Mahatma Gandhi

“Gandhi” redirects here. For other uses, see Gandhi into two dominions, a Hindu-majority India and Mus- (disambiguation). lim Pakistan.[8] As many displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs made their way to their new lands, religious vio- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (/ˈɡɑːndi, ˈɡæn-/;[2] lence broke out, especially in the Punjab and Bengal. Es- chewing the official celebration of independence in Delhi, Hindustani: [ˈmoːɦənd̪aːs ˈkərəmtʃənd̪ ˈɡaːnd̪ʱi]; 2 Octo- ber 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the preeminent leader Gandhi visited the affected areas, attempting to provide solace. In the months following, he undertook several of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled In- fasts unto death to promote religious harmony. The last dia. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi [9] led India to independence and inspired movements for of these, undertaken on 12 January 1948 at age 78, also had the indirect goal of pressuring India to pay out some civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific [9] [3] cash assets owed to Pakistan. Some Indians thought Mahatma (Sanskrit: “high-souled”, “venerable”) — [9][10] applied to him first in 1914 in South Africa,[4]—is now Gandhi was too accommodating. Nathuram Godse, used worldwide. He is also called Bapu (Gujarati: en- a Hindu nationalist, assassinated Gandhi on 30 January [5] [5][6] 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest at point-blank dearment for “father”, “papa” ) in India. In com- [10] mon parlance in Bharat (India) he is called Gandhiji; ref- range. erence as Gandhi can be considered lacking in good form Indians widely describe Gandhi as the father of the nation [11][12] and respect. (Hindi: राष्ट㔰िपता). The title “The Father of the Na- Born and raised in a Hindu merchant caste family in tion” for Gandhi is not an official title and has not been of- coastal Gujarat, western India, and trained in law at the ficially accorded by Government of India. An RTI query Inner Temple, London, Gandhi first employed nonvio- filed by a 10-year-old girl from Lucknow in February lent civil disobedience as an expatriate lawyer in South 2012 revealed that PMO has no records of ever according such title to Gandhi. MHA and National Archives of In- Africa, in the resident Indian community’s struggle for civil rights. After his return to India in 1915, he set dia also communicated of not having any records. Origin of this title is traced back to a radio address (on Singapore about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against excessive land-tax and discrimination. radio) on 6 Jul 1944 by Subhash Chandra Bose where Bose addressed Gandhi as “The Father of the Nation”. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing On 28 Apr 1947, Sarojini Naidu during a conference also referred Gandhi as “Father of the Nation”.[13][14] The poverty, expanding women’s rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, but above all for RTI applicant had also pleaded for Gandhi to be officially achieving Swaraj or self-rule. declared as “Father of the Nation” to which the MHA informed that Gandhi cannot be accorded with the ti- Gandhi famously led Indians in challenging the British- tle by Government of India since the Indian constitution imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt does not permit any titles except educational and military March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit titles.[14] India in 1942. He was imprisoned for many years, upon many occasions, in both South Africa and India. Gandhi His birthday, 2 October, is commemorated as Gandhi attempted to practise nonviolence and truth in all situa- Jayanti, a national holiday, and world-wide as the tions, and advocated that others do the same. He lived International Day of Nonviolence. modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn hand-spun on a charkha. He ate simple vegetarian 1 Early life and background food, and also undertook long fasts as a means of both self-purification and social protest. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi[15] was born on 2 Oc- Gandhi’s vision of an independent India based on tober 1869[1] to a Hindu Modh Baniya family[16] in religious pluralism, however, was challenged in the early Porbandar (also known as Sudamapuri), a coastal town 1940s by a new Muslim nationalism which was demand- on the Kathiawar Peninsula and then part of the small ing a separate Muslim homeland carved out of India.[7] princely state of Porbandar in the Kathiawar Agency of Eventually, in August 1947, Britain granted indepen- the Indian Empire. His father, Karamchand Uttamchand dence, but the British Indian Empire[7] was partitioned Gandhi (1822–1885), served as the diwan (chief minister) of Porbandar state.

1 2 1 EARLY LIFE AND BACKGROUND

hand over the state’s maintenance of a British garrison.[17] Although he only had an elementary education and had previously been a clerk in the state administration, Karamchand proved a capable chief minister.[19] During his tenure, Karamchand married four times. His first two wives died young, after each had given birth to a daughter, and his third marriage was childless. In 1857, Karamc- hand sought his third wife’s permission to remarry; that year, he married Putlibai (1844–1891), who also came from Junagadh,[17] and was from a Pranami Vaishnava family.[20][21][22][23] Karamchand and Putlibai had three children over the ensuing decade, a son, Laxmidas (c. 1860 – March 1914), a daughter, Raliatbehn (1862– 1960) and another son, Karsandas (c. 1866–1913).[24][25] On 2 October 1869, Putlibai gave birth to her last child, Mohandas, in a dark, windowless ground-floor room of the Gandhi family residence in Porbandar city. As a child, Gandhi was described by his sister Raliat as “rest- less as mercury...either playing or roaming about. One of his favourite pastimes was twisting dogs’ ears.”[26] The In- dian classics, especially the stories of Shravana and king Harishchandra, had a great impact on Gandhi in his child- hood. In his autobiography, he admits that they left an indelible impression on his mind. He writes: “It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number.” Gandhi’s early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epic characters.[27][28] The family’s religious background was eclectic. Gandhi’s father was Hindu[29] and his mother was from a Pranami Vaishnava family. Religious figures were frequent visi- tors to the home.[30] Gandhi was deeply influenced by his mother Putlibai, an extremely pious lady who “would not Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in his earliest known photo, think of taking her meals without her daily prayers...she aged 7, c. 1876 would take the hardest vows and keep them without flinching. To keep two or three consecutive fasts was nothing to her.”[31] The Gandhi family originated from the village of Kutiana In the year of Mohandas’s birth, Rana Vikmatji was ex- in what was then Junagadh State.[17] In the late 17th or iled, stripped of direct administrative power and demoted early 18th century, one Lalji Gandhi moved to Porban- in rank by the British political agent, after having ordered dar and entered the service of its ruler, the Rana. Suc- the brutal executions of a slave and an Arab bodyguard. cessive generations of the family served as civil servants Possibly as a result, in 1874 Karamchand left Porbandar in the state administration before Uttamchand, Mohan- for the smaller state of Rajkot, where he became a coun- das’s grandfather, became diwan in the early 19th century sellor to its ruler, the Thakur Sahib; though Rajkot was a under the then Rana of Porbandar, Khimojiraji.[17][18] less prestigious state than Porbandar, the British regional In 1831, Rana Khimojiraji died suddenly and was suc- political agency was located there, which gave the state’s ceeded by his 12-year-old only son, Vikmatji.[18] As a re- diwan a measure of security.[32] In 1876, Karamchand sult, Rana Khimojirajji’s widow, Rani Rupaliba, became became diwan of Rajkot and was succeeded as diwan of regent for her son. She soon fell out with Uttamchand Porbandar by his brother Tulsidas. His family then re- and forced him to return to his ancestral village in Juna- joined him in Rajkot.[33] gadh. While in Junagadh, Uttamchand appeared before On 21 January 1879, Mohandas entered the local taluk its Nawab and saluted him with his left hand instead of his (district) school in Rajkot, not far from his home. At right, replying that his right hand was pledged to Porban- school, he was taught the rudiments of arithmetic, his- dar’s service.[17] In 1841, Vikmatji assumed the throne tory, the Gujarati language and geography.[33] Despite and reinstated Uttamchand as his diwan. being only an average student in his year there, in Oc- In 1847, Rana Vikmatji appointed Uttamchand’s son, tober 1880 he sat the entrance examinations for Kathi- Karamchand, as diwan after disagreeing with Uttamc- 3

awar High School, also in Rajkot. He passed the exams in Ahmedabad, writing exams in arithmetic, his- aminations with a creditable average of 64 percent and tory, geography, natural science, English and Gujarati. was enrolled the following year.[34] During his years at He passed with an overall average of 40 percent, ranking the high school, Mohandas intensively studied the En- 404th of 823 successful matriculates.[42] In January 1888, glish language for the first time, along with continuing his he enrolled at Samaldas College in Bhavnagar State, then lessons in arithmetic, Gujarati, history and geography.[34] the sole degree-granting institution of higher education His attendance and marks remained mediocre to average, in the region. During his first and only term there, he possibly due to Karamchand falling ill in 1882 and Mo- suffered from headaches and strong feelings of home- handas spending more time at home as a result.[34] Gandhi sickness, did very poorly in his exams in April and with- shone neither in the classroom nor on the playing field. drew from the college at the end of the term, returning to One of the terminal reports rated him as “good at En- Porbandar.[43] glish, fair in Arithmetic and weak in Geography; conduct very good, bad handwriting”. While at high school, Mohandas came into contact with 2 English barrister students of other castes and faiths, including several Par- sis and Muslims. A Muslim friend of his elder brother Karsandas, named Sheikh Mehtab, befriended Mohan- das and encouraged the strictly vegetarian boy to try eating meat to improve his stamina. He also took Mohandas to a brothel one day, though Mohandas “was struck blind and dumb in this den of vice,” rebuffed the prostitutes’ ad- vances and was promptly sent out of the brothel. As ex- perimenting with meat-eating and carnal pleasures only brought Mohandas mental anguish, he abandoned both and the company of Mehtab, though they would maintain their association for many years afterwards.[35] In May 1883, the 13-year-old Mohandas was married to 14-year-old Kasturbai Makhanji Kapadia (her first name was usually shortened to “Kasturba”, and affectionately to Gandhi and his wife Kasturba (1902) “Ba”) in an arranged child marriage, according to the cus- tom of the region at that time.[36] In the process, he lost As the best-educated of his brothers, Gandhi was seen by a year at school.[37] Recalling the day of their marriage, his family as the best candidate to one day succeed his he once said, “As we didn't know much about marriage, father and his uncle Tulsidas as diwan.[44] Mavji Dave, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets a Brahmin priest and family friend, advised Gandhi and and playing with relatives.” However, as was prevailing his family that he should qualify as a barrister in Lon- tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at don, after which he would be certain to achieve the di- her parents’ house, and away from her husband.[38] Writ- wanship.[45] Initially, Putlibai did not want her youngest ing many years later, Mohandas described with regret the son to leave India and travel across the “black waters”, lustful feelings he felt for his young bride, “even at school thereby losing his caste. Gandhi’s uncle Tulsidas also I used to think of her, and the thought of nightfall and our tried to dissuade his nephew. Finally, Gandhi made a vow subsequent meeting was ever haunting me.”[39] to his mother in the presence of a Jain monk to observe the precepts of sexual abstinence as well as abstinence In late 1885, Karamchand died, on a night when Mohan- from meat and alcohol, after which Putlibai gave her per- das had just left his father to sleep with his wife, despite mission and blessing.[43][46] In July, Kasturba gave birth the fact she was pregnant.[40] The couple’s first child was to the couple’s first surviving son, Harilal.[47] born shortly after, but survived only a few days. The double tragedy haunted Mohandas throughout his life, “the On 10 August, Gandhi left Porbandar for Bombay (Mum- shame, to which I have referred in a foregoing chapter, bai). Upon arrival in the port, he was met by the head of was this of my carnal desire even at the critical hour of the Modh Bania community, who had known Gandhi’s my father’s death, which demanded wakeful service. It is family. Having learned of Gandhi’s plans, he and other a blot I have never been able to efface or forget...I was elders warned Gandhi that he would be excommunicated weighed and found unpardonably wanting because my if he did not obey their wishes and remain in India. After mind was at the same moment in the grip of lust.[40][41] Gandhi reiterated his intentions to leave for England, the Mohandas and Kasturba had four more children, all sons: elders declared him an outcast.[47] Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, In London, Gandhi studied law and jurisprudence and en- [36] born in 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900. rolled at the Inner Temple with the intention of becoming In November 1887, he sat the regional matriculation ex- a barrister. His time in London was influenced by the vow he had made to his mother. Gandhi tried to adopt “En- 4 3 CIVIL RIGHTS ACTIVIST IN SOUTH AFRICA (1893–1914) glish” customs, including taking dancing lessons. How- indentured labourers with very limited rights. Gandhi ever, he could not appreciate the bland vegetarian food considered them all to be Indians, taking a lifetime view offered by his landlady and was frequently hungry until that “Indianness” transcended religion and caste. He be- he found one of London’s few vegetarian restaurants. In- lieved he could bridge historic differences, especially re- fluenced by Henry Salt’s writing, he joined the Vegetarian garding religion, and he took that belief back to India Society, was elected to its executive committee,[48] and where he tried to implement it. The South African ex- started a local Bayswater chapter.[22] Some of the vege- perience exposed handicaps to Gandhi that he had not tarians he met were members of the Theosophical Soci- known about. He realised he was out of contact with the ety, which had been founded in 1875 to further univer- enormous complexities of religious and cultural life in In- sal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of dia, and believed he understood India by getting to know Buddhist and Hindu literature. They encouraged Gandhi and leading Indians in South Africa.[51] to join them in reading the Bhagavad Gita both in trans- In South Africa, Gandhi faced the discrimination directed lation as well as in the original.[48] Not having shown in- at all coloured people. He was thrown off a train at terest in religion before, he became interested in religious Pietermaritzburg after refusing to move from the first- thought. class. He protested and was allowed on first class the Gandhi was called to the bar in June 1891 and then left next day.[52] Travelling farther on by stagecoach, he was London for India, where he learned that his mother had beaten by a driver for refusing to move to make room for died while he was in London and that his family had kept a European passenger.[53] He suffered other hardships on the news from him.[48] His attempts at establishing a law the journey as well, including being barred from several practice in Bombay failed because he was psychologically hotels. In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban unable to cross-question witnesses. He returned to Rajkot court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he re- to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants, fused to do.[54] but he was forced to stop when he ran foul of a British [22][48] These events were a turning point in Gandhi’s life and officer. In 1893, he accepted a year-long contract shaped his social activism and awakened him to social in- from Dada Abdulla & Co., an Indian firm, to a post in justice. After witnessing racism, prejudice, and injustice the Colony of Natal, South Africa, a part of the British [22] against Indians in South Africa, Gandhi began to ques- Empire. tion his place in society and his people’s standing in the British Empire.[55] 3 Civil rights activist in South Africa (1893–1914)

