation or assassination. and observers outside the region Unfortunately, these are not the A reporter in Mexico City who shared renewed optimism that the only countries that have tried to asked that I not use his name new era would bring respect for exert control over the media. In acknowledged that he found it human rights, including the free addition to Cuba and the ALBA terribly ironic for one journalist flow of information, real economic countries, other examples exist to speak to another and request growth and social progress. This of institutional corruption and anonymity. “The situation has optimism faded as government organized crime coming together gotten so bad in the northern part after government, plagued with in volatile ways to create an of the country that we frequently corruption and inefficiency, failed to environment of violence, resulting get our news from the capital resolve its constituents’ problems. in the death and injury of journalists because local sources are afraid to ALBA leaders tended to as part of a larger attempt to create give it out,” he told me. “The army personalize their attacks on the an information vacuum in which and the local police are frequently independent media, creating illegal activities can flourish. intimidated and corrupted by the arbitrary mechanisms to control When I became president of the gangs, and also at times realize that the message by destroying the Inter American Press Association in they are totally ineffective.” messenger. In many ways, these 2009, violence against journalists When asked what kept him personalized attacks gave the ALBA was of utmost concern. The motivated, he replied that as a

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young man it was his dream to see activists from entering the country in practicing their profession in Mexico as a free and open society were for the most part ignored, their own countries, it is difficult to with respect for the rule of law. even as many of the democratically see how the Western Hemisphere He thought that as a journalist elected and legitimately governing democracies will develop. It is hard he could play some role in the leaders ratified concepts and to even discern whether or not the transformation, but that now he documents they were fully aware Americas will one day be completely wasn’t sure if that was ever going their colleagues had been violating free and democratic. So much of the to become a reality. “I have a wife for years. The surreal political reality information in the region is reduced and children now, and I don’t know of Latin America becomes an item to economic trends and the need for how long I can keep going. I’m of interest on rare occasions, usually countries and corporations to adapt not even sure I’m safe anywhere in stories regarding immigration to protect their investments. It is in the country. We’ve talked about and organized crime, but important almost as if the lives and the realities leaving,” he said. news regarding an organization of almost 600,000,000 people and During the year of my IAPA that includes every country in the the journalists who try to report on presidency, I traveled frequently to hemisphere except for the United them don’t matter very much. This different parts of the hemisphere. States and Canada barely makes a is a tremendous shame. The most common request made blip on the radar. A piece such as this one cannot of me by journalists in difficult Asia and even Iran are showing end on such a pessimistic note, circumstances was to find a way to increased interest in Latin America, however. This would be a great disseminate stories about their plight increasing their investments and disservice to the hundreds of and the dangers of practicing their signing trade agreements with journalists I have met throughout profession under threat from both the region. The so-calledT wo the years; men and women who government and nongovernment Americas, which at one time played struggle day in and day out with groups. One journalist I met in a significant role in the development little or no protection to realize their Durango, Mexico pleaded with of democracy and multilateral dream of educating and informing me, “Please tell people what is cooperation, must now decide how their fellow citizens. During my happening here...you are our only they will interact with each other tenure as president of the Inter hope, that we will not be forgotten and with the rest of the world. Like American Press Association, meeting by the rest of the world!” the United States, they now have these people was my greatest honor. In the US media, as we all know, their own East-West focus. Some of these reporters had points news about Latin America and the Assaults on media freedoms are of view very different from my own Caribbean frequently takes third not exclusive to Latin America and and the institution I represented, and fourth place behind news about the Caribbean. In the United States, but I understood that they had Asia, Europe and Africa. As I write the Obama Administration, like as much equity in their position this article, the second meeting of many before it, has violated many as I had in mine. They were truly the Community of Caribbean and of the principles of a free press, risking their lives to uphold the Latin American States (CELAC) has including monitoring reporters free exchange of information and just concluded in Cuba and a quick at the Associated Press and FOX ideas that is one of the cornerstones Google search shows that it received News. The real surprise was that, of democracy. We owe them all an little coverage in the United States. in a post-McCarthy and Watergate enormous debt of gratitude. o In fact, the US media devoted more era, the press and the public did not space to the photo ops with Fidel react more strongly. The scandal Alejandro Aguirre is a media con- Castro and the inauguration of faded relatively quickly with few sultant and a member of the Board the new deepwater port of Mariel, reassurances from the government. of Directors at Terrabank, NA. He built with financing from Brazil. Between the general disinterest in is former Deputy Editor and Pub- The government crackdown on the North regarding Latin American lisher of Diario las Américas and Past opposition leaders and the barring and Caribbean news in general and President of the Inter American Press of international human rights the restrictions that journalists face Association.

Hemisphere Volume 23 15 Setting the Stage

Digital Media Ethics: Reinventing Journalism in Latin America By Leonardo Ferreira

atin American reporters facing inequality, conflict and corruption every day recognize but distrust even the most basic notion of professional journalism ethics, and they are right to do so. When only eight out of 27 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean score above 50 on Transparency LInternational’s CPI (Corruption Perceptions Index), where zero means extremely corrupt and 100 signifies very clean, there is good reason to doubt the practical value of ethical standards. A number of Caribbean islands are the region’s best performers on the CPI: the four English-speaking states of Barbados (ranked 15th of 177 nations with a score of 75, the second best in the Western Hemisphere after Canada), the Bahamas and Saint Lucia (both at 71), and Dominica (58), plus the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (62). Just three continental Latin American republics are among the least corrupt: Uruguay (no. 19 with a score of 73, tied with the

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United States), Chile (71), and Corruption and Freedom logical for Latin American reporters Costa Rica (53). The rest of Latin of the Press to be skeptical when outside America scores below 50, starting In terms of press freedoms, experts advocate the need for fair with Cuba (rank 63, score 46). The countries that appear democratic play, truth telling, independence, richest and biggest countries rank are not always as free as expected, responsibility, impartiality, even lower, with Brazil scoring 42 nor are authoritarian systems as accountability and other and Argentina and Mexico tying deadly as might be assumed, even if conventional journalism ethics. with Bolivia at 34. Venezuela and they are repressive. Quantitatively, Haiti are near the bottom of the list, which Latin American countries Traditional Media Ethics scoring 20 and 19, respectively. are most dangerous for reporters? Latin Americans have little trust For journalists, and societies in Since 1992, the CPJ has recorded in government agencies, political general, corruption plus violence 45 murders of journalists in campaigns, public services or is a deadly combination. Since Colombia, 29 in Mexico and corporations. How do they feel 1992, when the Committee to 27 in Brazil, most of them with about the media? Protect Journalists (CPJ) first began “complete impunity” after the During the tragic times of drug counting fatalities in the profession, victims denounced various forms terrorism in Colombia (mid to 152 reporters have been murdered of organized crime and dishonesty. late 1980s), columnist María in Latin America. Reporters The RSF lists the same countries Jimena Duzán wrote: “[when] without Borders—RSF in French— but in different order: Mexico narcotraffickers threatened the registered 121 murders in the region first, with 43 murders between stability and democracy of our over the last decade, including nine 2002 and 2013; then Brazil with country, … journalists were the media assistants. About half of these 23 deaths; Colombia with 18; and first to recognize and to speak involved work-related activities Honduras, 12. out publicly about this illegal and exposing some form of corruption Remarkably, despite major corrupting usurpation of power in government, politics or business, student protests, press freedom by the cartels. [W]hether people primarily in provincial cities or monitors have listed not a single agree or disagree with what we rural areas. If we include cases with murder of journalists in Chile write, the public in general respect unconfirmed motives, the last five since its return to democracy, nor us because we unmask hypocrisy years have been the most lethal. have they reported any slayings in and fraud.” Thirty years later, with No easy correlations can the English-speaking Caribbean. journalism in a complex transition, be drawn between public Cuba does not kill journalists (at reporters again are expected to corruption and left- or right-wing least not in recent decades), but it confront crimes assailing democracy administrations. Chile, for instance, persecutes them, forces them into worldwide, from drug cartels or praised for its decent record against exile (19 since 2007), arrests them, deadly cartelitos to unlawful trade public sector corruption, has had or sentences them to degrading in conventional and chemical only two elected conservative prison terms (24 imprisoned in weapons; human beings; personal, governments since 1925, while 2007 and 21 in 2008). With its corporate and government data; and Uruguay, ruled by the center-left secret political and para-police other illegal activities. Frente Amplio for the last decade, forces, which conduct sustained but Colombian author, former has consistently been one of the bloodless censorship campaigns, priest and columnist Javier least corrupt countries in the Cuba, according to the CPJ, is one Darío Restrepo, respected for his Americas. Many other countries— of the world’s most structurally pioneering work at Fundación Paraguay, Honduras and repressive and censored countries. Nuevo Periodismo Iberoamericano Nicaragua among them—despite In this harsh environment, albeit (FNPI, today the Gabriel García leadership shifts, party coalitions, not as bad as the dark days of the Márquez Foundation), defines or ideological reorientations, are Southern Cone’s Operation Condor journalistic ethics as “not about still perceived as some of the least and the Cold War dictatorships finding formulas to resolve complex transparent. of the 1950s through ‘80s, it is situations [the ethics of doing]. It is

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about how to direct our professional and service, in truth, accuracy, Newspaper Editors, or ASNE) and life, how to be a reporter of fairness, honesty, and freedom— awards programs at internationally excellence [the ethics of being]. was translated into more than 100 oriented journalism schools (mainly And we were debating this when languages and spread across the Columbia University’s Maria the Internet arrived, bringing the globe, although actual professional Moors Cabot Prize, which, to this same problems and ethical ideals of ethics were not codified until the day, recognizes Latin American traditional media but amplified.” early 1920s. On July 30, 1935, media figures for distinguished For Restrepo, “the focus and the The New YorkT imes poetically contributions to “Inter-American problems [may be] different, but the described the Creed as “exactly understanding”), helped spread values and principles are the same” what Walter Williams believed Protestant ethical values to the in the digital era. and advocated for the American Latin American media. At the Sixth Social media ethics need not be democracy, for the Japanese Empire, General Assembly in New York created from scratch, nor should for the struggling Chinese Republic, City (October 13, 1950), the IAPA we dismiss centuries of ethical for lands where kings rule or officially adopted the Journalist’s principles simply because we have dictators beat their breast, and all Creed as its own. Not an oath, new and influential digital media the rest.” From Chicago to Tokyo not even a code, explained Farrar, technologies and products. Like it to London, Williams, the founding William’s commandments were an or not, any new Latin American dean of the Missouri School of affirmation, instructions to keep the deontology will build upon Journalism, was “everywhere,” faith in journalism. historical discussions of ethics, wrote biographer Ronald T. Farrar, In keeping with this crusading starting with classical European including Mexico City in 1926. He spirit, ASNE adopted its Canons philosophers such as Aristotle, lectured college students there on of Journalism in 1922, only to Immanuel Kant and John Stuart the expanding US philosophy of secularize, revise and rename them Mill. The biggest influences in Latin journalism education, the so-called a Statement of Principles 53 years America include Catholic and other “Missouri Model,” combining later. A journalistic fraternity Christian values, Kantian categorical hands-on lessons with academic originally known as Sigma Delta imperatives, and principles of instruction. Following the event, Chi (SDX, today’s Society of utilitarianism. Jeremy Bentham, Mexican historian Henry Lepidus Professional Journalists) borrowed for instance, personally advised commented: “Many practicing its code of ethics from ASNE’s liberators Francisco de Miranda, journalists attended the course Canons in 1926, honoring them for Alexandre Pétion, Simón Bolívar, and those who satisfactorily passed nearly five decades until SPJ created Bernardo O’Higgins, José de San an examination at the end were its own version. US broadcasters Martin and José Cecilio del Valle. awarded suitable diplomas. Since were not far behind and, before Latin America has had eloquent the dean’s trip, plans to establish the decade ended, adopted The promoters of ancient, medieval, a school of journalism in Mexico National Association of Broadcasters renaissance and modern European have gained momentum.” Student Codes of Practices (1929), a text ethics, notably in religious schools, and faculty exchanges with the US that became the target of repeat mostly Jesuit. It has a much shorter became more common, expanding antitrust and First Amendment history of addressing ethics in Anglo-American perspectives of challenges. Its general philosophy, journalism and mass communication, journalism, ethics and common law along with loyalty to private media with Restrepo a remarkable across Latin America. and commercialization, would flow exception. Surprisingly, however, the Also in 1926, the First Pan into the Inter-American Association greatest influence in Latin American American Congress of Journalists of Broadcasters (IAB), an entity journalism ethics has come from called for the establishment of a established in Mexico City in 1946 evangelicals, not Catholics. permanent Inter American Press and expanded into an international Walter Williams’ 1914 Association (IAPA). US broadcast body in Madrid in 1984 to “Journalist’s Creed”—belief in networks (NBC/CBS), news accommodate Spain and a few other the profession, in public trust guilds (the American Society of European nations.

