The Garden Club of America Tour to Japan, 1935

BRIAN PENDLETON In May 1935, imperial princes, influential businessmen PH.D. and élite members of Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai (The “Submerged Society for International Cultural Relations) hosted ninety members from the Garden Club of America by the nobler (hereafter GCA) on a 21-day tour of gardens in Tokyo desire”: The and Kyoto. The American guests also experienced Japanese culture—tea (fig. 1), Noh, ikebana, dance, Garden Club art displays and the best of Japanese and western of America food. For the Japanese hosts, this was more than an Tour to Japan, opportunity to showcase traditional practices and cultural treasures. The tour was “garden diplomacy,” an 1935 attempt to utilize the positive impression of Japanese gardens to impact influential Americans at a time of growing tension between Japan and the United States (fig. 2). The welcoming speech by the president of the Katakura Silk Manufacturing Company illustrates the larger goal:

The finest example of international trade between Japan and America is the interchange of our silk for your cotton. Here lies the basis for permanent peace. The mutual ties of friendship produced by the tiny filaments of silk and cotton form a far greater basis for peace that all the diplomatic conferences that were ever held. In the friendly interchange of our products we find mutual understanding and a desire for peace.1

Similar sentiments were expressed many times by the Japanese hosts. This essay analyzes the tour program, itinerary, and the interactions between the Japanese hosts and their American guests. It reflects on the event’s underlying motivations that crystallized the political dimensions of garden tourism and produced some early important books in English on Japanese gardens.

1. R. L. Warren, “Japan,” Garden Club of America Bulletin, September 1935, p. 36. Several Club members helped collect and analyze material for this paper, for which the author is most grateful.

51 Historical Context

The 1935 tour took place in the context of tumultuous political, cultural, and international events. The Great Depression caused by the 1929 stock market crash, saw skyrocketing unemployment, bankruptcy and social instability. In Japan the banking crisis deepened, zaibatsu (business conglomerates) pushed for cartelization, farm families struggled with cheaper imports from Japan’s colonies in Taiwan and Korea, and militarists blamed government leaders. As nations retreated into protectionism, anti-Asian immigration fears re-surfaced. Japan joined the League of Nations after World War I, but felt discriminated against when proposals on racial equality were defeated and the Washington Naval Conference approved unfavorable ship ratios. When Imperial troops established the puppet-state of Manchukuo in 1932, international criticism led to Japan’s withdrawal from the League in February1933—further isolating the country.

Natural disasters added to the despair, specifically the 1934 Muroto typhoon which resulted in 2,702 dead, 334 missing and 14,994 injured.2 Its destruction was felt from Kobe to Tokyo, including many gardens. This loss led, in part, to the decision by Shigemori Mirei (1896-1975) to document more than three hundred gardens to assist in their future restoration. The result, the twenty-six-volume Nihon teienshi zukan (Illustrated History of Japanese Gardens), renewed interest in garden history and design.3 Western authors also promoted interest in Japanese gardens—for example, Charles Sherrill published Some Old Kyoto Gardens and their Thought (1935) and Loraine Kuck wrote One Hundred Kyoto Gardens (1936) based in part on work done for the 1935 tour.4

TOP (Fig. 1): Tea ceremony in Mr. Hirai’s garden, Photographic 2. Various sources document the destruction. See, for example, http:// Diary, May 23. www.google.ca/search?q=1934+typhoon+Japan CENTER (Fig 2): Kasumigaseki Detached Palace, at the special 3. Christian Tschumi, Mirei Shigemori-Modernizing the Japanese invitation of H.I.H. Prince Takamatsu (center), with Prime Garden (Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press, 2005), p. 15. Minister Okada (4 L) and U.S. Ambassador Joseph Grew (4 R), Tokyo, Photographic Diary, May 14. 4.Charles H. Sherrill, Some Old Kyoto Gardens and their Thought (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai, 1935). It excerpted parts of his BOTTOM (Fig 3): Garden Society of Japan President, Raita earlier book, Have We a Far Eastern Policy? (New York: Charles Fujiyama’s private garden reception, Shirokane, Tokyo, Photographic Diary, May 19. Scribner’s Sons, 1920), pp. 105-41.

52 Acknowledging the need to counterbalance these is best understood in this challenges, cultural organizations and ambassadors framework of realities and continued old practices and started new ones. The objectives. month-long tour in November 1934 of American baseball stars updated a practice initiated by the Tour Planning, Japanese in the early 1900s.5 Program and Personalities in Japan In contrast, the garden tour was an international bi-lateral effort by public and private organizations. Planning fell to many To improve ties with its neighbors, the Japanese individuals and groups. On government established the Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai the Japanese side, the General (hereafter KBS) in April 1934.6 It coordinated Committee for reception of international cultural relations and worked alongside the Garden Club of America such organizations as Bureau of International Tourism (the Committee), composed (1930), International Tourist Committee (1931), The of more than one hundred Association of International Tourists (1931), and the individuals of social rank, Japan English Speaking Students Association (1933).7 addressed social, cultural KBS programs included translations and publications, and logistical issues.10 The list exhibits and lectures, film production, scholar and of dignitaries and members student exchanges, and contact with cultural groups was five pages long—the abroad. Its main principle was national diplomacy with same as the 90-member list each citizen acting as a “private” diplomat to help of GCA tour delegates—a foreigners understand Japanese viewpoints or Japan ratio designed to maximize itself. The goal was to eliminate “misunderstandings” individual contact.11 The about Japan by international or transnational non- distinguished names (given state actors.8 A core part of the message was Japan`s in western surname order) “special” status as the only Asian country to have of the committee reveal “survived” the impact of 19th century western the political import of the imperialism, having modernized without losing its event.12 The chairman was essence.9 The premise was that Japan could best Prince Iyesato Tokugawa, and integrate Oriental culture with Occidental culture. The vice-chairs Marquis Yorisada 1935 tour of Japan by the Garden Club of America Tokugawa and Count Aisuke