Gandhi with the stretcher-bearers of the Indian Ambulance Corps

Gandhi extended his original period of stay in South Africa to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote. He asked Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, to reconsider his position on this bill.[50] Though unable to halt the bill’s passage, Gandhi in South Africa (1895) his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the

[49] grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found Gandhi was 24 when he arrived in South Africa to the Natal Indian Congress in 1894,[22][52] and through this work as a legal representative for the Muslim Indian organisation, he moulded the Indian community of South Traders based in the city of Pretoria. He spent 21 years Africa into a unified political force. In January 1897, in South Africa, where he developed his political views, [50] when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers ethics and political leadership skills. attacked him[56] and he escaped only through the efforts Indians in South Africa included wealthy Muslims, who of the wife of the police superintendent. However, he re- employed Gandhi as a lawyer, and impoverished Hindu fused to press charges against any member of the mob, 5 stating it was one of his principles not to seek redress for Africa.[60][61][62] He also stated that he believed “that the a personal wrong in a court of law.[22] white race of South Africa should be the predominating [63] In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new race.” After several incidents with Whites in South Africa, Gandhi began to change his thinking and appar- Act compelling registration of the colony’s Indian pop- [64] ulation. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg ently increased his interest in politics. White rule en- on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolv- forced strict segregation among all races and generated ing methodology of Satyagraha (devotion to the truth), or conflict between these communities. Bhana and Vahed nonviolent protest, for the first time.[57] He urged Indians argue that Gandhi, at first, shared racial notions prevalent of the times and that his experiences in jail sensitised him to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments for do- [65] ing so. The community adopted this plan, and during the to the plight of South Africa’s indigenous peoples. ensuing seven-year struggle, thousands of Indians were During the Boer War, Gandhi volunteered in 1900 to jailed, flogged, or shot for striking, refusing to register, form a group of stretcher-bearers as the Natal Indian Am- for burning their registration cards or engaging in other bulance Corps. He wanted to disprove the British idea forms of nonviolent resistance. The government success- that Hindus were not fit for “manly” activities involving fully repressed the Indian protesters, but the public out- danger and exertion. Gandhi raised eleven hundred In- cry over the harsh treatment of peaceful Indian protesters dian volunteers. They were trained and medically cer- by the South African government forced South African tified to serve on the front lines. They were auxiliaries leader Jan Christiaan Smuts, himself a philosopher, to ne- at the Battle of Colenso to a White volunteer ambulance gotiate a compromise with Gandhi. Gandhi’s ideas took corps; then at Spion Kop Gandhi and his bearers moved to shape, and the concept of Satyagraha matured during this the front line and had to carry wounded soldiers for miles struggle. to a field hospital because the terrain was too rough for When he returned to India in 1915, he was proficient the ambulances. Gandhi was pleased when someone said at public speaking, fund-raising, negotiations, media re- that European ambulance corpsmen could not make the lations, and self-promotion.[58] Gandhi developed these trip under the heat without food or water. General Red- skills in the context of his South African law practice.[59] vers Buller mentioned the courage of the Indians in his dispatch. Gandhi and thirty-seven other Indians received the War Medal.[66] 3.1 Gandhi and the Africans In 1906, when the British declared war against the Zulu Kingdom in Natal, Gandhi encouraged the British to recruit Indians.[67] He argued that Indians should support the war efforts to legitimise their claims to full citizenship.[67] The British accepted Gandhi’s offer to let a detachment of 20 Indians volunteer as a stretcher-bearer corps to treat wounded British soldiers. This corps was commanded by Gandhi and operated for less than two months.[68] The experience taught him it was hopeless to directly challenge the overwhelming military power of the British army—he decided it could only be resisted in nonviolent fashion by the pure of heart.[69] In 1910, Gandhi established an idealistic community called 'Tolstoy Farm' near Johannesburg, where he nur- tured his policy of peaceful resistance.[70] In the years after blacks gained the right to vote in South Africa (1994), Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerous monuments.[71]

4 Struggle for Indian Indepen- dence (1915–47)

Gandhi photographed in South Africa (1909) See also: Indian independence movement

Gandhi focused his attention on Indians while in South At the request of Gokhale, conveyed to him by C.F. An- Africa and opposed the idea that Indians should be treated drews, Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He brought at the same level as native Africans while in South an international reputation as a leading Indian national- 6 4 STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (1915–47)

ist, theorist and organiser. He joined the Indian National 4.2 Champaran and Kheda Congress and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Main article: Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best Gandhi’s ﬁrst major achievements came in 1918 with known for his restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system. Gandhi took Gokhale’s liberal approach based on British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to make it look wholly Indian.[72] Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and began escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the In- dian National Congress declared the independence of In- dia. The British did not recognise the declaration but negotiations ensued, with the Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s. Gandhi and the Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in September 1939 without consultation. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate independence in 1942 and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress leaders. Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi’s strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Mus- lim state of Pakistan. In August 1947 the British partitioned the land with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms that Gandhi disapproved.[73]

4.1 Role in World War I

See also: The role of India in World War I Gandhi in 1918, at the time of the Kheda and Champaran Satya- grahas In April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, the Viceroy invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi.[74] the Champaran and Kheda agitations of Bihar and Gu- Perhaps to show his support for the Empire and help his jarat. The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry case for India’s independence,[75] Gandhi agreed to ac- against their largely British landlords who were backed tively recruit Indians for the war effort.[76] In contrast to by the local administration. The peasantry was forced to the Zulu War of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I grow Indigo, a cash crop whose demand had been declin- in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance ing over two decades, and were forced to sell their crops Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. to the planters at a fixed price. Unhappy with this, the In a June 1918 leaflet entitled “Appeal for Enlistment”, peasantry appealed to Gandhi at his ashram in Ahmed- Gandhi wrote “To bring about such a state of things we abad. Pursuing a strategy of nonviolent protest, Gandhi should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the took the administration by surprise and won concessions ability to bear arms and to use them...If we want to learn from the authorities.[79] the use of arms with the greatest possible despatch, it is [77] In 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peas- our duty to enlist ourselves in the army.” He did, how- antry was demanding relief from taxes. Gandhi moved ever, stipulate in a letter to the Viceroy’s private secretary his headquarters to Nadiad,[80] organising scores of sup- that he “personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend [78] porters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most no- or foe.” table being Vallabhbhai Patel.[81] Using non-cooperation Gandhi’s war recruitment campaign brought into question as a technique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign his consistency on nonviolence. Gandhi’s private secre- where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even un- tary noted that “The question of the consistency between der the threat of confiscation of land. A social boycott his creed of 'Ahimsa' (nonviolence) and his recruiting of mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue officials within the campaign was raised not only then but has been discussed district) accompanied the agitation. Gandhi worked hard ever since.”[76] to win public support for the agitation across the country. 4.4 Non-cooperation 7

For ﬁve months, the administration refused but ﬁnally in end-May 1918, the Government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended. In Kheda, Vallabhb- hai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.[82]

4.3 Khilafat movement

In 1919, Gandhi, with his weak position in Congress, decided to broaden his political base by increasing his appeal to Muslims. The opportunity came in the form of the Khilafat movement, a worldwide protest by Mus- Mahatma Gandhi spinning yarn, in the late 1920s lims against the collapsing status of the Caliph, the leader of their religion. The Ottoman Empire had lost the First World War and was dismembered, as Muslims the extreme faction of Muslims to support peaceful non- feared for the safety of the holy places and the prestige cooperation.[85] The spark that ignited a national protest of their religion.[83] Although Gandhi did not originate was overwhelming anger at the Jallianwala Bagh massacre the All-India Muslim Conference,[84] which directed the (or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of peaceful civilians movement in India, he soon became its most prominent by British troops in Punjab. Many Britons celebrated the spokesman and attracted a strong base of Muslim sup- action as needed to prevent another violent uprising simi- port with local chapters in all Muslim centres in India.[85] lar to the Rebellion of 1857, an attitude that caused many As a mark of solidarity with Indian Muslims he returned Indian leaders to decide the Raj was controlled by their the medals that had been bestowed on him by the British enemies. Gandhi criticised both the actions of the British government for his work in the Boer and Zulu Wars. He Raj and the retaliatory violence of Indians. He authored believed that the British government was not being hon- the resolution offering condolences to British civilian vic- est in its dealings with Muslims on the Khilafat issue. tims and condemning the riots which, after initial oppo- His success made him India’s first national leader with a sition in the party, was accepted following Gandhi’s emo- multicultural base and facilitated his rise to power within tional speech advocating his principle that all violence Congress, which had previously been unable to influence was evil and could not be justified.[93] many Indian Muslims. In 1920 Gandhi became a major After the massacre and subsequent violence, Gandhi be- [86][87] leader in Congress. By the end of 1922 the Khilafat gan to focus on winning complete self-government and [88] movement had collapsed. control of all Indian government institutions, maturing Gandhi always fought against “communalism”, which pit- soon into Swaraj or complete individual, spiritual, politi- ted Muslims against Hindus in Indian politics, but he cal independence.[94] During this period, Gandhi claimed could not reverse the rapid growth of communalism after to be a “highly orthodox Hindu" and in January 1921 1922. Deadly religious riots broke out in numerous cities, during a speech at a temple in Vadtal, he spoke of the including 91 in Uttar Pradesh alone.[89][90] At the leader- relevance of non-cooperation to Hindu Dharma, “At this ship level, the proportion of Muslims among delegates to holy place, I declare, if you want to protect your 'Hindu Congress fell sharply, from 11% in 1921 to under 4% in Dharma', non-cooperation is first as well as the last lesson 1923.[91] you must learn up.”[95] In December 1921, Gandhi was invested with executive authority on behalf of the Indian National Congress. Un- 4.4 Non-cooperation der his leadership, the Congress was reorganised with a new constitution, with the goal of Swaraj. Membership in Main article: Non-cooperation movement the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Gandhi declared fee. A hierarchy of committees was set up to improve that British rule was established in India with the co- discipline, transforming the party from an elite organisa- operation of Indians and had survived only because of this tion to one of mass national appeal. Gandhi expanded his co-operation. If Indians refused to co-operate, British [92] nonviolence platform to include the swadeshi policy—the rule would collapse and swaraj would come. boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. With Congress now behind him in 1920, Gandhi had the Linked to this was his advocacy that khadi (homespun base to employ non-cooperation, nonviolence and peace- cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made tex- ful resistance as his “weapons” in the struggle against the tiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or British Raj. His wide popularity among both Hindus and poor, to spend time each day spinning khadi in support Muslims made his leadership possible; he even convinced of the independence movement.[96] 8 4 STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (1915–47)

with limited success.[102] In this year, Gandhi was per- suaded to preside over the Congress session to be held in Belgaum. Gandhi agreed to become president of the session on one condition: that Congressmen should take to wearing homespun khadi. In his long political career, this was the only time when he presided over a Congress session.[103]

4.5 Salt Satyagraha (Salt March)

Main article: Salt Satyagraha Gandhi stayed out of active politics and, as such, the

Sabarmati Ashram, Gandhi’s home in Gujarat as seen in 2006.