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Less than a month before the 1950 International Code of Fresh Online Ethics the Chilean military coup of Ethics for Information Personnel Anxious about the lack of September 11, 1973, the IAPA (search for truth, the public good, ethics and potential abuses in and IAB signed an agreement in news accuracy, honesty, fairness, cyberspace, UNESCO invited Caracas, Venezuela confirming the respect for privacy and professional journalism-training centers such as “Doctrine of Panama,” in which secrets, and avoidance of harm), the revamped CIESPAL, the Latin both associations declared that vanished amidst Cold War tensions American Federation of Schools of “any aggression against the freedom and the New World Information Communication, García Márquez’s or the dignity of the individual Order debate. Joining scholarly FNPI, and the Press and Society or any act tending to suppress or critics who denounced the 1960s Institute to promote the study of curtail […] any person or society as a time when Latin Americans ethical dilemmas in virtual and non- defending or practicing said received “uncritically and without virtual events. freedoms by means of the press or consideration or adaptations the One of the most successful radio, shall constitute an aggression fashionable theories and methods examples of these workshops is against all [their] members.” of North American social science as the series of FNPI seminars Javier In October 1959, with part of a process of modernization,” Darío Restrepo led in Cartagena, UNESCO’s support and the CIESPAL’s director, Marco Colombia, beginning in August 5, initiative of the Ecuadorian Ordóñez, denounced “an ideology 1995. Their purpose, he explained, government and the National of domination.” was to follow the “Aristotelian Union of Journalists, the After a serious crisis at UNESCO definition of ethics as a practical Quito-based CIESPAL following the withdrawal of the knowledge,” with journalistic (International Center for Higher US and Britain in the 1980s (the ethics meeting professional skills. Learning in Journalism—now so-called “lost” decade in Latin Apparently, it was here, in a Communication—Studies for America), and well into the global conversation between Restrepo and Latin America) began promoting deregulation and liberalization García-Márquez, that the Nobel media research and journalism fueled by the collapse of the Soviet Laureate first coined his famous training for development, including Union during the 1990s, the phrase: “La ética no es una condición lessons on press freedom and Internet and social media emerged ocasional, sino que debe acompañar ethics. Dreams of a Williams- into prominence at the turn of the siempre al periodismo como el styled global structure based on century. zumbido al moscardón” (Ethics is

Hemisphere Volume 23 19 Setting the Stage

not an occasional circumstance, Clinic. “It will make our customary La Vanguardia newspaper in but must accompany journalism ethics more rigorous and it will Barcelona, Spain, wrote: If “ethical always, just as the buzz comes with create new technical conditions commitment is what will distinguish the horsefly). in the journalism profession as we digital journalism from digital In El zumbido y el moscardón know it; however, neither ethics communication in general, ethics will (2004), Restrepo confessed his fears nor the codes change, although the be the raison d’être of the digital era, before the first workshop, especially demands do increase, which means the only element that will identify with “Gabo” as a participant. that [emerging] ethical dilemmas are journalists vis-à-vis other network Everyone knew how suspicious not new, only more intense.” information providers in search of the Colombian novelist was of “Will the Internet end traditional solidarity and progressive ethical scholars, their teachings, and their journalism?” asked a Clinic goals in society and the pursuit of theories, both in journalism and participant online. On the contrary, truth via a wide consensus.” literature. “Organizing workshops reads the reply, “It will make it Colombian journalist Guillermo about photography or how to write more necessary. Ample citizen Franco, former Nieman Fellow chronicles, reportages, investigative access to a mass diffusion medium at Harvard University, is one of reports, and TV narratives had not such as Internet demonstrates that those who wonders whether online been that difficult; after all, such information and opinions, as public journalism does in fact require new had been the Foundation’s goal services, should be in the hands of ethical approaches. In a presentation since embarking on the rescue of the specialized personnel. Data online is entitled “Ethics and Journalistic true origins of the craft and helping so abundant that it is indispensable Quality in Online Environments” journalists learn everyday practices to count on professional help to during the IX Seminar of the of the profession from experienced evaluate it, order it, and make it Grupo de Diarios América (GDA) colleagues, something closer to a understandable and credible.” in Santiago, Chile (August 25- gathering of friends rather than Questions abound, along with 26, 2011), Franco questioned the formal university classes,” Restrepo major ethical challenges. Should traditionalist assumption that “there recounted. “But delivering a there be a code of ethics for citizen is only one ethics, that ethics does workshop on journalistic ethics or online journalists? How many not have to change simply because for the first time could mean a codes of journalistic ethics exist and there is a new platform delivery, or long and abstract presentation of what is their central idea? Will online that the ethics good for Gutenberg is ideas or a lecture dominated by citizen reporting replace traditional good for anyone using Internet.” For theoretical contemplation. Neither journalism? Are Twitter or Facebook any netizen, increased transmission was a good idea.” storytellers journalists? The answers speed, information overloads, Today, in spite of nearly two involve philosophical, deontological processing capacity, multimedia decades of constructive seminars and epistemological discussion. features, automatization, robotics, on journalism ethics, hundreds “Ethical principles will define cybernetics and all forms of artificial of inquiries handled by FNPI’s the true journalism of the digital intelligence (IA) are not only Ethics Clinic, and financing from era,” says Rosental Alves, professor quantitatively but also qualitatively the Inter-American Development and director of the Knight Center different from print and broadcast Bank’s Institute for Economic and for Journalism in the Americas at communications, just as the radio Social Development and CAF (Latin the University of Texas-Austin. spectrum differs in quantity and America’s development bank), the “What distinguishes journalism quality from the light spectrum, challenge remains: Do we need a from what appears to be journalism Franco argued. Conventional and new ethics for social media? Must but is not is ethics.” This echoes new media belong to the spectrum there be a new ethics for online what modern ethicists have been of human communication and journalism and blogging? saying about online journalism and while comparable basic principles “The Internet requires no new other electronic communications. apply to both, they need different ethics and no new journalism,” is In November 2000, Josep models and categories to define the categorical reply of the Ethics Maria Casasús, Ombudman of their different characteristics.

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Different media deserve different accuracy, community participation, the history of media ethics, citing press freedom standards, and ethical commercialization and twentieth-century codes with criteria cannot simply be one and automatization. particular attention to those the same for all media interactions. To spark the conversation adopted in response to new media In what Franco calls the furious in Santiago de Chile, Franco challenges. By 1980, UNESCO had and fast-paced journalism of introduced two documents: counted at least 60 countries with Internet reporters, new dilemmas the Poynter Institute’s Online codes of journalistic ethics; today, concern how to walk the fine line Journalism Ethics and ASNE’s 10 the number is in the hundreds between the urgent and the accurate; Best Practices for Social Media: worldwide. The ASNE portal, the unfolding and the confirmed or Helpful Guidelines for News for instance, has 55 statements of verified; and the expected, worthy, Organizations. Curiously, the former principles from US news entities, or opportune and the researched, makes only occasional specific and on January 1, 2011, the 10 Best elaborate or carefully considered. As references to social media and both Practices for Social Media reported never before, speed is unavoidable publications work predictably from a that nearly 20 news organizations— and unstoppable. Unfortunately, First Amendment perspective, despite including NPR, The New York warns Franco, because “it is clear their goal of offering self-governing Times, The Washington Post, and that rules in Internet and social guidelines for an international Britain’s BBC and The Guardian— media are still relaxed, we must medium like the Internet and the had formal ethical policies for social create standards for journalists to practice of journalism in global social networks. Smaller media companies, use online.” contexts. Once again, as is typical of not big conglomerates, were the true Another dilemma concerns how to historically dependent populations pioneers of this trend, at least in the achieve an adequate balance between (especially in communications United States. the journalist’s private life and his/ technology), Latin Americans waited Whereas some codes are her professional persona in social for the US signal to morally regulate excessively detailed and difficult to media platforms. Should reporters their own websites and social media retain, others are so broad that their have their own personal blogs? What activities. general principles become almost is the significance or implication Venezuela’s El Nacional and meaningless. If some are parochial, of friending or following someone Ecuador’s El Comercio, dailies others are global; some are direct on the web? How advisable is it for constantly criticized by government and simple, others sophisticated, reporters and their media employers officials for alleged legal violations and a few are anecdotal. ASNE’s to vent personal opinions in social and lack of ethics, were actively Best Practices carries an amusing media? How about opinions entered represented at the GDA conference mandate by the Greensboro anonymously in a personal or third in Chile. On the spot, Franco and North Carolina News and Record: party blog or under a pseudonym? this author received invitations to “We have a code of ethics and Should user-generated content be conduct seminars in Caracas and professionalism that covers our expected to observe the same ethical Quito. Like the FNPI’s Ethical behavior, period. That said, I’ve standards as journalists? Should Clinic and its seminar on Ethics, told my staff that [our] social media we edit their comments and, if Quality and Journalistic Enterprise policy is this: Don’t be stupid.” so, what guidelines apply? “The in Latin America (Monterrey, The caution “Don’t do anything inventory of questions is endless,” Mexico, September 2003), the stupid” is also popular at the BBC. notes Franco. Clearly, a new Grupo de Diarios has been ready In their laconism, these warnings are interactive ethics could help resolve to discuss issues of law and ethics similar to the Hearst Newspapers’ conflicts on the web, not just digital in new media environments, social command of the 1930s: “write reporting issues but also matters of and corporate responsibility, the good stuff.” Assertively, The speed and thoroughness, content need to revisit traditional ethics Washington Post prescribes that quantity and quality, multimedia in multimedia publications, and “when using social networks […] for transparency and credibility, content quality in the digital era. reporting or for personal [reasons, user-generated information and The Caracas seminar reviewed employees] must protect their