Gandhi even invented a small, portable spinning wheel that could be folded into the size of a small typewriter.[97] This was a strategy to inculcate discipline and dedication to weeding out the unwilling and ambitious and to include women in the movement at a time when many thought that such activities were not respectable activities for women. In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged Original footage of Gandhi and his followers marching to Dandi the people to boycott British educational institutions and in the Salt Satyagraha law courts, to resign from government employment, and [98] to forsake British titles and honours. limelight for most of the 1920s. He focused instead on “Non-cooperation” enjoyed widespread appeal and suc- resolving the wedge between the Swaraj Party and the In- cess, increasing excitement and participation from all dian National Congress, and expanding initiatives against strata of Indian society. Yet, just as the movement untouchability, alcoholism, ignorance, and poverty. He reached its apex, it ended abruptly as a result of a violent returned to the fore in 1928. In the preceding year, clash in the town of Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, in the British government had appointed a new constitu- February 1922. Fearing that the movement was about tional reform commission under Sir John Simon, which to take a turn towards violence, and convinced that this did not include any Indian as its member. The result would be the undoing of all his work, Gandhi called was a boycott of the commission by Indian political par- off the campaign of mass civil disobedience.[99] This ties. Gandhi pushed through a resolution at the Calcutta was the third time that Gandhi had called off a major Congress in December 1928 calling on the British gov- campaign.[100] Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, ernment to grant India dominion status or face a new cam- tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years’ imprison- paign of non-cooperation with complete independence ment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922. He was for the country as its goal. Gandhi had not only moder- released in February 1924 for an appendicitis operation, ated the views of younger men like Subhas Chandra Bose having served only two years.[101] and Jawaharlal Nehru, who sought a demand for immediate independence, but also reduced his own call to a Without Gandhi’s unifying personality, the Indian Na- [104] tional Congress began to splinter during his years in one-year wait, instead of two. prison, splitting into two factions, one led by Chitta Ran- The British did not respond. On 31 December 1929, the jan Das and Motilal Nehru favouring party participa- flag of India was unfurled in Lahore. 26 January 1930 tion in the legislatures, and the other led by Chakravarti was celebrated as India’s Independence Day by the Indian Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, oppos- National Congress meeting in Lahore. This day was com- ing this move. Furthermore, co-operation among Hindus memorated by almost every other Indian organisation. and Muslims, which had been strong at the height of the Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the tax on nonviolence campaign, was breaking down. Gandhi at- salt in March 1930. This was highlighted by the famous tempted to bridge these differences through many means, Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where he including a three-week fast in the autumn of 1924, but marched 388 kilometres (241 mi) from Ahmedabad to 4.5 Salt Satyagraha (Salt March) 9

Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself. Thousands of Indi- peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture. Similar ans joined him on this march to the sea. This campaign messianic imagery appeared in popular songs and poems, was one of his most successful at upsetting British hold and in Congress-sponsored religious pageants and cele- on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 brations. The result was that Gandhi became not only a people.[105] folk hero but the Congress was widely seen in the villages as his sacred instrument.[108]

4.5.1 Women

4.5.3 Negotiations

A 1932 cartoon; Lord Willingdon goes on hunger strike to force Mr. Gandhi to admit the new constitution as “touchable”

The government, represented by Lord Edward Irwin, decided to negotiate with Gandhi. The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931. The British Government agreed to free all political prisoners, in return for the sus- pension of the civil disobedience movement. Also as a Mahadev Desai (left) reading out a letter to Gandhi from the result of the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Viceroy at Birla House, Bombay, 7 April 1939 Table Conference in London as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference was a dis- Gandhi strongly favoured the emancipation of women, appointment to Gandhi and the nationalists, because it fo- and he went so far as to say that “the women have come to cused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather look upon me as one of themselves.” He opposed purdah, than on a transfer of power. Lord Irwin’s successor, Lord child marriage, untouchability, and the extreme oppres- Willingdon, taking a hard line against nationalism, began sion of Hindu widows, up to and including sati. He espe- a new campaign of controlling and subduing the nation- cially recruited women to participate in the salt tax cam- alist movement. Gandhi was again arrested, and the gov- [106] paigns and the boycott of foreign products. Sarma ernment tried and failed to negate his influence by com- concludes that Gandhi’s success in enlisting women in pletely isolating him from his followers.[109] his campaigns, including the salt tax campaign, the anti- untouchability campaign and the peasant movement, gave In Britain, Winston Churchill, a prominent Conservative many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the politician who was then out of office, became a vigorous mainstream of Indian public life.[107] and articulate critic of Gandhi and opponent of his long- term plans. Churchill often ridiculed Gandhi, saying in a widely reported 1931 speech: 4.5.2 Gandhi as folk hero

Congress in the 1920s appealed to peasants by portray- It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr ing Gandhi as a sort of messiah, a strategy that succeeded Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, in incorporating radical forces within the peasantry into now posing as a fakir of a type well known the nonviolent resistance movement. In thousands of vil- in the East, striding half-naked up the steps lages plays were performed that presented Gandhi as the of the Vice-regal palace....to parley on equal reincarnation of earlier Indian nationalist leaders, or even terms with the representative of the King- as a demigod. The plays built support among illiterate Emperor.[110] 10 4 STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (1915–47)

4.6 Untouchables Gandhi returned to active politics again in 1936, with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the In 1932, through the campaigning of the Dalit leader B. Congress. Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on R. Ambedkar, the government granted untouchables sep- the task of winning independence and not speculation arate electorates under the new constitution, known as the about India’s future, he did not restrain the Congress from Communal Award. In protest, Gandhi embarked on a adopting socialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with six-day fast on 20 September 1932, while he was impris- Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been elected president in oned at the Yerwada Jail, Pune.[111] The resulting pub- 1938, and who had previously expressed a lack of faith in lic outcry successfully forced the government to adopt an nonviolence as a means of protest.[118] Despite Gandhi’s equitable arrangement (Poona Pact) through negotiations opposition, Bose won a second term as Congress Pres- mediated by Palwankar Baloo.[111] This was the start of ident, against Gandhi’s nominee, Dr. Pattabhi Sitara- a new campaign by Gandhi to improve the lives of the mayya; but left the Congress when the All-India lead- untouchables, whom he named Harijans, the children of ers resigned en masse in protest of his abandonment of God.[112] On 8 September 1931, Gandhi who was sailing the principles introduced by Gandhi.[119][120] Gandhi de- on SS Rajputana, to the second Round Table Conference clared that Sitaramayya’s defeat was his defeat.[121] in London, met Meher Baba in his cabin on board the ship, and discussed issues of untouchables, politics, state Independence and spirituality[113] 4.8 World War II and Quit India

On 8 May 1933, Gandhi began a 21-day fast of self- Main article: Quit India Movement purification and launched a one-year campaign to help Gandhi initially favoured offering “nonviolent moral sup- the Harijan movement.[114] This new campaign was not universally embraced within the Dalit community, as Ambedkar condemned Gandhi’s use of the term Hari- jans as saying that Dalits were socially immature, and that privileged caste Indians played a paternalistic role. Ambedkar and his allies also felt Gandhi was undermin- ing Dalit political rights. Gandhi had also refused to support the untouchables in 1924–25 when they were campaigning for the right to pray in temples. Because of Gandhi’s actions, Ambedkar described him as “devious and untrustworthy”.[100] Gandhi, although born into the Vaishya caste, insisted that he was able to speak on behalf of Dalits, despite the presence of Dalit activists such as Ambedkar.[115] Gandhi and Ambedkar often clashed because Ambedkar sought to remove the Dalits out of the Hindu community, while Gandhi tried to save Hinduism by exorcising untouchability. Ambedkar complained that Gandhi moved too slowly, while Hindu traditionalists said Gandhi was a dangerous radical who rejected scripture. Guha noted in 2012 that, “Ideologues have carried these old rivalries into the present, with the demonization of Gandhi now common among politicians who presume to Gandhi and Nehru in 1942 speak in Ambedkar’s name.”[116] port” to the British effort when World War II broke out in 1939, but the Congressional leaders were offended by the 4.7 Congress politics unilateral inclusion of India in the war without consultation of the people’s representatives. All Congressmen re- [122] In 1934 Gandhi resigned from Congress party mem- signed from office. After long deliberations, Gandhi bership. He did not disagree with the party’s position declared that India could not be party to a war ostensi- but felt that if he resigned, his popularity with Indians bly being fought for democratic freedom while that free- would cease to stifle the party’s membership, which actu- dom was denied to India itself. As the war progressed, ally varied, including communists, socialists, trade union- Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling ists, students, religious conservatives, and those with pro- for the British to Quit India in a speech at Gowalia Tank business convictions, and that these various voices would Maidan. This was Gandhi’s and the Congress Party’s most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit get a chance to make themselves heard. Gandhi also [123] wanted to avoid being a target for Raj propaganda by lead- from India. ing a party that had temporarily accepted political accom- Gandhi was criticised by some Congress party members modation with the Raj.[117] and other Indian political groups, both pro-British and 4.9 Partition and independence, 1947 11

anti-British. Some felt that not supporting Britain more events.[131] At the end of the war, the British gave clear in- in its struggle against Nazi Germany was unethical. Oth- dications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. ers felt that Gandhi’s refusal for India to participate in the At this point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around war was insufficient and more direct opposition should be 100,000 political prisoners were released, including the taken, while Britain fought against Nazism, it continued Congress’s leadership.[132] to refuse to grant India Independence. Quit India became the most forceful movement in the history of the struggle, with mass arrests and violence on an unprecedented 4.9 Partition and independence, 1947 scale.[124] See also: Partition of India In 1942, although still committed in his efforts to “launch As a rule, Gandhi was opposed to the concept of partition a nonviolent movement”, Gandhi clarified that the movement would not be stopped by individual acts of violence, saying that the “ordered anarchy” of “the present system of administration” was “worse than real anarchy.”[125][126] He called on all Congressmen and Indians to maintain discipline via ahimsa, and Karo ya maro (“Do or die”) in the cause of ultimate freedom.[127]

Gandhi in 1947, with Lord Louis Mountbatten, Britain’s last Viceroy of India, and his wife Vicereine Edwina Mountbatten.