Hemisphere Volume 23 21 Setting the Stage

professional integrity and remember: cause little or no disagreement, serious stuff; a guideline in Best Washington Post journalists are others, especially “always identify Practices even reminds newsrooms: always Washington Post journalists.” yourself as a journalist,” produce “Social networks are tools not toys.” This statement contrasts with The significant criticism in countries But these younger journalists, Segnini Journal Gazette’s policy in Fort such as Venezuela, where state maintains, could well be the bridge Wayne, Indiana: “Staff members agents and random violence target between science and journalism. are welcome to have personal pages reporters. Latin American journalists These are great times to be a on social networking sites […]. tend to sympathize with the desire journalist, as observers have claimed But they should remember that to conceal one’s identity, given a over the last two decades, comparing those sites are public sites and can past of civil unrest, clashes with the turn of the twenty-first century be seen by more than their circle of dictators and battles with organized with the twentieth in terms of friends. They should not post on criminals. They are also skeptical media innovation. But besides such pages information about JG of the notion of objectivity. As passion, commitment, empathy stories or sources, nor should they Colombian journalist Maria Jimena and humanism, and despite their comment on JG matters.” Most Duzán explained: “In Latin America intermittent vanity and stubbornness, Latin American reporters, with the you cannot be neutral. You cannot journalists need to keep studying probable exception of some editors, be neutral under a dictatorship. You their field if the goal is to redefine or seem to prefer The Journal Gazette’s have to take a position—either for or reinvent journalism to be not only approach. against the dictator. We do not have more technologically savvy but also Do any codes govern social the tradition of being objective.” contextually prepared—in other networking in Latin America? Of During the XI GDA training words, more, not less educated in the GDA’s 11 member companies, seminar on Data Journalism journalism history, news theory and the region’s largest, five of them and Interactivity at Quito’s El research methodology, environmental have specific social network Comercio (September 19-20, science, social and media economics, guidelines. They are Costa Rica’s 2013), a community Internet political communication, cultural La Nación, Mexico’s El Universal, reporter commented: “We really studies, media anthropology and Ecuador’s El Comercio, Venezuela’s don’t care about these imposed sociology, and media law and ethics. El Nacional and Colombia’s El rules, ethical or otherwise, in our With the time constraints that Tiempo. Adopted around 2010- stories or productions. That’s characterize journalism, collaboration 2011, they all reflect different, more why we are bloggers.” Giannina with media academics could be or less participatory management or Segnini, a notable Costa Rican helpful, so long as both parties decision-making styles. investigative reporter, admits that are willing to drop their pride and At El Nacional, open debate younger communicators—whom recognize each other’s strengths. between journalists and editors she calls tecnoperiodistas—who have led to new ethical guidelines for revolutionized today’s journalism Redefining while Reinventing online reporting. Two days of with their ability to “do everything An online survey of 200 GDA intense deliberation showed evident at the same time” (edit videos, map, journalists between November 22 mistrust of the term “code,” with tweet, storify, absorb applications, and December 1, 2011 concluded journalists preferring guide or and even program to generate that 83.7% of respondents guideline, statement, declaration, multimedia content), often work knew their newsroom had an handbook or policy. The concept “without the rigor, the historical ethical code or handbook. Latin “code of ethics” evokes bygone eras knowledge, or the sufficient American journalists have a decent of religious and political imposition, journalistic experience” required understanding of traditional ethics; paternalism and restraint. If norms in a newsroom, and editors expect that is, the socialization process of such as “assume everything online them to make big decisions in online modeling behavior on philosophical will be public,” “break your news and mobile news. The presumption principles and social norms. As on your website, not on Twitter,” is that these techno-reporters are a communications research pioneer and “be transparent” in social media bunch of kids playing games with Luis Ramiro Beltrán put it a decade

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ago in Bolivia, journalistic ethics is dozen authors, “the reporter’s moral way of being mainly practicing and doing, governed by a profound reporters, and adherence to [standards of] truth, hoping to shed equity, respect for individual dignity light on issues and intimacy, and the practice of raised by emerging social responsibility in search of the technologies common good.” In general, this is and shifting consistent with ASNE’s first best business models, Inter American Press Association practice: “Traditional ethics rules the compilation still apply online.” advocates a But 66.9%—two out of three “new ethics of 72 years defending and promoting GDA reporters—deplored the journalism” to press freedom throughout the Americas lack of norms specifically designed “accommodate for social networks. Even when technological we count the 33.1% with access changes governing to digital media guidelines, the the gathering, dominant opinion is that new processing and Be part of our press freedom events and autonomous principles are understanding of Santiago, Chile | October 2014 needed to respond to new forms of news today, unless journalism and industry challenges journalists wish to Panama City, Panama | March 2015 in Latin American settings. Where become irrelevant Charleston, SC, USA | October 2015 social networking rules are non- or even harmful existent, reasons for this absence to democratic www.sipiapa.org include the slow evolution of society.” new media in the newsroom; Fortunately, US hesitation and endless discussions media ethicists no longer endorse journalist? What norms apply about what to do with online moral creeds or cannons and when anonymity, speed, rumor, applications between owners and believe that ethical principles are inaccuracy, fanaticism, greed, editors; concerns over the real constantly evolving. conflict of interests and other threats significance and impact of social In transition and uncertain about predominate? media; lack of a perceived need the future, amid exponential rates Reinventing ethics has been for online ethics among managers of technological change, “the ethical a pattern in world journalism, and reporters (who think they perspective of digital journalism especially in the last century. can sort out any Internet issue or cannot be prospective without being Decades ago, Walter Williams avoid any potential conflict); and retrospective,” media scholar J. M. invited us to rethink the profession the seemingly endless challenge of Casasús concludes. History, in ethics every time and everywhere. We integrating media technologies. as in everything else, should not could emulate his vigor across the Where rules exist, time will tell be underestimated. In this crucial region, imagining a new journalism whether they fall short or are too and irrevocable mixed revolution of and a new media ethics for a new intrusive, or if the adoption of new amateurs and professionals, media Latin America. It is a challenge media rules was a mere response to ethicists are compelled to revisit worth trying. o peer pressure. and redefine their field. As Professor On September 11, 2013, the Stephen Ward of the University Leonardo Ferreira is Worlds Ahead Poynter Institute proudly ran a of Wisconsin-Madison’s Center Scholar in International Communi- story titled “Poynter Publishes for Journalism Ethics argues, we cation and Professor of Journalism Definitive New Journalism Ethics are required to keep asking, what and Mass Communication at Florida Book.” Drawing ideas from a is journalism? Who is a (citizen) International University.

Hemisphere Volume 23 23 Special Feature Press Freedom, Democracy and Climate Change Reporting in Latin America By Juliet Pinto and Mercedes Vigón

ow do and should the media report on climate change, and what does their reporting tell us about freedom of the press in Hdemocracies and democratizing nations? Social scientists have grappled with discussions of the normative and actual functions of a nation’s press, while a growing body of research in recent years has examined reporting on issues related to climate change. For the purposes of this article, we use the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s definition of this term as “any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.” In terms of human understanding of this phenomenon, Maxwell Boykoff notes, the media play a crucial role “as powerful and important interpreters of climate science and policy… Media workers and institutions powerfully shape and negotiate meaning, influencing how citizens make sense of and value the world” (Boykoff, 2011, p. 167). Their role is especially vital in regions such as Latin America, where citizens can be among the first to suffer the impacts of climate change but the last content, public opinion and political arenas for public deliberation, and to have a voice in and access to policy agendas in examining the contextual their functioning as what Castells discussions (Newell, 2008). settings for agenda shifts and news (2008, p. 13) called the “cultural/ content. Both the Habermasian informational repository of the Democracy and Freedom view of the media as essential ideas and projects that feed public of the Press in communicating information debate,” see the independent media Media scholars and others take and perspectives to citizens in a as a necessary condition for healthy into account linkages between media democracy, as well as providing democracies and robust political life.

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Normative theories suggest that implications for citizenship corruption. Media portrayals of a free press keeps citizens better constructions. When citizenship is budding environmental movements informed regarding climate change, construed as a “cultural agreement that oppose corporate and state- helping shape policy accordingly. among groups,” rather than “the owned extractive projects in Latin Conversely, as press freedom relationship between the individual America are favorable or not becomes restricted in terms of citizen and the nation-state,” depending on their political traction scope and tone of coverage, (Hermes, 2006), variables such and alignment with news values. the ability to influence public as identity, agency and political Scholars have consistently made awareness regarding important recognition may interface with note of the scarcity of news on topics such as climate change content related to climate change climate change in developing decreases in certain respects. with significant import for policy countries, despite public interset Scholars from various disciplines and opinion direction. In their in the subject (Anderson, 2009; have examined the linkages examinations of environmental Shanahan, 2009). In terms of among political regime, press citizenship, Latta and Wittman research, the vast majority of independence and environmental (2012) noted the ways hegemony, scholarly investigations of mediated outcomes. Payne (1995) and Schultz development, modernization expressions of climate change & Crockett (1990) both argued that and globalization can manifest in focuses on the US or UK media freedom of information and political struggles for recognition, access and rather than on developing nations rights contribute to positive public justice in Latin America in a time of (e.g. Boykoff & Boykoff, 2004, opinion on pro-environmental accelerating climate change. 2007; Carvalho, 2007; Carvalho legislation. Barrett & Graddy (2000) and Burgess, 2005). found that as civil and political Climate Change Coverage in Latin While the region as a whole freedoms—including freedom of American Media remains understudied in terms the press—increase, environmental Latin America presents an of media coverage of climate quality across a number of markers important region in which to change issues, a small but growing increases significantly. Neumayer explore news content dealing with body of research has examined (2002) also found strong correlation climate change, as it is a region its coverage in the global press, between democratic quality and particularly vulnerable to climate particularly in Latin America. In environmental commitment. change and with economies their comparative survey of a month Others, however, argue that the based on natural resource exports of press coverage in Argentina, opposite is true: that democracies (Magrin et al., 2007; Waisbord, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Peru may not mitigate environmental 2013). Beyond climate change and Venezuela, Kitzberger & Pérez destruction or can even contribute vulnerabilities, it is also a region (2008) found that climate change to it (see, e.g. Dryzek, 1987; where citizens increasingly cite coverage represented a very small Gleditsch & Sverdrup, 2003; environmental problems as top percentage of total coverage, in Hardin, 1968). Indeed, Li & global threats (Pew Global, 2007). most cases less than 2%; Mexico Reuveny (2006) studied 143 At the same time, booming and Brazil had the most stories on countries over decades and commodity prices, increased oil climate change during this period, determined that while higher levels and gas exploration and growing which the authors attribute to the of democracy lessen the extent of economies have placed pressures debate over using rural community human activities that degrade the on natural systems. As Waisbord land for biofuel production in environment, a rise in democracy (2013) notes, Latin America’s Mexico and the political debate noticeably increases environmental legacy of global extractivism and over ethanol production in Brazil. degradation. environmental degradation has as Other studies have produced similar Beyond political decision-making, its root causes political incentives results. Gordon et al. (2010) found media messaging can become an for extractive industries; weak that while journalists at Mexico’s important informer of societal regulation and a lack of enforcement top newspapers considered global meaning and understanding of of environmental legislation; and warming important, they did not information, with significant problems with accountability and necessarily identify it as “most

Hemisphere Volume 23 25 Special Feature

important.” Zamith et al. (2013) the degree to which media actors newspapers and TV channels with noted that the Brazilian and US may independently report on 24-hour continuous coverage in press published more articles a variety of issues (Hallin & each country. For Argentina, we on climate change than their Papathanassopoulos, 2002; Harlow, analyzed La Nación, which caters counterparts in Argentina and 2012; Hughes & Lawson, 2005; to higher-income audiences in Colombia. In Argentina, Mercado Pinto, 2008; Porto, 2007). greater Buenos Aires province and (2012) argued that climate change This leads us to ask how lower is one of the country’s top dailies is viewed largely as an international measures of press freedom affect (Silvestri & Vassolo, 2009), and controversy between industrialized coverage of climate change. Are elite Todo Noticias (also known as and developing nations. During news outlets reporting on climate TN), an Argentine news cable a summit on climate change, the changes in countries with lower channel owned by Grupo Clarín. Peruvian press framed the issue scores of media independence and/ For Mexico, we analyzed the largely in terms of political strategy or democratic freedoms? How does conservative newspaper Reforma, rather than science, with little this relate to normative theories of one of the most circulated and coverage (Takahashi, 2011). In press function in democratic and top advertised papers in Mexico, their longitudinal study of Peruvian democratizing societies? and CNN’s independent feed for press coverage of climate change, Mexico (Gutiérrez-Rentería, 2009). Takahaski and Meisner (2013) Method In Brazil, we looked at Folha de found a reliance on Western wire For the purposes of this study, São Paulo, an influential liberal services, essentially limiting coverage we examine how media have fared newspaper (Clark, 2009), and to international news flow routines when reporting on climate change Rede Globo, the leading Brazilian and parameters. in democratic and democratizing television network. Finally, Latin America is also a Latin American nations with varying With the exception of a few studies region that has struggled with issues levels of press freedoms. (e.g. Dotson et al., 2012; Takahashi of press freedom, as legacies of state We examine online news reports & Meisner, 2013), most analyses and market intervention in media from Mexico, Brazil and Argentina, have not examined press coverage have meant compromises in media three of the most populous over longer periods of time, instead independence. News media have countries in Latin America with choosing to focus on event-driven been caught between what Waisbord the potential for substantive policy coverage over a few weeks. This (2000) terms the “rock of the state direction, and home to important study adds to current understanding and hard place of the market.” He bio systems and natural resources. by engaging in a comparative describes media-state relations as All three are understudied in examination of press in three difficult over much of the 20th terms of longitudinal coverage of countries over a five-year period to century, as: climate change. We also chose them better understand more longitudinal “[b]oth authoritarian and populist because of their ratings on Freedom trends in terms of climate change regimes used state resources to House’s Freedom of the Press scale: reporting in Latin America. Two control media markets and suppress “not free” (Mexico, with a score coders, both fluent in Spanish and deliberation and criticism. Powerful of 131 out of 196) or “partly free” one fluent in Portuguese, examined business, in turn, influenced (Brazil and Argentina, 91 and 109, all articles that included the terms government policies to expand and respectively). In terms of quality of calentamiento global or aquecimento consolidate power” (Waisbord, political rights and civil liberties, global (global warming in Spanish 2009, p. 5). hallmarks of democracy, Brazil and and Portuguese) or cambio climático Oligarchic media structures, Argentina scored as “Free” countries (climate change) in the headline direct and indirect forms of violence in 2013, while Mexico scored only or first three paragraphs for the against journalists, instrumental as “Partly Free” (Freedom House, previous five years (2009-2013). The use of media to meet particular 2013 a & b). years were constructed from Nov. 14 political or financial goals, and Our study examined the of the previous year to Nov. 15 of weak rule of law have all impacted online platforms of elite national the current year to assure 12 months

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for each coded year. The coders read coverage peaked in 2010 and fell counterparts, with Brazil slightly the first paragraph of each story to after that, with a slight increase in edging out Mexico in terms of total make sure not only that it contained 2013 (see Fig. 1). numbers of articles (see Figure 3). the appropriate term, but that the Press coverage heavily Over time, all three countries’ media term was relevant to the story. We outperformed television in the decreased their coverage of climate also eliminated duplicates during countries analyzed here, particularly change from a high in 2009 for this process. in 2009-2010. From 2011-2013, Brazil and 2010 for Mexico and the differences were not as dramatic, Argentina (see Figure 4). Results with television coverage for the Nuances among countries when In total, the study located 2,659 three countries peaking in 2011 (see analyzed by medium paint a articles from 2009-2013, after Figure 2). different picture, however. Mexico’s coders removed repeat articles and The Brazilian and Mexican media television news regarding climate those that were irrelevant to the covered climate change far more change was less than half that of topic. As a general trend, news frequently than their Argentine Reforma, but Folha news on climate

Figure 1. Total news coverage Figure 3. News coverage per country

Figure 2. Total press and television coverage for Figure 4. Climate change coverage over time the three countries

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Figure 5. Total press and television by country Figure 7. Brazilian media coverage of climate change

Figure 6. Argentine media coverage of climate change Figure 8. Mexican media coverage of climate change

change in Brazil was almost four softened; in 2012, press reporting coverage was by far the most times that of Globo. In Argentina, had fallen sharply as well, but was prevalent, peaking in 2011, while televised content was almost non- rising slightly in 2013. Mexican Todo Noticias, never very prevalent, existent, while La Nación’s content news coverage followed a different all but disappeared in 2011. Globo’s almost equaled that of Globo’s and path. Press coverage peaked and coverage fell sharply by 2012, as Todo Noticias’ content combined then fell sharply in 2011, leveling well. Press coverage followed similar (see Fig. 5). off by 2013. However, television trends across the three countries, In Argentina, it was almost coverage rose to a peak in 2011, fell with Reforma and La Nación entirely La Nación’s content that in 2012 and saw a slight increase in covering climate change the most told the story of climate change. 2013 (see Figures 6, 7 and 8). in 2010 and dropping off sharply The same type of disparity was When viewed together, press in 2011. La Nación continued its evident in Brazil, although over time and televised coverage diverged in decline in climate change news, the sharpness of the demarcations terms of trends. Mexico’s television while Folha and Reforma saw slight

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Figure 9. Climate change coverage on television Figure 10. Total press by country

increases in 2013, but nowhere near policy and politics can be readily frequencies as media agendas turned 2009 levels (see Figures 9 and 10). addressed, analyzed and discussed.” to other issues. Most media have This has important implications undergone tremendous structural Discussion in democratic and democratizing reorganizations during the past This study examined frequencies systems like those found in much decade. In addition, economic of climate change reporting in elite, of Latin America. If media content and sociopolitical problems in Latin American legacy media with influences and is influenced by all three countries require much digital presences as initial indicators public opinion and political will, airtime and space. The media in of the degree to which media across then what are the possible linkages Mexico, however, which saw the multiple platforms are providing between freedom of the press and most restrictive press environment information to their publics on the issues related to climate change? during a time of extreme violence issue, and as theoretical hallmarks of We found that press freedom from groups involved in illegal normative functions in a democratic measures did not necessarily directly narcotics trafficking, heavily covered society. In theory, a press free to affect the environmental outcome climate change, perhaps because report on issues of import for its measured here: frequency of the topic does not bring with it citizens would bring important coverage of climate change. Media fear of retribution from political information regarding climate in the press system that was rated or organized crime. Further, change to its public, who would “Not Free,” Mexico’s La Reforma during the past five years, Brazil then influence policy outcomes, and CNN México, outperformed and Mexico have shared regional while a press less able to perform media in the “Partly Free” systems of leadership and worked together this function due to restricted press Argentina and Brazil. When looked on climate change issues and have freedom or political liberties would at from the perspective of political been active in securing domestic not. If people are informed about liberties and civil rights, climate legislation on climate change. Elite the causes, consequences, debates change news was reported more actors are making statements and and choices involved in climate frequently in Mexico, the country taking action on the issue in these change, then democratic decision- rated only “Partly Free,” and only two countries, resulting in news making will be facilitated and minimally in Argentina, a country coverage as journalists follow elite enhanced, as public opinion informs rated “Free.” figures and lines of debate (Bennett, policymaking. As Boykoff (2011, p. Contextual factors during peak 1990; Sigal, 1973). Both Brazil and 181) noted, “mass media constitute years or times when coverage Mexico hosted important summits community where climate science, decreased may account for shifts in during the period of this study: the

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coverage in issues related to public opinion, citizenship and policymaking. We found that these relationships are nuanced and deserving of deeper analysis, particularly in an interdisciplinary context. We observed coverage pegged somewhat to events related to climate change, but also that these pegs were not absolute. Limitations of our study included the fact that we used frequency of coverage as an initial indicator and therefore could not determine causation. As Boykoff (2011, p. 168, 180) noted in his study of climate United Nations Climate Change Kirchner, had fallen ill with cancer. change news: Conference of the Parties in Cancún, The following year saw riots and More media coverage of climate Mexico in 2010, and the Rio+20 protests over high inflation rates and change – even supremely fair United Nations Conference on a stagnating economy in Argentina and accurately portrayed – is Sustainable Development in Rio de (Popper, 2012), while in Brazil, riots not a panacea…. At best, media Janeiro in 2012. These conferences beginning in 2012 and continuing reporting helps address, analyse and both came on the heels of the heavily through 2013 have been attributed discuss the issues, but not answer reported United Nations Climate to widespread anger regarding them…. Yet, media portrayals Change Conference in Copenhagen inflation, political corruption, lack continue to influence…perceptions in 2009, which not only had failed of infrastructure and lavish spending of climate science and governance. expectations of revisiting the Kyoto on World Cup projects (Panja & If what Bernard Cohen (1963) global climate agreements but also Biller, 2013). famously said is still the case, that coincided with the “Climategate” With elite attention waning after the media don’t tell us what to emails leaked from the Climatic conferences that failed to produce think, but do tell us what to think Research Unit at the University of any significant measures regarding about, then understanding how East Anglia. climate change, and pressing media create awareness of climate The fact that Mexican coverage sociopolitical and economic issues change is of utmost importance peaked in 2010 for the Cancún within their own borders, the media when thinking about societal conference is not surprising, but frequencies observed here may be the response and political machinations. what remains to be explained is result of journalistic routines favoring Future research would do well to why Brazilian coverage crashed in elite cues and influenced by structural examine this point. o 2012, the year of Rio+20, and why changes that limited resources and Argentine coverage was running affected coverage scope. Juliet Pinto is an associate professor a distant third. One speculation in Florida International University’s could be that Argentine climate Conclusions School of Journalism and Mass change coverage remained relatively This study takes a closer look at Communication. stable for 2009-2010, during the initial interfaces among measures summits, but began to decline in of press freedom, democratic Mercedes Vigón is the associate director 2011 during contested presidential liberties and environmental news of the International Media Center and and legislative elections, as well coverage of climate change on an associate professor in the School of as the announcement that the a national level as a step toward Journalism and Mass Communication president, Cristina Fernández de understanding the role of media at Florida International University.

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(2005). “The Barriers Development, Democratization and Environmental Newspapers, 1985–2003.” Risk Analysis 25(6): to Media Opening in Latin America.” Political Protection in Eastern Europe.” Boston College 1457–1469. Communication 22: 9-25. Environmental Affairs Law Review 18: 53-84. Castells, M. (2008). “The New Public Sphere: IPCC. (2007). “Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Sigal, L. (1973). Reporters and Officials: The Global Civil Society, Communication Networks Change 2007.” Available online: http://www.ipcc. Organization and Politics of Newsmaking. New and Global Governance.” Annals of the American ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains1.html York: DC Heath. Academy of Political and Social Science 616: 78-93. (last accessed Nov. 22, 2013). Silvestri, L., & Vassolo, R. S. (2009). “Media and Clark, A. (2009, October 11). “Brazilian Kitzberger, D., & Pérez, G. (2008). El tratamiento Entertainment in Argentina: Doing Business in Newspapers Celebrate a Rise in Circulation: Print del cambio climático en la prensa latinoamericana. a Fragmented Society.” In A. Albarran (ed.), The Media Booms in South America’s Largest Economy.” Report of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation. Available Handbook of Spanish- language Media (pp. 151- Retrieved from http:// www.guardian.co.uk/ online: www.kas.de (last accessed Nov. 21, 2013). 170). New York, NY: Routledge. media/2009/oct/12/brazil-newspapers-circulation/ Latta, A., & Wittman, H. (2012). Environmental Takahashi, B. & Meisner, M. (2013). “Climate print (Last accessed Dec. 10, 2013). Citizenship in Latin America: Natures, Subjects Change in Peruvian Newspapers: The Role of Cohen, B. (1963). The Press and Foreign Policy. and Struggles. New York: Berghan Books. Foreign Voices in a Context of Vulnerability.” Public Understanding of Science 22(4): 427-442. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Magrin, G., García, C., et al. (2007). “Latin Dotson, D. M., Jacobson, S. K., Kaid, L. L., America Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Waisbord, S. (2000). “Media in South America: & Carlton, J. S. (2012). “Media Coverage of Adaptation and Vulnerability.” In M.L. Parry, O.F. Between the Rock of the State and the Hard Place Climate Change in Chile: A Content Analysis Canziani, et al. (eds.), Fourth Assessment Report of of the Market.” In J. Curran & M. Park (eds.), De- of Conservative and Liberal Newspapers.” the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (pp. Westernizing Media Studies. London: Arnold. Environmental Communication: A Journal of 581-615). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Waisbord, S. (2013). “Contesting Extractivism: Nature and Culture 6 (1): 64-81. Moreira, S.V. (2005). “Trends and New Challenges Media and Environmental Citizenship in Latin Dryzek, J. S. (1987). Rational Ecology: in Journalism Research in Brazil.” Brazilian America.” In L. Libby & B. Hutchins (eds.), Environment and Political Economy. Oxford: Journalism Research 1(2): 9-24. Environmental Conflict and the Media (pp. 105- 123). New York: Peter Lang. Blackwell. Mercado, M.T. (2012). “Media Representations Edwards, G., & Zeger, C. (2012). Can Mexico of Climate Change in the Argentine Press.” Waisbord, S. (2009). “Press and the Public and Brazil Join Forces on Climate Change? Journalism Studies 13(2): 193-209. Sphere in Contemporary Latin America.” In P. Norris (ed.), Public Sentinel: News Media and Thomson Reuters Foundation. Available online: Neumayer, J. (2002). “Do Democracies http://www.trust.org/item/?map=can-mexico-and- Governance Reform (pp. 305-328). Washington: Exhibit Stronger International Environmental World Bank. brazil-join-forces-on-climate-change/ (last accessed Commitment? A Cross-Country Analysis.” Journal Nov. 22, 2013). of Peace Research 39(2): 139-164. Waisbord, S., & Peruzzotti, E. (2009). “The Freedom House. (2013a). “Global Press Freedom Environmental Story that Wasn’t: Advocacy, Newell, P. (2008). “Civil Society, Corporate Journalism and the asambleísmo Movement in Rankings.” Available online: freedomhouse.org (last Accountability and the Politics of Climate Change.” accessed Nov. 22, 2013). Argentina.” Media, Culture & Society 31(5): Global Environmental Politics 8(3): 122-153. 691-709. Freedom House. (2013b). “Freedom in the World.” Panja, T., & Biller, D. (2013, Oct. 23). “Brazil Zamith, R., Pinto, J., & Villar, M. (2013). Available online: freedomhouse.org (last accessed Riots Threaten World Cup as Nation Prepares for Dec. 6, 2013). “Constructing Climate Change in the Americas: Games.” Bloomberg.com. Available online: http:// An Analysis of News Coverage in U.S. and South Gleditsch, N. P., & Sverdrup, B. O. (2003). www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-23/brazil- American Newspapers.” Science Communication “Democracy and the Environment.” In E. Paper world-cup-disruption-seen-outcome-of-rio-violent- 35 (3): 334-357. & M. Redclift (eds.), Human Security and the protests.html (last accessed Dec. 12, 2013). Environment: International Comparisons (pp. 45- Payner, O. (1995). “Freedom and the 71). London: Elgar. Environment.” Journal of Democracy 6: 41-55.