as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.[133] Con- cerning the partition of India to create Pakistan, while Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Bombay, 1944 the Indian National Congress and Gandhi called for the British to quit India, the Muslim League passed a reso- [134] Gandhi and the entire Congress Working Committee lution for them to divide and quit, in 1943. Gandhi were arrested in Bombay by the British on 9 August 1942. suggested an agreement which required the Congress and Gandhi was held for two years in the Aga Khan Palace Muslim League to co-operate and attain independence in Pune. It was here that Gandhi suffered two terrible under a provisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the dis- blows in his personal life. His 50-year-old secretary Ma- [135] hadev Desai died of a heart attack 6 days later and his tricts with a Muslim majority. When Jinnah called for Direct Action, on 16 August 1946, Gandhi was infuri- wife Kasturba died after 18 months’ imprisonment on 22 February 1944; six weeks later Gandhi suffered a severe ated and personally visited the most riot-prone areas to stop the massacres.[136] He made strong efforts to unite malaria attack. He was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and neces- the Indian Hindus, Muslims, and Christians and strug- gled for the emancipation of the "untouchables" in Hindu sary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and [137] enrage the nation. He came out of detention to an altered society. political scene—the Muslim League for example, which India’s partition and independence were accompanied by a few years earlier had appeared marginal, “now occu- more than half a million killed in riots as 10–12 million pied the centre of the political stage”[128] and the topic Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims crossed the borders dividing of Muhammad Ali Jinnah's campaign for Pakistan was India and Pakistan.[138] Gandhi, having vowed to spend a major talking point. Gandhi met Jinnah in September the day of independence fasting and spinning, was in Cal- 1944 in Bombay but Jinnah rejected, on the grounds that cutta on 15 August 1947 where he prayed, confronted ri- it fell short of a fully independent Pakistan, his proposal oters and worked with Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy to of the right of Muslim provinces to opt out of substantial stop the communal killing.[139] But for his teachings, the parts of the forthcoming political union.[129][130] efforts of his followers, and his own presence, there per- While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the haps could have been much more bloodshed during the partition, according to prominent Norwegian historian, other parties supported the war and gained organizational [140] strength. Underground publications flailed at the ruth- Jens Arup Seip. less suppression of Congress, but it had little control over Stanley Wolpert has argued, the “plan to carve up British 12 5 ASSASSINATION

India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi...who to him for advice or seek solace from him, realised too late that his closest comrades and disciples and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, were more interested in power than principle, and that his but for millions and millions in this country.— own vision had long been clouded by the illusion that the Jawaharlal Nehru’s address to Gandhi[146] struggle he led for India’s independence was a nonviolent [141] one.” Gandhi’s death was mourned nationwide. Over two million people joined the five-mile long funeral procession that took over five hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla 5 Assassination house, where he was assassinated. Gandhi’s body was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis was dis- See also: Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi mantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was assassinated in the that people could catch a glimpse of his body. The engine of the vehicle was not used; instead four drag-ropes manned by 50 people each pulled the vehicle.[147] All Indian-owned establishments in London remained closed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths and denominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at India House in London.[148] While India mourned and communal (inter-religious) violence escalated, there were calls for retaliation, and even an invasion of Pakistan by the Indian army. Nehru and Patel, the two strongest figures in the government and in Congress, had been pulling in opposite directions; the assassination pushed them together. They agreed the first objective must be to calm the hysteria.[149] They called on Indians to honour Gandhi’s memory and even more his ideals.[150] They used the assassination to consolidate Memorial at the former Birla House, New Delhi, where Gandhi the authority of the new Indian state. The government was assassinated at 5:17 pm on 30 January 1948 on his way made sure everyone knew the guilty party was not a Mus- to a prayer meeting. Stylised footsteps are shown leading to the lim. Congress tightly controlled the epic public displays memorial. of grief over a two-week period—the funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution of the martyr’s ashes—as millions garden of the former Birla House (now Gandhi Smriti) participated and hundreds of millions watched. The goal at 5:17 pm on 30 January 1948. Accompanied by his was to assert the power of the government and legitimise grandnieces, Gandhi was on his way to address a prayer the Congress Party’s control. This move built upon the meeting, when his assassin, Nathuram Godse, fired three massive outpouring of Hindu expressions of grief. The bullets from a Beretta 9 mm pistol into his chest at government suppressed the RSS, the Muslim National point-blank range.[142] Godse was a Hindu nationalist Guards, and the Khaksars, with some 200,000 arrests. with links to the extremist Hindu Mahasabha, who held Gandhi’s death and funeral linked the distant state with Gandhi guilty of favouring Pakistan and strongly op- the Indian people and made more understand why reli- posed the doctrine of nonviolence.[143] Godse and his co- gious parties were being suppressed during the transition conspirator were tried and executed in 1949. Gandhi’s to independence for the Indian people.[151] memorial (or Samādhi) at Rāj Ghāt, New Delhi, bears the epigraph “Hē Ram” (Devanagari: ! or, He Rām), which may be translated as “Oh God”. These 5.1 Ashes are widely believed to be Gandhi’s last words after he was shot, though the veracity of this statement has By Hindu tradition the ashes were to be spread on a [144] been disputed. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru ad- river. Gandhi’s ashes were poured into urns which were [145] dressed the nation through radio: sent across India for memorial services.[152] Most were immersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February Friends and comrades, the light has gone 1948, but some were secretly taken away. In 1997, out of our lives, and there is darkness every- Tushar Gandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found where, and I do not quite know what to tell you in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as Sangam at Allahabad.[153][154] Some of Gandhi’s ashes we called him, the father of the nation, is no were scattered at the source of the Nile River near Jinja, more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; never- Uganda, and a memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 theless, we will not see him again, as we have January 2008, the contents of another urn were immersed seen him for these many years, we will not run at Girgaum Chowpatty. Another urn is at the palace of 6.1 Influences 13 the Aga Khan in Pune[153] (where Gandhi had been im- or scaffolding for his mature philosophy. In London he prisoned from 1942 to 1944) and another in the Self- committed himself to truthfulness, temperance, chastity, Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Los Angeles.[155] and vegetarianism. His return to India to work as a lawyer was a failure, so he went to South Africa for a quarter century, where he absorbed ideas from many sources, most 6 Principles, practices and beliefs of them non-Indian.[158] Gandhi grew up in an eclectic religious atmosphere and throughout his life searched for insights from many religious traditions.[159] He was ex- Main article: Gandhism posed to Jain ideas through his mother who was in contact with Jain monks. Themes from Jainism that Gandhi Gandhism designates the ideas and principles Gandhi absorbed included asceticism; compassion for all forms promoted. Of central importance is nonviolent resis- of life; the importance of vows for self-discipline; veg- tance. A Gandhian can mean either an individual who etarianism; fasting for self-purification; mutual tolerance follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, among people of different creeds; and “syadvad”, the idea Gandhism.[79] M. M. Sankhdher argues that Gandhism that all views of truth are partial, a doctrine that lies at the is not a systematic position in metaphysics or in political root of Satyagraha.[160] He received much of his influence philosophy. Rather, it is a political creed, an economic from Jainism particularly during his younger years.[161] doctrine, a religious outlook, a moral precept, and espe- Gandhi’s London experience provided a solid philosoph- cially, a humanitarian world view. It is an effort not to ical base focused on truthfulness, temperance, chastity, systematise wisdom but to transform society and is based and vegetarianism. When he returned to India in 1891, on an undying faith in the goodness of human nature.[156] his outlook was parochial and he could not make a liv- However Gandhi himself did not approve of the notion ing as a lawyer. This challenged his belief that practi- of “Gandhism”, as he explained in 1936: cality and morality necessarily coincided. By moving in 1893 to South Africa he found a solution to this prob- There is no such thing as “Gandhism”, and lem and developed the central concepts of his mature I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do philosophy.[162] N. A. Toothi[163] felt that Gandhi was in- not claim to have originated any new principle fluenced by the reforms and teachings of Swaminarayan, or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way stating “Close parallels do exist in programs of social to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and reform based on to nonviolence, truth-telling, clean- problems...The opinions I have formed and the liness, temperance and upliftment of the masses.”[164] conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may Vallabhbhai Patel, who grew up in a Swaminarayan change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to household was attracted to Gandhi due to this aspect of teach the world. Truth and nonviolence are as Gandhi’s doctrine.[165] old as the hills.[157] Gandhi’s ethical thinking was heavily influenced by a handful of books, which he repeatedly meditated 6.1 Influences upon. They included especially Plato's Apology and John Ruskin's Unto this Last (1862) (both of which he translated into his native Gujarati); William Salter’s Ethical Religion (1889); Henry David Thoreau's On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1849); and Leo Tolstoy's The King- dom of God Is Within You (1894). Ruskin inspired his decision to live an austere life on a commune, at first on the Phoenix Farm in Natal and then on the Tolstoy Farm just outside Johannesburg, South Africa.[51] Balkrishna Gokhale argues that Gandhi took his philosophy of history from Hinduism and Jainism, supplemented by selected Christian traditions and ideas of Tolstoy and Ruskin. Hinduism provided central concepts of God’s role in history, of man as the battleground of forces of virtue and sin, and of the potential of love as an historical force. From Jainism, Gandhi took the idea of apply- ing nonviolence to human situations and the theory that Absolute Reality can be comprehended only relatively in [166] Gandhi with famous poet Rabindranath Tagore, 1940 human affairs. Historian Howard Spodek argues for the importance of Historian R.B. Cribb argues that Gandhi’s thought the culture of Gujarat in shaping Gandhi’s methods. evolved over time, with his early ideas becoming the core 14 6 PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES AND BELIEFS

Spodek finds that some of Gandhi’s most effective methods such as fasting, non-cooperation and appeals to the justice and compassion of the rulers were learned as a youth in Gujarat. Later on, the financial, cultural, organizational and geographical support needed to bring his campaigns to a national audience were drawn from Ahmedabad and Gujarat, his Indian residence 1915– 1930.[167]

6.2 Tolstoy

“God is truth. The way to truth lies through ahimsa (nonviolence)" —Sabarmati 13 March 1927

contains Jain and Buddhist notions of nonviolence, vegetarianism, the avoidance of killing, and 'agape' (universal love). Gandhi also borrowed Christian-Islamic ideas Mohandas K. Gandhi and other residents of Tolstoy Farm, South of equality, the brotherhood of man, and the concept of Africa, 1910 turning the other cheek.[173] Along with the book mentioned above, in 1908 Leo Tol- Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fight stoy wrote A Letter to a Hindu, which said that only by us- was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. ing love as a weapon through passive resistance could the Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said “God is Indian people overthrow colonial rule. In 1909, Gandhi Truth”. He would later change this statement to “Truth wrote to Tolstoy seeking advice and permission to repub- is God”. Thus, satya (truth) in Gandhi’s philosophy is [174] lish A Letter to a Hindu in Gujarati. Tolstoy responded “God”. and the two continued a correspondence until Tolstoy’s The essence of Satyagraha (a name Gandhi invented [168] death in 1910 (Tolstoy’s last letter was to Gandhi). meaning “adherence to truth”[175]) is that it seeks to elim- The letters concern practical and theological applications inate antagonisms without harming the antagonists them- [169] of nonviolence. Gandhi saw himself a disciple of Tol- selves and seeks to transform or “purify” it to a higher stoy, for they agreed regarding opposition to state author- level. A euphemism sometimes used for Satyagraha is ity and colonialism; both hated violence and preached that it is a “silent force” or a “soul force” (a term also used non-resistance. However, they differed sharply on po- by Martin Luther King Jr. during his famous "I Have a litical strategy. Gandhi called for political involvement; Dream" speech). It arms the individual with moral power he was a nationalist and was prepared to use nonviolent rather than physical power. Satyagraha is also termed a [170] force. He was also willing to compromise. It was at “universal force”, as it essentially “makes no distinction Tolstoy Farm where Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach between kinsmen and strangers, young and old, man and systematically trained their disciples in the philosophy of woman, friend and foe.”[176] nonviolence.[171] Gandhi wrote: “There must be no impatience, no bar- barity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to 6.3 Truth and Satyagraha cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one’s cause.”[177] Civil disobedience and non-cooperation Gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose of discov- as practised under Satyagraha are based on the “law of ering truth, or Satya. He tried to achieve this by learning suffering”,[178] a doctrine that the endurance of suffering from his own mistakes and conducting experiments on is a means to an end. This end usually implies a moral himself. He called his autobiography The Story of My [172] upliftment or progress of an individual or society. There- Experiments with Truth. fore, non-cooperation in Satyagraha is in fact a means to Bruce Watson argues that Gandhi based Satyagraha on secure the co-operation of the opponent consistently with the Vedantic ideal of self-realization, and notes it also truth and justice.[179] 6.4 Nonviolence 15

when the Holocaust was revealed. He told the British people in 1940, “I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions... If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourselves, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them.”[186] George Orwell remarked that Gandhi’s methods confronted 'an old-fashioned and rather shaky despo- tism which treated him in a fairly chivalrous way', not a totalitarian Power, 'where political opponents simply disappear.'[187] In a post-war interview in 1946, he said, “Hitler killed five million Jews. It is the greatest crime of our time. But the Jews should have offered themselves to the butcher’s knife. They should have thrown themselves into the sea from cliffs... It would have aroused the world and the people of Germany... As it is they succumbed anyway in their millions.”[188] Gandhi believed this act of “collective suicide”, in response to the Holocaust, “would have been heroism”.[189]