Hemisphere Volume 23 31 Focus On Cuba What Can I Say? Freedom of Expression in Cuba By Jorge Dalmau and John Virtue

n mid September 2013, the Cuban blogger and Cuban Ministry of Culture independent journalist suspended musician Robertico Yoani Sánchez, named one of Time magazine’s Carcassés because of a few “100 Most Influential verses he improvised at a People in the World,” public performance. Events over the gives a lecture at Florida Ifollowing days afford rare glimpses International University’s of the tenuous, elusive and subtly Wertheim Performing Arts Center on April 1, shifting line that separates what one 2013. Photo by FIU can and cannot say on the island. External Relations. Mr. Carcassés and his group, a timba-funk band called Interactivo, were performing in an open space across from the United States Interest Section in Havana that the home the refrain “Quiero. Acuérdate island, a very different kettle of fish, Cuban government calls Tribuna que siempre quiero” (I want. politically speaking. Antimperialista and Cubans Remember that I always want), Some observers have pointed out have dubbed Protestódromo, a Mr. Carcassés dutifully called the possibility that few if any of synthesis of “protest” with Rio de for “the return of our brothers” those present even noticed what Mr. Janeiro’s Carnival reviewing stand, but then soloed into uncharted Carcassés was saying. But at least the Sambódromo. It is in fact a territory, calling for freedom for someone was listening and evidently standing platform on which the María (marijuana) and “free access took exception to Mr. Carcassés’ government periodically stages public to information, so I can have my inspiration. The next day, a Friday, demonstrations against the latest own opinion... I want to elect the he was summoned to the Ministry outrage by the Empire to the north. president by direct vote and not of Culture and notified that, as The September 12 event by other means... neither militants of that moment, all his contracts demanded the return of the Five nor dissidents, Cubans all, with were cancelled and he would not Heroes, members of the Wasp the same rights... the end of the be performing in the foreseeable Network imprisoned in the United embargo, and the self embargo.” future. Musically, he had become a States for terms ranging from 15 He ended by making a plea for nonperson. years to life on charges of spying. “only one Cuba, for Cubans, that “Perhaps I was wrong to hope that US authorities arrested the five after our brothers may return.” my words would show an image of Cuban Air Force jet fighters shot In the context, one could fairly tolerance and evolution on the part down two Miami-based Brothers to conclude that in the opening salvo, of the present Cuban government,” the Rescue planes in 1996, killing the “return of our brothers” referred Mr. Carcassés said later in a the four pilots onboard. to the Five, only four of whom Facebook posting. Mr. Carcassés’ performance can are still in prison, and just as fairly And then something unusual be seen on video clips posted on conclude that the “brothers” in the happened. YouTube. Standing next to a three- closing verse alluded to the million- Singer-songwriter Silvio woman backup group hammering plus Cubans living outside the Rodríguez, known to his many

32 Hemisphere Volume 23 Focus On Cuba

fans worldwide simply as Silvio, so positive that they have decided to and magazines and the jamming announced that Mr. Carcassés vacate the sanction. of radio and television signals, let would be joining him onstage at a It is said that people, by talking, alone private media on the island. couple of forthcoming concerts in may understand each other. May it Few Cubans have Internet access various neighborhoods around the always be that way.” in their homes. The government is island, part of an ongoing series Whether Mr. Rodríguez’s careful opening Internet cafes, although billed as conciertos en los barrios. and somewhat muted defiance of the the cost of a few hours’ connection On Tuesday, September 17, Mr. Ministry’s decision was instrumental might be the equivalent of a Rodríguez stipulated in his blog in the final outcome of the incident, month’s salary. Cuba has the second that he hadn’t invited Mr. Carcassés, it is impossible to say, although surely lowest average Internet access or any other artists, to perform partisans on either side of the debate speed in the world, which is ironic with him at the concerts, but that, will have strong views about it. What since Cubans pioneered radio and rather, “... he had taken notice of the is evident from both Mr. Carcassés’ television in Latin America. The colleagues who voluntarily offered performance and Mr. Rodríguez’s first radio station on the island was to join him. That is the case of subsequent blog posts, however, is inaugurated in 1922 and the first Robertico (Mr. Carcassés).” And then that things are not as they used to be television station in 1952. Cubans he added the following paragraph: on the island. did much of the installation and “I decided it [Mr. Carcassés’ The incident says a lot about programming of radio and TV in participation] should happen freedom of expression in Cuba other Latin American countries. precisely at the next two concerts and the role of the Internet. The A media opening would be when I learned that he had government is no longer able consistent with President Raúl been sanctioned to an indefinite to suppress the news the way it Castro’s easing of economic and suspension from his social did when it came in printed and social restrictions since replacing function.” He then went on: “I broadcast form. Even the state-run brother Fidel in 2008. Cubans now believe Robertico committed a media, the only media allowed have the right to travel abroad, and grave blunder” when he chose in Cuba, reflect a modest lifting some independent journalists and the performance asking for the of restrictions. On October 9, other dissidents have traveled to the liberation of the Five to issue his 2013, Granma, the Communist United States and elsewhere and manifesto: “Unfortunately, my Party daily, replaced its longtime returned home. colleague’s blunder was followed by editor with the editor of Juventud The foreign journalist who another blunder by the institution Rebelde, the official organ of the probably knows more about that rules the work of music Communist Youth, who was in Cubans and Cuba than any of his professionals in Cuba.” turn replaced by his managing colleagues, The New Yorker’s Jon There followed a reasoned editor. Rumor had it that the Lee Anderson, made a trip to the discourse to the effect that Mr. changes were decided at a summer island while the media opening was Carcassés had a right to express his meeting of the Party after members being discussed. Anderson spent opinion, even if he had chosen the called for less censorship and more much of his time with Leonardo wrong time and place to do so. news in the newspapers. Padura Fuentes, a former Juventud Right below the initial blog post, Critics point out that at the same Rebelde reporter and social critic for which no time is given —Mr. time the regime was discussing who has written a series of novels Rodríguez usually posts early in the changes in the media —one of featuring a Cuban police detective. morning— appeared the following: them called it a “timid opening”— Despite what he writes and says, “NEWS ITEM: Havana, Tuesday the Cuban police arrested five Mr. Padura was awarded Cuba’s September 17, 2013, 17:45 independent journalists who were National Literature Prize in 2012. (5:45 p.m.) covering anti-government protests. “There is no current policy of what Officials of the Ministry of All were released on October 14. should or should not be published,” Culture met today with Robertico The opening leaves unchanged he said in a speech attended by Carcassés and the conversation was the ban on foreign newspapers Mr. Anderson. “I believe enough

Hemisphere Volume 23 33 Focus On Cuba

space has been achieved for almost chronicle their times. In awarding International Press Institute’s World everything to be published in the prize to Mr. Santiesteban, the Press Freedom award, and the Cuba.” City of Prague and the Franz Kafka Netherlands’ Prince Claus award, Mr. Anderson, in an October 21, Society, the prize’s co-sponsors, both in 2010. 2013 New Yorker article, offers Mr. mentioned “El verano en que Dios Ms. Sánchez’s sudden Padura, who is 58 years old, as a dormía,” his novel about rafters international recognition caught barometer of what’s permissible in fleeing Cuba. the Cuban government off guard. terms of freedom of expression on the Blogger Yoani Sánchez, who The more famous she became, the island. “People think that what I say is 38, is proving to be well less the government was inclined is a measure of what can or can’t be situated to get her message to an to use traditional methods of arrest said in Cuba,” he told Mr. Anderson. international public. She and her and harassment to silence her. The He acknowledged, however, that husband left Cuba in 2002 for Huffington Post and Miami Herald, what he says in private can be at odds Switzerland but returned home among other media, post her with what he says in public. in 2004 knowledgeable about the Generación Y blogs on life in Cuba, Some of Cuba’s independent uses of the Internet. She started and her followers translate them journalists have criticized Mr. blogging in 2007; by 2008, Time into 17 languages. Padura for not speaking out last magazine had named her one of Dissidents are replacing summer against the five-year prison the “100 Most Influential People traditional journalism with blogging sentence given to writer and blogger in the World” and the newspaper as a way to get their message out Ángel Santiesteban-Prats, who was El País had awarded her the Ortega to the world, including Cuba. Few accused of domestic violence. Mr. y Gasset Prize, Spain’s highest dissident journalists anywhere have Santiesteban is the 2013 winner journalism award. This was followed encountered the obstacles that of the Franz Kafka Prize, worth by Columbia University’s Maria Cuba’s independent journalists have $10,000, which honors writers who Moors Cabot Prize in 2009, the faced. Since Cuba is an island, the

A Surprise Witness for the Prosecution By John Virtue

y sixth and last trip to Cuba had more consequences than Rican airline that flew to Havana, and paid $25 for a Cuban the previous five combined. The first five visits were when I visa. My seatmate on the flight told he was going to Havana for Mwas a foreign correspondent for United Press International the annual jazz festival, so I now had an explanation for Cuban news agency. I made the last trip as deputy director of the immigration if asked why I was visiting the island. International Media Center at Florida International University There was neither hassle nor questions at immigration and with a grant from the US Agency for International Development customs. Had an inspector looked, he or she would have found (USAID) to train Cuba’s independent journalists with a distance- no didactic material. Talking points for my workshop were learning course mailed by friends in my native Canada. margin notes spread throughout the book I was reading. When I When Vicky Huddleston, then the chief of mission at the US checked into my hotel in Old Havana, I noticed a man in aviator Interests Section in Havana, realized that I was a dual citizen, sunglasses seated beside the registration desk. After I had she advised me to go to Cuba on my Canadian passport. “Act checked in and was walking away, I overheard the man tell the like a tourist for four or five days, give your workshop, and then clerk he was waiting for a Señor García and was I him. “No,” leave on the next flight before State Security realizes you’re said the clerk. “That’s Señor Virtue.” Since I had been in Cuba there,” she counseled me. She warned, however, that the State before, I assumed State Security had just checked me in, too. Department could not help me if I was arrested; that would As I was unpacking my suitcase, I realized that my toothbrush be up to Canada’s Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and was printed with the telephone number of my Miami dentist. I Development. tried unsuccessfully to remove it with a nail file. Toothbrushes A year went by before I traveled, 9/11 intervened, and are not available for sale in Cuban pharmacies, so I put mine Huddleston was no longer in Cuba; she was ambassador to in my pocket when I left the hotel. I later discovered a wall safe Mozambique. Instead of taking a 30-minute flight from Miami, I where I left it after brushing my teeth. flew to Toronto on December 11, 2002. Assuming that my hotel I followed Huddleston’s instructions over the next couple of room in Havana would be searched, I left all toiletries that were days. I only spoke English in the hotel, reserving Spanish for my made in the United States with a friend and replaced them with chats with Cubans in the street. I tried to go to the jazz festival, Canadian ones. The next day I checked into LACSA, a Costa but no tickets were available. 34 Hemisphere Volume 23 Focus On Cuba

government effectively suppressed “should be capable of reflecting the In the same vein, one might ask, dissident reporting until the Internet Cuban reality in all its diversity, Cubans can now sound off on such started making inroads. State reporting in an opportune, issues as prices and government Security has prevented the printing objective, systematic and transparent services, but are they free to question and distribution of any dissident way, the work of the Revolution…” the tenets of the Revolution? o publications. Under its new editor, Granma has Jorge Dalmau is Editor at Florida In- “The will of the Party is that there acknowledged public criticism of a ternational University’s International be no secrets,” Rolando Alfonso government crackdown on illegal Media Center, and leads the Center’s Borges of the Communist Party’s clothing and hardware sales at prices project, Professional Support for Cuba’s central committee told the Union below those in government stores. Independent Journalists, designed to of Journalists of Cuba three days State television is carrying items strengthen professional communication after the announcement of the top- about what doesn’t work in Cuba. media in Cuba. level changes in personnel at the Professor Max Salvadori, who government dailies. “We understand taught at Smith College from 1947 John Virtue is a veteran journalist and that there is a movement in that to 1973 after spending the first half editor who covered Latin America and sense. The country needs that and of his life fighting fascism in Italy, the Caribbean for over two decades. needs balance.” Vice President once pointed out that in a medieval He is the director of the International Miguel Díaz Canel, widely viewed monastery, a monk was free to Media Center at Florida International as President Raúl Castro’s heir question the abbot on issues such as University and founding publisher of apparent, anticipated Mr. Borges’ the quality of the gruel or the living Pulso del periodismo. He has led work- remarks when he told state media accommodations. But, Professor shops on ethics and the role of the press journalists in July that they should Salvadori would ask pointedly, was in democracy to 2,000 mid-career cover what average Cubans are the monk at liberty to question the journalists in sixteen Latin American talking about. The media, he said, dogma of the Church? countries.

On December 16, the day of my workshop, I checked out up, Manuel David Orrio. He was one of five invited journalists for and took a taxi to the Hotel Nacional, which is located a short whom I had brought certificates of completion for our distance- distance from the Interests Section. From there I pulled my learning course. suitcase to the Interests Section, showed my passport to a My presence at the residence was scheduled for two and a Cuban security agent at a kiosk and entered the building, the half hours, allowing me enough time to get to the airport for a former American embassy. flight to Canada that afternoon. I spent so much time justifying The workshop was held at the residence of the Public Affairs the role of an editor that I barely had a chance to begin my ethics Officer. When we arrived at 10 a.m., 18 journalists were waiting workshop. “Don’t worry,” Orrio told me. “I know enough about outside. I had planned to review our activities and the five-part ethics to do the workshop myself.” I promised Orrio that we’d course we had mailed and then give a workshop on ethics, my send him examples of codes of ethics and other material. He specialty. I started by explaining that we were editing articles said the residence we were at was too small for what he had in from independent journalists posted on the CubaNet website mind. He would like to invite 50 to 60 journalists, so he would and offering them to Latin American newspapers. This was ask the new chief of mission, James Cason, for permission to a requirement of our USAID grant, and I was pleased to tell use his residence. Cason agreed. them that the newspapers were using the articles. Few of the Orrio held his workshop on Thursday, March 13, 2003. The journalists showed any enthusiasm about having their works following Monday, Fidel Castro said that Cason had exceeded read by people in Argentina or Mexico. They let me know his diplomatic role by permitting dissidents to congregate in his that their commitment was to denounce Fidel Castro to their official residence. Castro announced the arrest of 75 dissidents, fellow Cubans in exile, not to inform other Latin Americans. including 27 independent journalists. They were charged with As for editing their writing, they viewed this as tantamount to crimes against the state; specifically, associating with Americans. censorship. If even one word were changed, an article should not Closed trials were held the following month. All of those be offered for publication outside of Cuba. arrested were convicted and given sentences of up to 28 years Being independent journalists, they had never worked under in prison. an editor. The websites to which they submitted their articles A surprise witness testified against the journalists: Manuel only corrected spelling and grammatical errors. I explained David Orrio. It turns out he was a State Security agent who that all articles used by media in the rest of the hemisphere are broke 12 years undercover as an independent journalist to testify subject to editing. I was grateful to one journalist who backed me against his unsuspecting “colleagues.” o Hemisphere Volume 23 35 Reports from the Field

90 Miles to Freedom of the Press Article and Photos by Patrick Farrell

ven simple street We were assured this wouldn’t be demanded in Spanish to see my photography can be a problem and that they would be press pass. I flashed my Miami difficult in Cuba, delivered to us the next day. Herald ID, but that didn’t satisfy where censorship is the We weren’t concerned. It’s not him, so I quickly explained that I worst in the western unusual for an important event was still waiting for my credentials hemisphere. Two years ago, I – in the United States or any and just shooting photos of the Etraveled to Santiago, Cuba, to cover other country – to require media neighborhood. I walked away. He Pope Benedict XVI’s visit. Getting credentials. Since the Pope wasn’t followed. After I hurried through there was the easy part. expected for another two days for his several blocks, taking sharp twists It wasn’t always that way. mass at the Plaza de la Revolución and turns, he seemed to give up. Relations between the Cuban Antonio Maceo, why worry? I had almost made it back to government and The Miami Herald The next day, Mimi and I walked the Basílica del Cobre when he have always been rocky, with to the Basílica del Cobre (photo reappeared – this time on the back the Castro regime accusing the opposite page), where the Pope was of a small motorcycle driven by a newspaper of being a propaganda scheduled to visit after Mass to pray man in uniform. They glared at me. arm of Miami’s Cuban exile to the Virgen de la Caridad. Mimi Speaking English, the uniformed community. Historically, Cuba has became engrossed in interviews, so man demanded my credentials. refused journalist visa requests from I explored the neighborhood. Like He wasn’t satisfied with my story, employees of The Miami Herald and I often do in Miami and any place I either, so he pointed me back to the its Spanish-language sister paper, El visit, I started photographing scenes cathedral and sternly told me not to Nuevo Herald. of daily life along the crumbling roam around. This time around, however,M iami colonial brick streets. I shot a The next day, our credentials Herald staff writer Mimi Whitefield young boy getting his hair cut at a safely in hand, I forgot my two and I both received seven-day visas. small barbershop, its walls covered watchdogs in the flurry of the Pope’s Almost 20 staffers at the paper had with posters about the Papal Mass. visit. The Miami Herald had paid applied, but we were still excited I photographed people walking by for a wireless connection code to because it was the first time in a giant Che Guevara mural on a transmit images directly from the more than a decade that anybody at quiet street. risers by the stage, where the media The Herald had been granted legal I’ve traveled to Haiti, Guatemala, were required to stay. After the permission to enter the country. Nicaragua, Honduras, Bolivia, Pope’s grand entrance, I sat down With our access limited to seven Costa Rica, Venezuela, Turkey, the with my laptop and began sending days, we flew directly into Santiago, Bahamas, Antigua and the Mexican the first images. where the Pope would appear first. border, among other places, on Suddenly, a man, later identified We breezed through customs and assignments. I’ve never been as Andrés Carrión (photo page 38), immigration lines. Checking into stopped in the street in any of those began running toward the altar. the hotel where most of the media places for taking photographs. “Down with Communism!” he were staying was easy, too. But, due Until now. yelled. I slid the laptop off my lap to confusion about our travel plans, “Señor! Señor!” and jumped up, snapping off a our press credentials were still in A serious-looking man in street few photos as authorities quickly Havana, more than 500 miles away. clothes hustled up to me and corralled him out of the square. I

36 Hemisphere Volume 22

Reports from the Field

immediately got back on my laptop and tried to send these pictures, but our Internet connection had vanished. Other journalists complained they were having the same trouble. Frustrated and in a hurry to get the images back to Miami, I received permission to leave – as long as I headed straight to the hotel a mile away and agreed not to take any more photos. The Internet at the hotel was now having problems, too. It seemed impossible to get a consistent connection. It took several hours to move a handful of pictures, but they finally went through. Maybe I was being paranoid. But the sensation of being watched never went away. The next morning, the Pope’s visit to El Cobre was off limits to happened to them was being forced disappeared into a back room. We the media, so Mimi and I hung back on a plane and sent home. Was were ordered to sit on a small sofa. out in the crowds gathering in the our trip ending here? Were these I didn’t have much time to worry surrounding streets. We reached the renegade officers who wanted to about what was happening as 10 barricade across from the cathedral, rough us up? Would we face some minutes later, they returned our gear where men in uniform were keeping trumped-up charge? to us and led us out of the house. the throng organized. I looked up In Cuba, where the media are Instead of being sent back to the and recognized the same stern face supervised by the Communist Party, hotel, this time they guided us back in plainclothes that had stopped censorship is the most intense in the up the hill and steered us through me on the street. He ordered us to Western Hemisphere. Reporters the barricade right onto the steps without Borders repeatedly ranks the follow him. of the cathedral. Hours later, I was country low on its Press Freedom We headed back through the able to photograph the Pope as he enormous crowd now winding down Index. The Inter American Press came out to bless the crowd. the road. What a sight. I raised my Association reports that “repression Making my way down the street camera and snapped a photo. Our against independent journalists, afterward with Mimi, I looked up “guide” swung around and shouted, mistreatment of jailed reporters and and made eye contact with a familiar “No pictures!” He moved behind very strict government surveillance” me and put his hand in the middle continue to limit people’s access face in the crowd. My plainclothes of my back, firmly guiding us down to information. Special permits friend. He stared at me. the hill to a small, unmarked house. required to use the Internet are only “Gracias,” I mouthed. He didn’t Between the sharp prodding in my available to select Cubans. Mobile smile. o back and the nondescript house, I phones are rare. started to get nervous. It’s a long 90 miles back to Florida Pulitzer Prize-winning photographer My colleagues who have been and the First Amendment. Patrick Farrell has been a professional stopped by authorities in Cuba have Several men were in the house. photojournalist for more than 25 years been held and questioned for hours. One of them took Mimi’s bag. and a staff photographer at The Miami Still, the worst thing that has ever Another took my two cameras and Herald since 1987.