Gandhi with textile workers at Darwen, Lancashire, 26 Septem- ber 1931. 6.4.1 Muslims

One of Gandhi’s major strategies, first in South Africa 6.4 Nonviolence and then in India, was uniting Muslims and Hindus to work together in opposition to British imperialism. In Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle 1919–22 he won strong Muslim support for his leader- of nonviolence, he was the first to apply it in the politi- ship in the Khilafat Movement to support the historic cal field on a large scale.[180] The concept of nonviolence Ottoman Caliphate. By 1924, that Muslim support had (ahimsa) and nonresistance has a long history in Indian largely evaporated.[190][191] religious thought. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography The Story of My Experi- ments with Truth. Gandhi realised later that this level of 6.4.2 Jews nonviolence required incredible faith and courage, which he believed everyone did not possess. He therefore ad- In 1931, he suggested that while he could understand the vised that everyone need not keep to nonviolence, espe- desire of European Jews to emigrate to Palestine, he op- cially if it were used as a cover for cowardice, saying, posed any movement that supported British colonialism “where there is only a choice between cowardice and vi- or violence. Muslims throughout India and the Middle olence, I would advise violence.”[181][182] East strongly opposed the Zionist plan for a Jewish state in Palestine, and Gandhi (and Congress) supported the Gandhi thus came under some political fire for his crit- Muslims in this regard. By the 1930s all major political icism of those who attempted to achieve independence groups in India opposed a Jewish state in Palestine.[192] through more violent means. His refusal to protest against the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Udham Singh This led to discussions concerning the persecution of the and Rajguru were sources of condemnation among some Jews in Germany and the emigration of Jews from Europe parties.[183][184] to Palestine, which Gandhi framed through the lens of Satyagraha.[139][193] In 1937, Gandhi discussed Zionism Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, “There was a time when with his close Jewish friend Hermann Kallenbach.[194] He people listened to me because I showed them how to give said that Zionism was not the right answer to the Jew- fight to the British without arms when they had no arms ... ish problem[195] and instead recommended Satyagraha. but today I am told that my nonviolence can be of no avail Gandhi thought the Zionists in Palestine represented Eu- against the [Hindu–Moslem riots] and, therefore, people [185] ropean imperialism and used violence to achieve their should arm themselves for self-defense.” goals; he argued that “the Jews should disclaim any in- Gandhi’s views came under heavy criticism in Britain tention of realizing their aspiration under the protection when it was under attack from Nazi Germany, and later of arms and should rely wholly on the goodwill of Arabs. 16 6 PRINCIPLES, PRACTICES AND BELIEFS

No exception can possibly be taken to the natural desire of the Jews to found a home in Palestine. But they must wait for its fulﬁllment till Arab opinion is ripe for it.”[139] In 1938, Gandhi stated that his “sympathies are all with the Jews. I have known them intimately in South Africa. Some of them became life-long companions.” Philoso- pher Martin Buber was highly critical of Gandhi’s approach and in 1939 wrote an open letter to him on the subject. Gandhi reiterated his stance on the use of Satya- graha in Palestine in 1947.[196]

6.5 Vegetarianism, food, and animals Fasting, with young Indira Gandhi, mid-1920s Stephen Hay argues that Gandhi looked into numerous religious and intellectual currents during his stay in London for separate political representation for Dalits; Gandhi . He especially appreciated how the theosophical move- did not want them segregated. The government stopped ment encouraged a religious eclecticism and an antipa- the London press from showing photographs of his ema- thy to atheism. Hay says the vegetarian movement had ciated body, because it would elicit sympathy. Gandhi’s the greatest impact for it was Gandhi’s point of entry into 1943 hunger strike took place during a two-year prison other reformist agendas of the time.[197] The idea of veg- term for the anticolonial Quit India movement. The gov- etarianism is deeply ingrained in Hindu and Jain tradi- ernment called on nutritional experts to demystify his actions in India, especially in his native Gujarat.[198] Gandhi tion, and again no photos were allowed. However, his fi- was close to the chairman of the London Vegetarian So- nal fast in 1948, after India was independent, was lauded ciety, Dr. Josiah Oldfield, and corresponded with Henry by the British press and this time did include full-length Stephens Salt, a vegetarian campaigner. Gandhi became photos.[204] a strict vegetarian. He wrote the book The Moral Basis of Alter argues that Gandhi’s fixation on diet and celibacy Vegetarianism and wrote for the London Vegetarian So- were much deeper than exercises in self-discipline. ciety’s publication.[199] Gandhi was somewhat of a food Rather, his beliefs regarding health offered a critique of faddist. There is a wide spread rumor that Gandhi took both the traditional Hindu system of ayurvedic medicine his own goat all the way to London which is wrong.[200] and Western concepts. This challenge was integral to his Gandhi noted in The Story of My Experiments with Truth, deeper challenge to tradition and modernity, as health and that vegetarianism was the beginning of his deep com- nonviolence became part of the same ethics.[205] mitment to Brahmacharya; without total control of the palate, his success in following Brahmacharya would likely falter. “You wish to know what the marks of a 6.7 Brahmacharya, celibacy man are who wants to realise Truth which is God”, he wrote. “He must reduce himself to zero and have per- In 1906 Gandhi, although married and a father, vowed fect control over all his senses-beginning with the palate to abstain from sexual relations. In the 1940s, in his or tongue.”[201][202] Gandhi also stated that he followed mid-seventies, he brought his grandniece Manubehn to a fruitarian diet for five years but discontinued it due to sleep naked in his bed as part of a spiritual experiment pleurisy and pressure from his doctor. He thereafter re- in which Gandhi could test himself as a “brahmachari”. sumed a vegetarian diet. Several other young women and girls also sometimes shared his bed as part of his experiments.[206] Gandhi’s Gandhi also opposed vivisection: “Vivisection in my behaviour was widely discussed and criticised by family opinion is the blackest of all the blackest crimes that members and leading politicians, including Nehru. His man is at present committing against god and his fair “half naked” costume had long been the topic of ridicule creation.”[203] in Britain and America.[207] Some members of his staff resigned, including two editors of his newspaper who left 6.6 Fasting after refusing to print parts of Gandhi’s sermons dealing with his sleeping arrangements. But Gandhi said that if he wouldn't let Manu sleep with him, it would be a sign See also: List of fasts undertaken by Mahatma Gandhi [208] Gandhi used fasting as a political device, often threat- of weakness. ening suicide unless demands were met. Congress pub- Gandhi discussed his experiment with friends and re- licised the fasts as a political action that generated lations; most disagreed and the experiment ceased in widespread sympathy. In response the government tried 1947.[209] Religious studies scholar Veena Howard argues to manipulate news coverage to minimise his challenge to that Gandhi made “creative use”[210]:130 of his celibacy the Raj. He fasted in 1932 to protest the voting scheme and his authority as a mahatma “to reinterpret religious 6.10 Gandhian economics 17

norms and confront unjust social and religious conven- and his vision of India meant an India without an underly- tions relegating women to lower status.”[210]:130 Accord- ing government.[217] He once said that “the ideally nonvi- ing to Howard, Gandhi “developed his discourse as a re- olent state would be an ordered anarchy.”[218] While po- ligious renouncer within India’s traditions to confront re- litical systems are largely hierarchical, with each layer of pressive social and religious customs regarding women authority from the individual to the central government and to bring them into the public sphere, during a time have increasing levels of authority over the layer below, when the discourse on celibacy was typically imbued Gandhi believed that society should be the exact oppo- with masculine rhetoric and misogynist inferences.... his site, where nothing is done without the consent of anyone, writings show a consistent evolution of his thought to- down to the individual. His idea was that true self-rule ward creating an equal playing field for members of both in a country means that every person rules his or herself sexes and even elevating women to a higher plane— and that there is no state which enforces laws upon the all through his discourse and unorthodox practice of people.[219] brahmacharya.”[210]:137 This would be achieved over time with nonviolent conflict mediation, as power is divested from layers of hierarchi- 6.8 Nai Talim, basic education cal authorities, ultimately to the individual, which would come to embody the ethic of nonviolence. Rather than a system where rights are enforced by a higher authority, Main article: Nai Talim people are self-governed by mutual responsibilities. On returning from South Africa, when Gandhi received a let- Gandhi’s educational policies reflected Nai Talim ('Basic ter asking for his participation in writing a world charter Education for all'), a spiritual principle which states that for human rights, he responded saying, “in my experi- knowledge and work are not separate. It was a reaction ence, it is far more important to have a charter for human against the British educational system and colonialism in duties.”[220] general, which had the negative effect of making Indian An independent India did not mean merely transferring children alienated and career-based; it promoted disdain the established British administrative structure into In- for manual work, the development of a new elite class, dian hands. He warned, “you would make India English. and the increasing problems of industrialisation and ur- And when it becomes English, it will be called not Hin- banisation. The three pillars of Gandhi’s pedagogy were dustan but Englishtan. This is not the Swaraj I want.”[221] its focus on the lifelong character of education, its social Tewari argues that Gandhi saw democracy as more than a character and its form as a holistic process. For Gandhi, system of government; it meant promoting both individ- education is 'the moral development of the person', a pro- uality and the self-discipline of the community. Democ- cess that is by definition 'lifelong'.[211] racy was a moral system that distributed power and as- Nai Talim evolved out of the spiritually oriented edu- sisted the development of every social class, especially cation program at Tolstoy Farm in South Africa, and the lowest. It meant settling disputes in a nonviolent man- Gandhi’s work at the ashram at Sevagram after 1937.[212] ner; it required freedom of thought and expression. For After 1947 the Nehru government’s vision of an indus- Gandhi, democracy was a way of life.[222] trialised, centrally planned economy had scant place for Gandhi’s village-oriented approach.[213] 6.10 Gandhian economics

6.9 Swaraj, self-rule A free India for Gandhi meant the flourishing of thousands of self-sufficient small communities who rule them- Main article: Swaraj selves without hindering others. Gandhian economics focused on the need for economic self-sufficiency at the village level. His policy of “sarvodaya”[223] called for Rudolph argues that after a false start in trying to em- ending poverty through improved agriculture and small- ulate the English in an attempt to overcome his timid- scale cottage industries in every village.[224] Gandhi chal- ity, Gandhi discovered the inner courage he was seek- lenged Nehru and the modernizers in the late 1930s who ing by helping his countrymen in South Africa. The new called for rapid industrialisation on the Soviet model; courage consisted of observing the traditional Bengali Gandhi denounced that as dehumanising and contrary way of “self-suffering” and, in finding his own courage, to the needs of the villages where the great majority of he was enabled also to point out the way of 'Satyagraha' [225] [214] the people lived. After Gandhi’s death Nehru led In- and 'ahimsa' to the whole of India. Gandhi’s writings dia to large-scale planning that emphasised modernisa- expressed four meanings of freedom: as India’s national tion and heavy industry, while modernising agriculture independence; as individual political freedom; as group through irrigation. Historian Kuruvilla Pandikattu says freedom from poverty; and as the capacity for personal [215] “it was Nehru’s vision, not Gandhi’s, that was eventually self-rule. preferred by the Indian State.”[226] After Gandhi’s death Gandhi was a self-described philosophical anarchist,[216] activists inspired by his vision promoted their opposition 18 8 LEGACY AND DEPICTIONS IN POPULAR CULTURE to industrialisation through the teachings of Gandhian religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gu- economics. According to Gandhi, “Poverty is the worst jarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English transform of violence.” lations of his books.[230] Gandhi’s complete works were published by the Indian government under the name The Collected Works of Ma- 7 Literary works hatma Gandhi in the 1960s. The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about a hundred volumes. In 2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as it contained a large number of errors and omissions.[231] The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition.[232]

8 Legacy and depictions in popular culture

See also: List of artistic depictions of Mahatma Gandhi and List of roads named after Mahatma Gandhi

• The word Mahatma, while often mistaken for Gandhi’s given name in the West, is taken from the Sanskrit words maha (meaning Great) and atma (meaning Soul). Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded the title to Gandhi.[233] In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never val- ued the title, and was often pained by it.[234][235][236]

• Innumerable streets, roads and localities in India are named after M.K.Gandhi. These include M.G.Road (the main street of a number of Indian cities including Mumbai and Bangalore), Gandhi Market (near Young India, a weekly journal published by Gandhi from 1919 Sion, Mumbai) and Gandhinagar (the capital of the to 1932 state of Gujarat, Gandhi’s birthplace).[237]

Gandhi was a prolific writer. One of Gandhi’s earliest • In 2009, the search engine Google commemorated publications, Hind Swaraj, published in Gujarati in 1909, Gandhi in their Google Doodle.[238] is recognised as the intellectual blueprint of India’s independence movement. The book was translated into English the next year, with a copyright legend that read 8.1 Followers and international influence “No Rights Reserved”.[227] For decades he edited several newspapers including Harijan in Gujarati, in Hindi and in the English language; Indian Opinion while in South Africa and, Young India, in English, and Navajivan, a Gu- jarati monthly, on his return to India. Later, Navajivan was also published in Hindi. In addition, he wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers.[228] Gandhi also wrote several books including his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Gujarātī " "), of which he bought the entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted.[100] His other autobiographies included: Satyagraha in South Africa about his struggle there, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gu- jarati of John Ruskin's Unto This Last.[229] This last essay can be considered his programme on economics. He Statue of Mahatma Gandhi at York University. also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, 8.1 Followers and international influence 19

Nelson Mandela was a follower of the nonviolent resistance philosophy of Gandhi.[244] Bhana and Vahed commented on these events as “Gandhi inspired suc- ceeding generations of South African activists seeking to end White rule. This legacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense Mandela completed what Gandhi started.”[65] Gandhi’s life and teachings inspired many who specif- ically referred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading Gandhi’s ideas. In Europe, Romain Rolland was the ﬁrst to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book Mahatma Gandhi, and Brazilian anarchist and feminist Maria Lacerda de Moura wrote about Gandhi in her work on paciﬁsm. In 1931, notable European physicist Albert Einstein exchanged written letters with Gandhi, and called him “a role model for the generations to come” in a letter writing about him.[247] Einstein said of Gandhi:

Mahatma Gandhi’s life achievement stands unique in political history. He has invented a completely new and humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energy and devotion. Mahatma Gandhi on a 1969 postage stamp of the Soviet Union The moral inﬂuence he had on the consciously thinking human being of the entire civilized world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation of brutal violent forces. Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up and strengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works. We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for the generations to come.

Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in ﬂesh and blood.

Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to Mahatma Gandhi at Praça Túlio Fontoura, São Paulo, Brazil. live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Statue by Gautam Pal Gandhi’s philosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi’s ashrams). Madeleine Slade (known as “Mirabehn”) was the daugh- Gandhi influenced important leaders and political move- ter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life ments. Leaders of the civil rights movement in the in India as a devotee of Gandhi.[248][249] United States, including Martin Luther King, James Lawson, and James Bevel, drew from the writings of In addition, the British musician John Lennon referred Gandhi in the development of their own theories about to Gandhi when discussing his views on nonviolence.[250] nonviolence.[239][240][241] King said “Christ gave us the At the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics.”[242] King some- 2007, former US Vice-President and environmentalist Al times referred to Gandhi as “the little brown saint.”[243] Gore spoke of Gandhi’s influence on him.[251] Anti-apartheid activist and former President of South US President Barack Obama in a 2010 address to the [244] Africa, Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi. Parliament of India said that: Others include Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan,[245] Steve [246] Biko, and Aung San Suu Kyi. I am mindful that I might not be standing In his early years, the former President of South Africa before you today, as President of the United 20 8 LEGACY AND DEPICTIONS IN POPULAR CULTURE

8.3 Awards

Bust of Gandhi “Apostle of Non Violence” by Kenyan-born artist of Indian origin, Kirti Mandir, in Edinburgh, Scotland

Monument to M.K. Gandhi in New Belgrade, Serbia. On the States, had it not been for Gandhi and the mes- monument is written “Nonviolence is the essence of all religions”. sage he shared with America and the world.[252] Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in Obama in September 2009 said that his biggest inspira- 1930. Gandhi was also the runner-up to Albert Einstein tion came from Mahatma Gandhi. His reply was in re- as "Person of the Century"[259] at the end of 1999. The sponse to the question 'Who was the one person, dead or Government of India awarded the annual Gandhi Peace live, that you would choose to dine with?'. He continued Prize to distinguished social workers, world leaders and that “He’s somebody I find a lot of inspiration in. He in- citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of South Africa’s spired Dr. King with his message of nonviolence. He struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segrega- ended up doing so much and changed the world just by tion, was a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2011, the power of his ethics.”[253] Time magazine named Gandhi as one of the top 25 political icons of all time.[260] Time Magazine named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa, Martin Luther King, Cesar Chavez, Aung San Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although Suu Kyi, Benigno Aquino, Jr., Desmond Tutu, and he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, Nelson Mandela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual including the first-ever nomination by the American heirs to nonviolence.[254] The Mahatma Gandhi District Friends Service Committee,[261] though he made the in Houston, Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian en- short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947.[137] Decades later, clave, is officially named after Gandhi.[255] the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission, and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award.[137] Gandhi was nominated 8.2 Global holidays in 1948 but was assassinated before nominations closed. That year, the committee chose not to award the peace In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declared prize stating that “there was no suitable living candidate” Gandhi’s birthday 2 October as “the International Day of and later research shows that the possibility of award- Nonviolence.”[256] First proposed by UNESCO in 1948, ing the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed and as the School Day of Nonviolence and Peace (DENIP in that the reference to no suitable living candidate was Spanish),[257] 30 January is observed as the School Day of to Gandhi.[137] Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nonviolence and Peace in schools of many countries[258] Nobel Committee in 2006 said, “The greatest omission in In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi it is observed on 30 March.[258] never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do 8.5 Current impact within India 21

without the Nobel Peace prize, whether Nobel commit- eight volumes, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar with their tee can do without Gandhi is the question”.[262] When Mahatma Gandhi in 10 volumes. The 2010 biography, the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Prize in 1989, the Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India chairman of the committee said that this was “in part a by Joseph Lelyveld contained controversial material spec- tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi”.[137] ulating about Gandhi’s sexual life.[270] Lelyveld, however, stated that the press coverage “grossly distort[s]" the overall message of the book.[271] The 2014 film Welcome Back 8.3.1 Father of the Nation Gandhi takes a fictionalised look at how Gandhi might re- act to modern day India.[272] Indians widely describe Gandhi as the father of the nation [11][12] (Hindi: राष्ट㔰िपता). The title “The Father of the Na- tion” for Gandhi is not an official title and has not been officially accorded by Government of India.A RTI query filed by a 10-year-old girl from Lucknow in Feb 2012 re- 8.5 Current impact within India vealed that PMO has no records of ever according such title to Gandhi. MHA and National Archives of India also communicated of not having any records. Origin of this title is traced back to a radio address (on Singapore radio) on 6 Jul 1944 by Subhash Chandra Bose where Bose addressed Gandhi as “The Father of the Nation”. On 28 Apr 1947, Sarojini Naidu during a conference also referred Gandhi as “Father of the Nation”.[13][14] The RTI applicant had also pleaded for Gandhi to be officially declared as “Father of the Nation” to which the MHA informed that Gandhi cannot be accorded with the title by Govern- ment of India since the Indian constitution does not permit any titles except educational and military titles.[14]

8.4 Film, theatre and literature The Gandhi Mandapam, a temple in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu in India. This temple was erected to honour M.K. Gandhi. A 5 hours, 9 minutes long biographical documentary film,[263] Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948, made by Vithalbhai Jhaveri[264] in 1968, quoting Gandhi’s India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbani- words and using black & white archival footage and pho- sation, has rejected Gandhi’s economics[273] but accepted tographs, captures the history of those times. Ben Kings- much of his politics and continues to revere his mem- ley portrayed him in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film ory. Reporter Jim Yardley notes that, “modern India is Gandhi, which won the Academy Award for Best Pic- hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision ture. The 1996 film The Making of the Mahatma doc- of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside dur- umented Gandhi’s time in South Africa and his transfor- ing his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a mation from an inexperienced barrister to recognised po- national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has litical leader.[265] Gandhi was a central figure in the 2006 proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic Bollywood comedy film Lage Raho Munna Bhai. Jahnu and military power.” By contrast Gandhi is “given full Barua’s Maine Gandhi Ko Nahin Mara (I did not kill credit for India’s political identity as a tolerant, secular Gandhi), places contemporary society as a backdrop with democracy.”[274] its vanishing memory of Gandhi’s values as a metaphor Gandhi’s birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday for the senile forgetfulness of the protagonist of his 2005 [266] [267] in India, Gandhi Jayanti. Gandhi’s image also ap- film, writes Vinay Lal. pears on paper currency of all denominations issued by Anti-Gandhi themes have also been showcased through Reserve Bank of India, except for the one rupee note.[275] films and plays. The 1995 Marathi play Gandhi Virudh Gandhi’s date of death, 30 January, is commemorated as Gandhi explored the relationship between Gandhi and his a Martyrs’ Day in India.[276] son Harilal. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father was in- There are two temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.[277] spired on the same theme. The 1989 Marathi play Me One is located at Sambalpur in Orissa and the other Nathuram Godse Boltoy and the 1997 Hindi play Gandhi [268][269] at Nidaghatta village near Kadur in Chikmagalur Ambedkar criticised Gandhi and his principles. district of Karnataka.[277] The Gandhi Memorial in Several biographers have undertaken the task of describ- Kanyakumari resembles central Indian Hindu temples ing Gandhi’s life. Among them are D. G. Tendulkar with and the Tamukkam or Summer Palace in Madurai now his Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum.[278] 22 10 REFERENCES