38 Hemisphere Volume 22 School girl walks in front of street art in Haiti. Patrick Farrell Reports from the Field Haiti: Land of Radios By Bernard Diederich

e fought for 50 years for press freedom, and we are not “ going to ever allow Haiti to return to the silence ofW the cemetery,” veteran freedom fighter Liliane Pierre Paul of Radio Kiskeya declares. “We are today benefiting from the struggle and you can talk. There are those who would like to roll back the media to the days of the babouket (muzzle), but our blood, sweat and tears have not been in vain.” Other radio station owners agree and more than half of Haiti’s 11 to 12 million people who live in urban areas have around 40 radio stations to choose from (and dozens more in the country’s 10 provinces) to satisfy their politics and points of view. Haiti has more radio and TV stations than any other country in the Caribbean, but few of its residents can affordT Vs to watch its 30-odd television stations. Instead, they tune into the capital’s airwaves, Liliane Pierre-Paul co-founded Radio Kiskeya in 1994 and it remains one of Haiti’s leading news which are jammed with options sources. Pierre-Paul stated, “[It is] a one-of-a-kind commercial station, founded by independent journalists of all political views, progressive, pro-democracy, with the people. We lived through for music, news, sports, public enormous tension during the second mandate of Jean-Bertrand Aristide; attempted assassinations, announcements and live interviews. fires and vandalism.” Bernard Diederich In March 1970, Herbie Widmaier moved away from his music 44 years this year; however, it too in Haiti (MINUSTAH), which recording business to open Radio has undergone change. Many from operates with reporters hired away Métropole. His new station was Radio Métropole have branched from local stations. innovative and acquired talented out on their own, including popular Does having so many options reporters. It quickly established a journalist Kompè Filo, whose translate into high levels of press position rivaling Radio Haiti-Inter masterful Haitian Creole is heard freedom, broad dissemination of and other leading airwave outlets. today over Radio Guinea, which high-quality news programming Sadly, Radio Haiti-Inter is now devotes an hour to songs out of and well-trained journalists? off the air. That has not been the the Vodou Lakou. One of the best Unfortunately, as well-known fate of Radio Métropole and its professional radio stations is that journalist Marcus García explains, television station, which celebrated of the UN Stabilization Mission “…quantity does not translate

40 Hemisphere Volume 23 Reports from the Field into quality. There is a lack of – gives members of Congress full to engage by using media platforms professionalism and journalists have protection. to speak out openly, expressing lost prestige.” He adds, “Young One recent Wednesday, I concern and criticism regarding the people are desperately seeking encountered surprisingly little traffic situation in Haiti and what may lie leadership, mentors and role upon returning to Port-au-Prince. ahead. models.” Residents of the capital were glued Economist Camille Chalmers, García, a lawyer by training who to their TVs and radios: Manchester the executive secretary of la studied journalism in France and United was playing in Europe. Plateforme Haïtienne de Plaidoyer the United States, was arrested and Haitians are passionate about soccer pour un Développement Alternatif forced into exile, along with the and matches are more important (PAPDA), spoke this week on rest of Haiti’s “independent” media, even than political scandals. The Radio Métropolis, declaring that by former dictator Jean-Claude latest was a senator who punched a the crisis in Venezuela could have Duvalier in 1980. Columbia constituent, knocking out one of his grave consequences for the future University awarded García and teeth. Ironically, the senator is also a of the Petro Caribe agreement his colleague, Elsie Ethéart, the dentist. that funds the majority of projects prestigious Maria Moors Cabot underway in Haiti. Chalmers Award for their work with the PBS stated that it is regrettable that Petro radio station in Miami. Today Caribe funds have not been used they have their own station, Radio for sustainable development in the Mélodie FM, and Marcus’s daily interest of the population. “That editorials often appear in their feisty debt grows, passing $100 million weekly, Haiti en Marche. and, what is worse, nothing serious Critics complain that many has been done in the way of serious radio hosts don’t know how investments of a social nature to to conduct live interviews and help with hunger and housing,” allow their guests to make the Chalmers added. most outrageous declarations Despite seemingly never-ending unchallenged. Sometimes, the Marcus García, a veteran journalist with over challenges in Haiti, the year began results can be riotously entertaining. four decades of experience, was imprisoned on a surprisingly good note for not Some stations stick to music but and exiled to the United States in 1980 while only the media in Haiti, but also others strain the limits of their he was a reporter with Radio Métropole. In for its judicial system. Finally, in 2001, he won the Jean Dominique Human hard-won freedom of the press with Rights and Freedom of the Press Award, given one of the most politically explosive pure theater to assure themselves by the United Nations to support the work of cases of recent times and after 14 an audience and ratings. Recently, journalists in Haiti. years and seven judges, Judge Yvikel a lawyer for former dictator Jean- Dabrésil issued Port-au-Prince’s Claude Duvalier warned on the air Tuning in and hearing a shrill Appeal Court an indictment against that if the courts condemned his voice announce demonstrations nine people accused of the murder client, civil war would break out. against President Michel Martelly of radio journalist Jean Leopold Listeners laughed. It was comedy by a faction of former President Dominique. At 6 a.m. on April 3, hour. Jean-Bertrand Aristide’s Lavalas 2000, Dominique, an outspoken and The country’s defamation laws party has been routine since the day controversial newscaster, was shot to are seldom applied. In fact, some the new leader took power. Over death execution style as he arrived at congressmen are famous for making the airwaves, they accuse President his radio station, Radio Haiti-Inter. outlandish accusations, knowing Martelly of failing to end Haiti’s Radio Haiti-Inter’s security guard, their congressional immunity endemic misery and corruption. Jean-Claude Louissaint, was killed as protects them from lawsuits. The Aristide himself remains cloistered well. At Dominique’s state funeral, post-Duvalier constitution, mindful behind high walls at his Tabarre thousands of mourners filled Haiti’s of the dictatorship’s treatment of residence since returning from soccer stadium. A week later, a lawmakers who dared to criticize exile in South Africa. He is a silent hundred Haitian journalists marched him – exile, jail and disappearance political player. Many others choose in Port-au-Prince demanding justice.

Hemisphere Volume 23 41 Reports from the Field

Skeptics believe the accused will and end impunity, Jean-Claude never be brought to trial, pointing Duvalier, as well as ex-President to the case of dictator Jean-Claude Aristide and others accused of Duvalier, which has tied up Haiti’s crimes, must be tried,” says a young judicial system for years and made member of the judiciary who asked Haiti the land of impunity. Since that his name not be used. his surprise return from 25 years of From time to time the radio exile in France on January 16, 2011, reports the lack of progress in Duvalier has showed complete repatriating $7 million from contempt for the justice system Switzerland in “valid assets obtained and his victims by failing to appear illicitly by the Duvalier family.” at initial hearings for his alleged Duvalier and his followers are involvement in crimes against accused of plundering hundreds of humanity. The ex-dictator is at ease, millions of dollars of state funds Haitian journalist, Jean Léopold Dominique, who was murdered outside of his radio station repairing one of the family homes in during his reign, which ended on April 13, 2000. a chic section of Petionville. when he was toppled in 1986. Ever Most journalists agree that since, a number of Swiss accounts Not everyone hailed the long- Duvalier benefits from his closeness have remained frozen, leading to awaited decision. Aristide’s Lavalas to Martelly. The president, protracted court battles. party, now splintered, charged that considered a neo-Duvalierist and International lawyer Bill O’Neill the decision and its timing were showman, has even hinted at comments, “After the January 12, politically motivated. Reporters pardoning the former dictator. 2010 earthquake, the new mantras Without Borders greeted the Regardless of whatever else Martelly are ‘building Haiti back better’ and ruling with a mix of “satisfaction might accomplish, including more ‘Haiti’s open for business.’ Neither and prudence,” stating, “We public works than any former statement can be true unless Haiti urge the authorities to take the government, the Duvalier case first faces its past and identifies the necessary steps to ensure that will remain a stain on his name. reasons for its deep poverty and Myrlande Lubérisse appears in Meanwhile, and to the surprise predatory governments.” O’Neill court in Haiti. A former senator of many, the former dictator has adds, “The impunity enjoyed by for Aristide’s Fanmi Lavalas party, continued to take part in public Duvalier is directly connected to she is named in Judge Yvikel events despite having been placed Haiti’s enduring ills.” Dabrésil’s report as the person under house arrest while charges Free and robust media serve as a who ordered Dominique’s murder. against him are investigated. bulwark against impunity and are The authorities in the United Particularly insulting to many was key to development. States, where she now resides, his presence on the official stage The January 2010 earthquake should authorize her extradition if during the government’s January itself was a major test case for the required.” 12, 2012 commemoration of the Haitian media. Le Nouvelliste According to journalist Guyler devastating earthquake that struck newspaper has stood for many C. Delva, head of the Haitian press the country two years earlier. The decades at 183 Rue du Centre in freedom group SOS Journalistes, a ceremony was held at Titayan, the downtown Port-au-Prince. The November 2013 report states the site of mass graves of earthquake building that houses the paper motive for the killing was to silence victims as well as victims of the resisted the devastating earthquake outspoken journalists prior to the Duvalier regime. He was welcomed that reduced many of its neighbors 2000 elections. He (Dominique) as a former head of state and even to rubble; however, its printing press was described as posing an obstacle photographed shaking hands with was destroyed and operations were to Aristide’s return to power. former U.S. President Bill Clinton, brought to a halt. People, many journalists included, who was obviously caught off guard. “We met the challenge and were are still calling for justice. “If the country has to cleanse itself back in print within a month,”

42 Hemisphere Volume 23 Reports from the Field

they choose (Article 28). It also stated that journalists may freely exercise their profession within the framework of the law, and such exercise may not be subject to any authorization or censorship, except in the case of war. Journalists may not be compelled to reveal their sources; however, it is their duty to verify the authenticity and accuracy of information. It is also their obligation to respect the ethics of their profession. Article 28-3 of the Haitian Constitution stipulates that all offenses involving the press and abuses of the right of expression should come under the code of criminal law. The Press Freedom Index of Reporters without Borders shows some minor improvement, with Max E. Chauvet, the owner of Le Nouvelliste, seated at his desk at the newspaper’s headquarters in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, with Frantz Duval, Editor-in-Chief and Pierre-Raymond Dumas, the head of Haiti’s rank moving from 49 in the culture section and one of the daily’s editorialists. Le Nouvelliste is the only remaining daily in Haiti 2013 to 47 in 2014. Freedom and the oldest French-language daily in the Americas. Junior Plésius/Le Nouvelliste House’s Index ranks Haiti as “partly free” and notes that the country has recalls Max E. Chauvet, the fourth including that of veteran Marcus experienced “modest improvement” generation to run the family daily, Garcia (Mélodie FM 103.3) and of with regards to press freedom since the only one of its type remaining course, Le Nouvelliste’s Magik 9. 2012. in Haiti. Founded in 1898, Le As for the written press, Chauvet We are once again reminded Nouvelliste is the oldest French- says, “We have an advantage over of the words of veteran Haitian language daily in the Americas. radios in that we are there in black journalist and freedom of the Editor Frantz Duval says the and white,” figuratively, as the press defender Liliane Pierre Paul: earthquake was a turning point for paper’s 30-odd pages have color, “We fought for 50 years for press the paper. “The earthquake was too. Meaning, he says, “We can see freedom, and we are not going to an awakening,” Duval states on Le what we publish and fulfill our duty ever allow Haiti to return to the Nouvelliste online, adding, “We as responsible journalists.” Readers silence…our blood, sweat and tears had been too lax. Since then we who were victims of the dictatorship have not been in vain.” o have been more critical towards the were outraged by a note placed in the authorities and asking questions. paper by Francois-Nicolas Duvalier Bernard Diederich is a widely-pub- The image of the newspaper praising his grandfather Francois lished author and a veteran journalist changed. We analyze more.” Le (Papa Doc) Duvalier, a man who who has covered Latin America and Nouvelliste also has a radio station, allowed no opposition media and the Caribbean for over six decades. Magik 9, over which Duval and killed those suspected of dissent. While living in Haiti, he launched the other writers read the day’s editorial. The Haitian Constitution, enacted English-language weekly newspaper, Chauvet would like to hear more in 1987 and updated in January Haiti Sun, and became the resident editorials coming out over the 2002, guarantees all Haitians the correspondent for The Associated Press, airwaves. Today, he notes there right to express their opinions freely The New York Times, Time Magazine, are only three such radio stations, on all matters and by any means and London’s Daily Telegraph.