9 See also [7] Khan, Yasmin (2007). The Great Partition: The Mak- ing of India and Pakistan. Yale University Press. p. 18. • ISBN 978-0-300-12078-3. Retrieved 1 September 2013. List of peace activists Quote: “the Muslim League had only caught on among South Asian Muslims during the Second World War. ... • List of civil rights leaders By the late 1940s, the League and the Congress had im- pressed in the British their own visions of a free future for • Daridra Narayana, an axiom enunciated by Swami Indian people. ... one, articulated by the Congress, rested Vivekananda that espouses service of the poor as on the idea of a united, plural India as a home for all In- equivalent in importance and piety to the service of dians and the other, spelt out by the League, rested on the God popularised by Mahatma Gandhi foundation of Muslim nationalism and the carving out of a separate Muslim homeland.” (p. 18) • Gandhi cap [8] Khan, Yasmin (2007). The Great Partition: The Mak- ing of India and Pakistan. Yale University Press. p. • Gandhi Teerth – Gandhi International Research In- 1. ISBN 978-0-300-12078-3. Retrieved 1 September stitute and Museum for Gandhian study, research on 2013. Quote: “South Asians learned that the British In- Mahatma Gandhi and dialogue. dian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pam- phlets. Among a population of almost four hundred mil- 10 References lion, where the vast majority lived in the countryside, ..., it is hardly surprising that many ... did not hear the news [1] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 1–3. for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have [2] “Gandhi”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictio- been the ﬁrst they know about the creation of the two new nary. states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weak- ened British empire in India.” (p. 1) [3] McGregor, Ronald Stuart (1993). The Oxford Hindi- English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 799. [9] Brown (1991), p. 380: “Despite and indeed because of his ISBN 978-0-19-864339-5. Retrieved 31 August 2013. sense of helplessness Delhi was to be the scene of what he Quote: (mahā- (S. “great, mighty, large, ..., eminent”) + called his greatest fast. ... His decision was made sud- ātmā (S. "1.soul, spirit; the self, the individual; the mind, denly, though after considerable thought – he gave no hint the heart; 2. the ultimate being.”): “high-souled, of noble of it even to Nehru and Patel who were with him shortly nature; a noble or venerable man.” before he announced his intention at a prayer-meeting on 12 January 1948. He said he would fast until communal [4] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) p. 172: "... Kasturba would peace was restored, real peace rather than the calm of a accompany Gandhi on his departure from Cape Town dead city imposed by police and troops. Patel and the gov- for England in July 1914 en route to India. ... In ernment took the fast partly as condemnation of their de- diﬀerent South African towns (Pretoria, Cape Town, cision to withhold a considerable cash sum still outstand- Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, and the Natal cities of ing to Pakistan as a result of the allocation of undivided Durban and Verulam), the struggle’s martyrs were hon- India’s assets, because the hostilities that had broken out oured and the Gandhi’s bade farewell. Addresses in Dur- in Kashmir; ... But even when the government agreed to ban and Verulam referred to Gandhi as a 'Mahatma', 'great pay out the cash, Gandhi would not break his fast: that he soul'. He was seen as a great soul because he had taken up would only do after a large number of important politi- the poor’s cause. The whites too said good things about cians and leaders of communal bodies agreed to a joint Gandhi, who predicted a future for the Empire if it re- plan for restoration of normal life in the city. Although spected justice.” (p. 172). this six-day fast was a considerable physical strain, during it Gandhi experienced a great feeling of strength and [5] McAllister, Pam (1982). Reweaving the Web of Life: peace.” Feminism and Nonviolence. New Society Publishers. p. [10] Cush, Denise; Robinson, Catherine; York, Michael 194. ISBN 978-0-86571-017-7. Retrieved 31 August (2008). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Taylor & Francis. 2013. Quote: “With love, Yours, Bapu (You closed with p. 544. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0. Retrieved 31 August the term of endearment used by your close friends, the 2013. Quote: “The apotheosis of this contrast is the assas- term you used with all the movement leaders, roughly sination of Gandhi in 1948 by a militant Hindu nationalist, meaning 'Papa.'" Another letter written in 1940 shows Nathuram Godse, on the basis of his 'weak' accommoda- similar tenderness and caring. tionist approach towards the new state of Pakistan.” (p. 544) [6] Eck, Diana L. (2003). Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. Beacon Press. p. 210. [11] “Gandhi not formally conferred 'Father of the Nation' ti- ISBN 978-0-8070-7301-8. Retrieved 31 August 2013. tle: Govt”, The Indian Express, 11 July 2012. Quote: "... his niece Manu, who, like others called this immortal Gandhi 'Bapu,' meaning not 'father,' but the fa- [12] “Constitution doesn't permit 'Father of the Nation' title: miliar, 'daddy.'" (p. 210) Government”, The Times of India, 26 October 2012. 23

[13] “Father of the Nation RTI”. NDTV. Retrieved Sep 2015. [33] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. [14] “Constitution does not permit any titles”. The Times of India. Retrieved Sep 2015. [34] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. [15] Todd, Anne M. (2012) Mohandas Gandhi, Infobase Pub- lishing, ISBN 1438106629, p. 8: The name Gandhi [35] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp. means “grocer”, although Mohandas’s father and grand- 27–28. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. father were politicians not grocers. [36] Mohanty, Rekha (2011). “From Satya to Sadbhavna” [16] Renard, John (1999). Responses to One Hundred and One (PDF). Orissa Review (January 2011): 45–49. Retrieved Questions on Hinduism By John Renard. p. 139. ISBN 23 February 2012. 9780809138456. [37] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “At the High School”. [17] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. pp. 19–21. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. [38] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “Playing the Husband”.

[18] Buyers, Christopher. “Porbandar-India/SALUTE [39] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp. STATES-royalark.net”. Retrieved 16 March 2015. 28–29. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3.

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[20] Misra, Amalendu (2004). Identity and Religion: Foun- [41] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “My Father’s Death and My dations of anti-Islamism in India. p. 67. ISBN Double Shame”. 9780761932277. [42] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. p. [21] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006). Mohandas: A True Story of a 30. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. Man, His People, and an Empire By Gandhi. p. 5. ISBN [43] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. p. 9780143104117. 32. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. [22] Tendulkar, D. G. (1951). Mahatma; life of Mohandas [44] Gandhi (1940). Chapter “Preparation for England”. Karamchand Gandhi. Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. [45] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 12 April 2015. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. [23] Malhotra, S.L (2001). Lawyer to Mahatma: Life, Work and Transformation of M. K. Gandhi. p. 5. ISBN [46] Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006) pp. 20–21. 9788176292931. [47] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 4 April 2015. pp. [24] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. p. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. 21. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. [48] Brown (1991). [25] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. [49] Giliomee, Hermann and Mbenga, Bernard (2007). “3”. In Roxanne Reid. New History of South Africa (1st ed.). [26] Gandhi before India. Vintage Books. 16 March 2015. p. Tafelberg. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-624-04359-1. 22. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. [50] Power, Paul F. (1969). “Gandhi in South Africa”. [27] Sorokin, Pitirim Aleksandrovich (2002). The Ways and The Journal of Modern African Studies 7 (3): 441–55. Power of Love: types, factors, and techniques of moral doi:10.1017/S0022278X00018590. JSTOR 159062. transformation. Templeton Foundation Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-890151-86-7. [51] Parekh, Bhikhu C. (2001). Gandhi: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-19- [28] Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber and Rudolph, Lloyd I. (1983). 285457-5. Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma. University of Chicago Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780226731360. [52] Fischer (2002)

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[175] Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi’s pilgrimage of faith: [194] Panter-Brick, Simone. “Gandhi’s Dream of Hindu- from darkness to light. SUNY Press. p. 138. ISBN Muslim Unity and its two Offshoots in the Middle East”. 9780791464052. Durham Anthropology Journal, Volume 16(2), 2009: pp. 54–66. [176] Gandhi, M.K. “Some Rules of Satyagraha Young India (Navajivan) 23 February 1930”. The Collected Works of [195] Jack, p. 317. Mahatma Gandhi 48: 340. [196] Murti, Ramana V.V. (1968). “Buber’s Dialogue and [177] Prabhu, R. K. and Rao, U. R. (eds.) (1967) from sec- Gandhi’s Satyagraha”. Journal of the History of Ideas 29 tion “Power of Satyagraha”, of the book The Mind of Ma- (4): 605–13. doi:10.2307/2708297. JSTOR 2708297. hatma Gandhi, Ahemadabad, India. [197] Hay, Stephen (1989). “The Making of a Late-Victorian [178] Gandhi, M. K. (1982) [Young India, 16 June 1920]. “156. Hindu: M. K. Gandhi in London, 1888–1891”. Victorian The Law of Suffering”. Collected Works of Mahatma Studies 33 (1): 75–98. JSTOR 3827899. Gandhi (PDF) 20 (electronic ed.). New Delhi: Publica- tions Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, [198] Chitrita Banerji, Eating India: an odyssey into the food Govt. of India. pp. 396–99. Retrieved 14 January 2012. and culture of the land of spices (2007), p. 169. [199] Wolpert, p. 22. [179] Sharma, Jai Narain (2008). Satyagraha: Gandhi’s approach to conflict resolution. Concept Publishing Com- [200] Sen, Colleen Taylor. Music of The Spinning Wheel. pany. p. 17. ISBN 978-81-8069-480-6. Retrieved 26 January 2012. [201] Cited in Chakrabarti, Mohit (1997), Gandhian Socio- Aesthetics, M.D. Publications Pvt., ISBN 8175330481, p. [180] Asirvatham, Eddy. Political Theory. S.chand. ISBN 81- 24. 219-0346-7. [202] Becker, Carol (2006). “Gandhi’s Body and Further Rep- [181] Borman, William (1986). Gandhi and nonviolence. resentations of War and Peace”. Art Journal 65 (4): 78. SUNY Press. p. 253. ISBN 9780887063312. doi:10.2307/20068500.

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[217] Jesudasan, Ignatius (1987) A Gandhian theology of libera- [235] Basu Majumdar, A. K. (1993), Rabindranath Tagore: The tion. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash: Ananda India, pp. 236–37, Poet of India, Indus Publishing, ISBN 8185182922, p. 83: ISBN 0883441543. “When Gandhi returned to India, Rabindranath’s eldest [218] Chakrabarty, Bidyut (2006). Social and political thought brother Dwijendranath, was perhaps the ﬁrst to address of Mahatma Gandhi. Routledge. p. 138. ISBN 978-0- him as Mahatma. Rabindranath followed suit and then 415-36096-8. the whole of India called him Mahatma Gandhi.”

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11 Bibliography • Johnson, Richard L. (2006). Gandhi’s Experiments with Truth: Essential Writings by and about Ma- 11.1 Books hatma Gandhi. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0- 7391-1143-7. • Bondurant, Joan Valérie (1971). Conquest of Vio- • Jones, Constance and Ryan, James D. (2007). lence: the Gandhian philosophy of conﬂict. Univer- Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. p. sity of California Press. 160. ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9. • Brown, Judith M. “Gandhi, Mohandas Karamc- • Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi’s Pilgrimage of hand [Mahatma Gandhi] (1869–1948)", Oxford Faith: from darkness to light. SUNY Press. ISBN Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford Univer- 978-0-7914-6405-2. sity Press, 2004; online edn, January 2011 accessed 25 February 2012 (subscription required) • Mathew, Sarah; Afreen, Munnazza (9 July 2013). An Introduction to Education. AuthorHouse. ISBN • Brown, Judith M., and Anthony Parel, eds. The 978-1-4772-0447-4. Cambridge Companion to Gandhi (2012); 14 esssays by scholars excerpt and text search • Miller, Jake C. (2002). Prophets of a just society. Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59033-068-5. • Brown, Judith Margaret (1991). Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300- • Pāṇḍeya, Viśva Mohana (2003). Historiography of 05125-4. India’s Partition: an analysis of imperialist writings. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269- • Chadha, Yogesh (1997). Gandhi: a life. John Wi- 0314-6. ley. ISBN 978-0-471-24378-6. • Pilisuk, Marc; Nagler, Michael N. (2011). Peace • Easwaran, Eknath (2011). Gandhi the Man: How Movements Worldwide: Players and practices in re- One Man Changed Himself to Change the World. sistance to war. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313- Nilgiri Press. ISBN 978-1-586380-55-7. 36482-2.

• Hook, Sue Vander (1 September 2010). Mahatma • Rühe, Peter (5 October 2004). Gandhi. Phaidon. Gandhi: Proponent of Peace. ABDO. ISBN 978-1- ISBN 978-0-7148-4459-6. 61758-813-6. • Schouten, Jan Peter (2008). Jesus as Guru: the im- • Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006). Gandhi: The Man, His age of Christ among Hindus and Christians in India. People, and the Empire. University of California Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-2443-4. Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25570-8. • Sharp, Gene (1979). Gandhi as a Political Strate- • Gangrade, K.D. (2004). “Role of Shanti Sainiks in gist: with essays on ethics and politics. P. Sargent the Global Race for Armaments”. Moral Lessons Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87558-090-6. From Gandhi’s Autobiography And Other Essays. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-8069- • Shashi, S. S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, 084-6. Pakistan, Bangladesh. Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-7041-859-7. • Guha, Ramachandra (2013). Gandhi Before India. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-385-53230-3. • Sofri, Gianni (1999). Gandhi and India: a century in focus. Windrush Press. ISBN 978-1-900624-12- • Hardiman, David (2003). Gandhi in His Time and 1. Ours: the global legacy of his ideas. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-711-8. • Thacker, Dhirubhai (2006). ""Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand” (entry)". In Amaresh Datta. The En- • Hatt, Christine (2002). Mahatma Gandhi. Evans cyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (De- Brothers. ISBN 978-0-237-52308-4. vraj To Jyoti). Sahitya Akademi. p. 1345. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0. • Herman, Arthur (2008). Gandhi and Churchill: the epic rivalry that destroyed an empire and forged our • Todd, Anne M (2004). Mohandas Gandhi. In- age. Random House Digital, Inc. ISBN 978-0-553- fobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-7864-8.; 80463-8. short biography for children

• Jai, Janak Raj (1996). Commissions and Omissions • Wolpert, Stanley (2002). Gandhi’s Passion: the life by Indian Prime Ministers: 1947–1980. Regency and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford University Publications. ISBN 978-81-86030-23-3. Press. ISBN 9780199728725. 31

11.2 Primary sources • Todd, Anne M. (1 January 2009). Mohandas Gandhi. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381- • Abel M (4 January 2005). Glimpses of Indian Na- 0662-5. tional Movement. ICFAI Books. ISBN 978-81- • 7881-420-9. Parel, Anthony J., ed. (2009). Gandhi: “Hind Swaraj” and Other Writings Centenary Edition. • Andrews, C. F. (2008) [1930]. “VII – The Teach- Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521- ing of Ahimsa”. Mahatma Gandhi’s Ideas Including 14602-9. Selections from His Writings. Pierides Press. ISBN 978-1-4437-3309-0.

• Dalton, Dennis, ed. (1996). Mahatma Gandhi: Se- 12 External links lected Political Writings. Hackett Publishing. ISBN • 978-0-87220-330-3. Mahatma Gandhi at DMOZ • • Duncan, Ronald, ed. (May 2011). Selected Writ- About Mahatma Gandhi ings of Mahatma Gandhi. Literary Licensing, LLC. • Gandhi Ashram at Sabarmati ISBN 978-1-258-00907-6. • Gandhi Smriti — Government of India website • Gandhi, M. K.; Fischer, Louis (2002). Louis Fis- cher, ed. The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of • Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya Gandhi Mu- His Writings on His Life, Work and Ideas. Vintage seum & Library Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-3050-7. • Works by Mahatma Gandhi at Project Gutenberg • Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). Satya- • Works by or about Mahatma Gandhi at Internet graha in South Africa (in Gujarati) (1 ed.). Ahmed- Archive abad: Navajivan Publishing House. Translated by Valji G. Desai Free online access at Wikilivres.ca • Works by Mahatma Gandhi at LibriVox (public do- (1/e). Pdfs from Gandhiserve (3/e) & Yann Forget main audiobooks) (hosted by Arvind Gupta) (1/e).

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1994). The Col- lected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Publications Di- vision, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. ISBN 978-81-230-0239-2. (100 volumes). Free online access from Gandhiserve.

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). “Drain Inspector’s Report”. The United States of India 5 (6,7,8): 3–4.

• Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1990). Desai, Mahadev H., ed. Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover. ISBN 0-486-24593-4.

• Gandhi, Rajmohan (9 October 2007). Mohandas: True Story of a Man, His People. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-81-8475-317-2.

• Guha, Ramachandra (2 October 2013). “1. Middle Cast, Middle Rank”. Gandhi Before India. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 978-93-5118-322-8.

• Jack, Homer A., ed. (1994). The Gandhi Reader: A Source Book of His Life and Writings. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3161-4.

• Johnson, Richard L. and Gandhi, M. K. (2006). Gandhi’s Experiments With Truth: Essential Writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7. 32 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

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Aviators, Aberdonian99, Zuzubak, LogX, Rangers1007, Olliejd12, BarrelProof, Joefromrandb, Fauzan, Ravneek, Ewhitney3316, Nok163, Peaceout22345003, Millermk, LJosil, Ambkj123, Yster76, Errantsignal, Wdchk, Tinpisa, Akhil.bharathan, Hazhk, Aurora Glory Paradise, Kim Traynor, Sabinabraham, Newyorkadam, Irrigator, LesLein, Coulten, North Atlanticist Usonian, IgnorantArmies, Harsimaja, Hisham, Helpful Pixie Bot, SuprCookie, Shantnup, Thisthat2011, Dev1240, Sreeking, Indu27, Ayanosh, Titodutta, Rajananand456, BG19bot, AbhiSuryawanshi, ASHaber, Goldfinger123, Politics19, Sahara4u, PhnomPencil, Frze, Jogi don, Anubhab91, Dhanikataria, Debastein, Asha14, Pradeeptu- bati, Joydeep, CitationCleanerBot, Jeancey, Wodrow, Liczk, Zedshort, 1292simon, Mathnerd314159, Ubiquinoid, Adamstraw99, 9711CA, Vanischenu, Achowat, Nicke.me, Tamravidhir, BattyBot, KatieBU, Dav subrajathan.357, Samirbodkhe, Veazul, Haymouse, Timothy Gu, ChrisGualtieri, Sermadison, Alexyoung97, Nick.mon, Khazar2, Itbeso, Олеґ, Kumarila, Stumink, JYBot, Dylanvt, Srinubabuau6, Thhist, Harsh 2580, BrightStarSky, ABDEVILLIERS0007, Dexbot, Charles Essie, Mogism, Cooldennisjo9490, Abitoby, Ashwin147, Sp1nd01, TwoTwoHello, Svpnikhil, Vivekmandan, Beckmanse, Sriharsh1234, Rushikesh.tilak, KSK-War, Where’stheanykey, Mifciw, Wikirishi- aacharya, Vanished user kjn lsr35kjhwertsek4, Royroydeb, Prabhu Prasad Tripathy, SteamWiki, Vanamonde93, BreakfastJr, Ashishben, Eshwar.om, Rahul RJ Jain, DrAndrewWinters, BEST STAR 907, Pragmatic Idealist, Vgnome, Flat Out, Wamiq, Jan Kaninchen, Censored- 13.2 Images 35

Scribe, Nawintechno, Saramohanpur1940, Montonius, Ugog Nizdast, The Herald, ThinkingYouth, Zaketo, Inanygivenhole, KhoikhoiPos- sum, Jackmcbarn, Notthebestusername, Yoonadue, Philoﬁler, RouLong, Bladesmulti, Bojo1498, Sachinjangra0, Ithinkicahn, Meteor sand- wich yum, Royalcourtier, Atcovi, Seabuckthorn, Lakun.patra, Skr15081997, Bittenﬁg, Viratk, Pohnnyjham, Mahusha, Monkbot, Zu- moarirodoka, AKS.9955, Shane Cyrus, Filedelinkerbot, Jim Carter, Indrajitdas, Pratik Basu tkwbi, Vinícius94, Olef641, Ssven2, Ibi- rapuera, Ankurjoshi87, Aryamanarora, PatTheMoron, Kautilya3, Happyned, Mahajandeepakv, SourceOhWatch (SrotahaUvacha), Srini- vasprabhu933, Sqizcm, Rimjhimgolf, Debtang1019, Conradjagan, Sumedh Tayade, Hemal.hansda25, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, A3X2, Capankajsmilyo, Roman Windfeller, Haxxorsid, Padmalochanwiki, PradeepBoston, Dr Extraordinary Intelligent and Anonymous: 2067

13.2 Images

• File:BlackFlagSymbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Jsymmetry at English Wikipedia • File:Bust_of_Mahatma_Gandhi,_Saughton_Park,_Edinburgh_(1997).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/2/28/Bust_of_Mahatma_Gandhi%2C_Saughton_Park%2C_Edinburgh_%281997%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu- tors: Own work Original artist: Kim Traynor • File:Carl_Spitzweg_021-detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Carl_Spitzweg_021-detail.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Diese Datei: File:Carl Spitzweg 021.jpg Original artist: Carl Spitzweg • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Conscience_and_law.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Conscience_and_law.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:Justitia auf Gericht 2006-02-05 (2).JPG Original artist: Johannes Otto Först (cropped by Marcel Douwe Dekker) • File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_Indian_National_Congress.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_the_ Indian_National_Congress.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image drawn by me, Nichalp using Inkscape. Original artist: Own work • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gandhi_Boer_War.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Gandhi_Boer_War.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: http://web.mahatma.org.in/pictures/images/piccat0007/sa_1024_0015.jpg Original artist: Unknown • File:Gandhi_Commons.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Gandhi_Commons.jpg License: CC BY- SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sergio Valle Duarte • File:Gandhi_Jinnah_1944.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Gandhi_Jinnah_1944.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: gandhiserve.org Original artist: Unknown • File:Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Brown, Judith. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1989, p. 116. Original artist: Unknown • File:Gandhi_Memorial_Kanyakumari.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Gandhi_Memorial_ Kanyakumari.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gandhi_Memorial_Kanyakumari.jpg Originally uploaded 4:06, 1 January 2005 (UTC) by Tony Jones (talk) to en:Wikipedia (log). Original artist: Tony Jones • File:Gandhi_South-Africa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Gandhi_South-Africa.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.resurgence.org/resurgence/pictures/Gandhi214.jpg Original artist: Un- known • File:Gandhi_Tolstoy_Farm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Gandhi_Tolstoy_Farm.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: gandhiserve.org Original artist: Unknown 36 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Gandhi_Willingdon_caricature_1932.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Gandhi_Willingdon_ caricature_1932.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dinodia.com/photos/MKG-33384.jpg Original artist: Un- known • File:Gandhi_and_Indira_1924.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Gandhi_and_Indira_1924.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Scan by Yann from a picture given by Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad. Original artist: Unknown • File:Gandhi_and_Kasturbhai_1902.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Gandhi_and_Kasturbhai_ 1902.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mahatma.org.in/books/images/io0002/pg0002_1.jpg Original artist: Unknown • File:Gandhi_and_Nehru_1942.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gandhi_and_Nehru_1942.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://img27.fansshare.com/pic105/w/timeline-of-indian-history/1200/26947_timeline_of_indian_ history.jpg Original artist: Credited to Dave Davis, Acme Newspictures Inc., correspondent [1]

• File:Gandhi_at_Darwen_with_women.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Gandhi_at_Darwen_with_ women.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://flickr.com/photo_zoom.gne?id=639764555&size=l Original artist: Un- known • File:Gandhi_home.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Gandhi_home.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Con- tributors: originally posted to Flickr as Ghandiji Ashram Original artist: Dave Morris • File:Gandhi_spinning.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Gandhi_spinning.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: gandhiserve.org Original artist: Unknown • File:Gandhi_suit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Gandhi_suit.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: gandhiserve.org Original artist: Unknown • File:Gandi_bista_Novi_Beograd.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Gandi_bista_Novi_Beograd. JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 rs Contributors: Transferred from sr.wikipedia to Commons by BokicaK using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Иван Ћурчић at Serbian Wikipedia • File:God_is_Truth.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/God_is_Truth.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: gandhiserve.org Original artist: Mohandas K. Gandhi • File:MKGandhi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Portrait_Gandhi.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: http://flickr.com/photos/55638925@N00/255569844/ Original artist: Unknown • File:MKGandhi_assassination_spot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/MKGandhi_assassination_ spot.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fowler&fowler • File:Mahadev_Desai_and_Gandhi_2_1939.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Mahadev_Desai_ and_Gandhi_2_1939.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Mahatmagandhi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Mahatmagandhi.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Andrevruas • File:Mohandas_K._Gandhi_signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Mohandas_K._Gandhi_ signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This ﬁle was derived from: Mahatma-Gandhi-Signature-Transparent.png Original artist: Mahatma Gandhi • File:Mountbattens_with_Gandhi_(IND_5298).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Mountbattens_ with_Gandhi_%28IND_5298%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Through My Eyes Original artist: No 9 Army Film & Photo- graphic Unit 13.3 Content license 37

• File:Om.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:P_derecho.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/P_derecho.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own work based on File:Scale of justice 2.svg and File:P blank.svg Original artist: User:Kontos • File:Salt_March.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Salt_March.ogg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: http://streams.gandhiserve.org/see_the_mahatma.html Original artist: Unknown • File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia. • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Proﬁl by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Proﬁl • File:Tagore_Gandhi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Tagore_Gandhi.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: http://web.mahatma.org.in/pictures/images/piccat0001/le_1024_0026.jpg Original artist: Un- known • File:The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3793_stamp_(Mahatma_Gandhi).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/9/92/The_Soviet_Union_1969_CPA_3793_stamp_%28Mahatma_Gandhi%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned 600 dpi by User Matsievsky from personal collection Original artist: USSR Post • File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Young_Gandhi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Young_Gandhi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Young_India.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Young_India.png License: Public domain Con- tributors: http://www.gandhi-manibhavan.org/eduresources/images/Young_India.gif Original artist: Mohandas K. Gandhi

13.3 Content license

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