Hemisphere Volume 23 43 Opinion A Disastrous Year for Press Freedom in the Americas By Claudio Paolillo

A man holds a portrait of a murdered journalist during a demo of Mexican journalists and students of journalism against violence to journalists at the Angel de la Independencia monument in Mexico City, on February 23, 2014. ALFREDO ESTRELLA/AFP/Getty Images

he year 2013 will unfettered journalism in the an end to this scourge. This is go down in history continent. especially true in those countries as a disastrous one The last half of 2013 was the where drug traffickers circulate for press freedom in worst in recent years in terms with defiant impunity. The number the Americas. From of murders of journalists and of journalists murdered in 2013, Canada to Argentina, governments impunity. A gruesome number of broken down by country, is as Tof all ideologies, along with judges killings – an annual total of 15 follows: Mexico (4), Brazil (3), and powerful criminal forces, male and female members of the Colombia (2), Guatemala (2), engaged in a spontaneous conspiracy press in the region – demonstrated Honduras (1), Paraguay (1), Haiti to restrict spaces for practicing how far we have to go to put (1) and Ecuador (1).

44 Hemisphere Volume 23 Opinion

If we look at the last quarter behind the crimes, the criminals will but actually the new institutions century, the figures are decidedly continue to kill and intimidate at that they themselves put in place macabre. Between 1987 and 2013, will. This is a problem of national transform democracy into a according to the Inter American security. Censorship, self-imposed caricature of itself. These are so- Press Association (IAPA), 419 or otherwise, leads to a poorly called “imperfect democracies” or journalists died while working and informed public and challenges the “legal dictatorships” – regimes of 25 went missing. Of these, 129 died long-term stability of democratic legitimate origin but unequivocally in Colombia; 116 in Mexico; 47 institutions. illegitimate in their ability to in Brazil; 26 in Guatemala; 23 in function. State power is handed off Honduras; and 22 in Peru. The Demolition to the “leader,” who laughs in the In Latin America, violence against In many Latin American face of Montesquieu and swiftly journalists and citizens seeking countries, demagogues attack press delivers tailor-made laws and even to freely express their points of freedom as part of their strategy constitutions, negating judiciary view continues to be an ominous to besiege democratic institutions. independence and progressively reality and causes widespread Messianic leaders engage in popular eliminating press freedom. self-censorship in the industry. discourse, pretending to pursue There they stand, the governments Murders and attacks on journalists noble causes. However, their only of Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, are significant not only in terms of real interest is to remain in power. Nicaragua and Argentina, telling us the actual deaths of those targeted, Since the late 1990s, a “Bolivarian when, what and how we read, view but also in terms of the killing of cancer” has spread throughout or listen to the news. the message – a message that is no Latin America and has posed an Since mid-2013, Ecuador has longer delivered to its audience. The enormous threat to freedom of had the sad “privilege” of having a death of a journalist implies that expression. Conceived in a masterly “communications law” that makes people are left misinformed about manner in Cuba – home to the censorship official. The Ecuadorean those matters that interest them longest-prevailing dictatorship in law is one of the year’s worst assaults most. The death of a journalist also the region’s history– the disease has on the foundations of freedom of encourages other journalists to resort metastasized to and throughout expression. The government has to self-censorship out of their fear Venezuela. taken full control of the flow of of dying at the hands of organized In a departure from the simple information, requiring media to criminals. repression enacted by the military regulate themselves according to the In March 2013, at an IAPA dictatorships of the 1970s and whims of President Rafael Correa. meeting in Puebla, Mexico, the 1980s, new leaders began to seek Among other absurdities, “media publisher of a newspaper, whose more novel methods to crack down lynching” – defined as the repeated name I will not reveal for reasons on freedom of expression. A more publication or broadcasting of of security, mentioned to me that nuanced approach was needed – information intended to smear a he had decided to stop publishing something more “palatable” for the person’s reputation or reduce his/ information about drug trafficking Latin American people, a society her credibility – is now punishable gangs in his community. When I fed up with the arrogance of the by law, and mandatory licensing asked him why, he looked at me generals in power. In order to of journalists has been reinstated with surprise and said, straight to win elections, politicians pledged after years of efforts to eradicate the the point, “Well, because I don’t to value the most elemental requirement due to its adverse effect want to die!” standards of democracy. Once in on freedom of expression. Impunity – sadly, the rule in power, however, the new regimes It is worth mentioning that nearly all countries – is the fuel gradually implemented meticulous the problem extends far beyond for murderers to continue their programs to “legally” destroy the the governments of the five loutish behavior. If those in power very institutional structures that aforementioned countries. They are not capable of prosecuting got them elected. Leaders continue are not alone; sympathizers exist the perpetrators and masterminds to call themselves “democrats” throughout Latin America. Even in

Hemisphere Volume 23 45 Opinion

The chairman of the Committee on Freedom of the Press and Information of the Inter American Press Association (IAPA), Uruguayan Claudio Paolillo (C), answers questions during a press conference next to IAPA members Danilo Arbill (L), Edward Seaton (2-L), Hernan Molinos (2-R) and Fernando Trotti in Guatemala City on Febrary 21, 2014. JOHAN ORDONEZ/AFP/Getty Images

the most democratic countries, some On November 4, 2013, however, previous case law says that factions are strongly campaigning – it published a ruling that amounts opinions are not litigious); with Venezuelan oil dollars – for the to the worst setback for freedom of 3) courts are not obliged to uphold spread of the same anti-democratic, expression since the court’s creation the principle of exceptio veritatis anti-republican and anti-liberal in 1979. In a divided vote – with (a motion that allows a defendant ideas found in Cuba, Venezuela, Judges Diego García-Sayán (Peru), accused of calumny to clear his Nicaragua, Ecuador, Bolivia and Alberto Pérez Pérez (Uruguay), name by proving the validity of Argentina. For defenders of freedom Humberto Sierra Porto (Colombia) allegations made against another of expression, therefore, the struggle and Roberto Caldas (Brazil) voting person); consists not only in the challenge for, and Manuel Ventura Robles 4) It does not matter if a civil to recover freedom of expression (Costa Rica), Eduardo Ferrer Mac- conviction affects the right to in the quasi-dictatorships and sole Gregor (Mexico) and Eduardo Vio freedom of expression if it is dictatorship (Cuba) in the region, Grossi (Chile) voting against – the produced as the result of a legal but also to conserve it in those court contradicted its own case law, process initiated due to alleged countries where it is still alive. declaring that: damages caused by exercising that freedom. A Serious Setback 1) it is not a matter of public Until recently, the Inter-American interest if a private person The Inter-American Commission Court of Human Rights has been irregularly handles licensed public on Human Right’s Office of the able to halt many attempts at assets, as this concerns private Special Rapporteur for Freedom of censorship. It has issued numerous persons and not government Expression stressed the seriousness rulings over the last 20 years, officials; of this ruling. “Today, no journalist constituting one of the world’s most 2) it is possible to convict a person in the region can feel at ease if he advanced jurisprudences regarding (journalist or not) for issuing or she denounces corruption or press freedom. opinions (all of the court’s bad handling by private persons of

46 Hemisphere Volume 23 Opinion

public assets (such as roads, ports the United States disappear from Watergate investigation would have or health resources),” it warned. the map. He attacked American never taken place. National judges will be the only embassies and ships, but the public It is worth asking ourselves: Is it ones able to declare libel in such did not know who he was at that true that Osama bin Laden died? cases without regional human rights time, much less that he was Al Are the constitutional stipulations protections ensuring a rigorous Qaeda. It came as a shock when that guarantee US citizens’ basic trial. It will not matter whether Al Qaeda and bin Laden knocked rights still in effect? What about the journalists are limited to giving down New York’s Twin Towers and the First and Fourth Amendments an opinion or if they can prove attacked the Pentagon. Thus, it is to the Constitution? Are they still the denunciations are true. This is not surprising that the spying debate enforced? very bad news for journalists and following the US government’s The US security agencies’ spying press freedom in general, and very confession of decade-long telephone techniques show that, in its desire good news for governments or and email tapping of its citizens and to combat terrorism, Washington government contractors seeking to other nations did not give rise to a fell into a trap that could be fatal: avoid media scrutiny of their use of wave of general indignation. This violating its citizens’ basic rights in public monies. would not have been the case 40 an effort to achieve its objectives, years ago, when the American press and running the risk of eroding The National Security Excuse defended the right to freedom of from within the institutional pillars In 2013 we were also able to expression tooth and nail. that have defined the nation since its prove that we should not only Let us imagine for a minute creation. fear governments that disregard that in 1972 President Richard Following the precedent set by press freedom, but also those that Nixon officially communicated his predecessor, former president proclaim its protection and defense. to the American people that his George W. Bush, President Obama The United States government government knew who was talking has said in his defense that one has surprised us the most by to whom on the telephone and cannot enjoy security and privacy spying on the online activities of that his security services tapped at the same time. Privacy is not its people and foreign allies, using the private correspondence of US the main dilemma, however, but the excuse that national security citizens. Certainly, Congress, the rather freedom, rights and basic supersedes everything else – even judiciary, the press and American guarantees. The United States was the basic principles enshrined in the society would not have kept him in built on these principles and they Constitution’s Bill of Rights. office a minute longer. are the foundation of modern Other governments in the The Obama administration’s democracies. Millions of individuals Americas have used the same confession to government spying have fought wars and died in argument to obstruct access to activities, in contrast, has met with defense of these principles. If, in information. In Canada, the Congressional approval, judicial order to survive, they have to be authorities increasingly cite support, timid protests by the press infringed upon, then the pillars on “classified information” to deny and widespread public agreement. which this nation stands will also citizens access. The Congresses of It is safe to say, then, that if end up collapsing. And in that case, El Salvador and Paraguay refuse President Nixon had the power Osama bin Laden will have gotten to release information about that President Obama proclaims to what he wanted. o their members’ assets despite have now, he would not have had legal requirements to make this to resign over Watergate; he would Claudio Paolillo is a journalist and information public. have known who the journalists’ writer, university professor, chairman But let us go back to the United confidential sources were. And, if of the Inter American Press Associa- States on September 2001… Nixon had known that the number tion (IAPA) Committee on Freedom of Osama bin Laden publicly said two man at the FBI, Mark Felt, the Press and Information, and editor during the late 1990s that he would was the confidential source for The of the Montevideo, Uruguay weekly do everything in his power to make Washington Post, then the famous Búsqueda.

Hemisphere Volume 23 47 Knight Innovator in Residence Help Us Transform Journalism Education

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Working together to ensure that people following Latin America and the Caribbean have access to dependable, accurate and current information about the issues that matter most.

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n Immediate access to more than 200 LACC faculty experts

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13657_SIPA_LACC_Cover2014-final.indd 4 6/11/14 10:46 AM U.S. Department of State Launches Diplomacy Lab at LACC Reaching Out Together to Bring Americans into the World of Foreign Policy

Where? The Diplomacy Lab at LACC was selected as 1 of only 4 sites in the U.S.

What? The Diplomacy Lab allows students to engage beyond the classroom, develop new ideas and solutions to the world’s toughest challenges, and contribute directly to the policy-making process.

Why? Helps the U.S. Department of State tap into an underutilized reservoir of intellectual capital and bring American people into the world of foreign policy.

How? Faculty-led teams of students at FIU are focusing on prison violence in Latin America and the Caribbean and the U.S. Department of State is channeling those findings directly into policy-making.

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Latin American and Caribbean Center

School of International and Public Affairs Forging Linkages across the Americas through education, research, outreach, and dialogue. lacc.fiu.edu

13657_SIPA_LACC_Cover2014-final.indd 1 6/11/14 10:46 AM