5. “Babe Ruth comes with Baseball Team,” The Japan Times, Friday, November 2, 1934, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/ news/2009/11/15/national/history/babe-ruth 6. Atsushi Shibasaki, “Activities and Discourses on International Cultural Relation in Modern Japan: the making of KBS (Kokusai Bunka Shinkō Kai), 1934-53,” Journal Global Media Studies, vol. 8 (March 2011), pp. 25-41. 7. Shibasaki, p. 26. See also, Sang Mi Park, “Wartime Japan’s Cultural Diplomacy and the Establishment of Culture Bureaus,” WIAS Discussion Paper No. 2008-2009, Waseda Institute for Advanced Studies, March 5, 2009. http://www.waseda.jp/ wias/eng/achievement/dp/data/dp2008009.pdf 8. Shibasaki, pp. 27-30. 9. Ibid. 10. A Photographic Diary of the Visit of the Garden Club of America to Japan at the Invitation of Prince Iyesato Tokugawa, May 13th to June 2nd, 1935 (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai, 1935), np. This unpaginated book documents chronologically tour activities and social functions. 11. Photographic Diary. 12. Handbook for Delegates of the Garden Club of America to Japan, May 13th to June 2nd 1935 (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai, 1935), pp. 13-17 and Photographic Diary. 53 (Fig. 4): Baron Mitsui’s villa, Hakone, Photographic Diary, May 20.

Kabayama. Notable members included: Tominosuke Asayama (Mayor officials or dignitaries.14 Clearly the of Kyoto), Baron Ino Dan (KBS), Raita Fujiyama (Garden Society of Japanese organizers saw this as Japan; fig. 3), Kensuke Horinouchi (Department of Foreign Affairs), more than a meeting of garden Michiko Kinoshita (Imperial Household Department), Baron Ichizaemon enthusiasts. During the tour, GCA Morimura (America-Japan Society), Tsuyoshi Tamura (Garden Society of members visited the following Japan) and Toratora Ushizuka (Mayor of Tokyo). Several of these men public and temple gardens: were western educated and would play important roles in international Sankei-en, Meiji, Shinjuku, Ryōanji, relations. An Executive Committee of ten was assisted by a Ladies’ Daitokuji, Ginkakuji, Heian Jingū, Committee of nearly one hundred under the joint patronage of the Kyoto Imperial Palace, Nijō Castle, Imperial Prince and Princess Fumimaro Konoye and the American Katsura, Saihōji, Tenryūji, Kinkakuji, Ambassador and Mrs. Joseph C. Grew. Among these women, divided and Shūgakuin. In addition, they into boards and subcommittees, were Marchioness Yorisada Tokugawa, were hosted at many private Mrs. Shigeru Yoshida (wife of the politician and post-war Prime estate and villa gardens, including Minister), Mrs. Yoneo Arai (a teacher of ikebana living in Riverside, those of Baron Shidehara, Baron Connecticut, who served as U.S. planning liaison), and nearly a dozen Fujita (Chinzan-sō), Baron Iwasaki, American women living in Japan. Baron Mitsui (fig. 4), Raita Fujiyama, Kaichiro Nezu, Katsutaro Inahata, To minimize misunderstandings, little was left to chance. Each guest Tokushichi Nomura, Yae Ichida and received a 90-page Handbook, outlining the itinerary, detailing well- Nihei Hirai. known Japanese gardens and providing recommended reading but also listing the delegates, members of the Japanese reception The Garden Club of committee, cooperating organizations, Consular offices, useful facts, America and local customs.13 The GCA was founded in The tour included visits to public and private gardens, exhibitions 1913, with its headquarters in and demonstrations of traditional Japanese arts, as well as formal and New York.15 Its broad mandate informal receptions and functions—many of which were hosted by includes: comprehensive programs

13. Handbook, pp. 60-76. 14. Handbook, pp. 18-59, Warren, pp. 16-18 and Photographic Diary. 15. Further details on the GCA may be found on the website: https://www.gcamerica.org

54 on horticultural awareness, leading New York socialite.17 The president-elect, Sarah Gildersleeve conservation and environmental (Mrs. Robert) Fife, a descendant of the 1630 Puritan emigration, was protection, education and a national leader in fund raising and conservation, and supporter of community involvement, and the New York Horticulture Society, 1939 World’s Fair, and New York historical documentation Botanical Garden.18 The social, cultural, and economic prominence of and preservation. Today its GCA members was clearly recognized by the Japanese. membership numbers 18,000 in more than 200 clubs. In 1935, the Host and Guest Motivations and Interactions Club had 7,000 members “of high cultural attainment.” Speeches by American delegates and Japanese hosts provide insight into perspectives on the tour experience, the gardens, and socio- The 1935 trip to Japan was for cultural norms. In an address for Japanese radio on May 16, reflecting the hardy and the financially fit. on the journey to Japan, Mrs. Bulkley proclaimed, “We know that GCA members arrived by train the spirit of understanding and devotion which has been fostered in San Francisco, then embarked between us by you as givers and by us as receivers will always live on the Chichibu Maru with a and help further the friendship between our two nations.”19 The GCA three-day stop in Honolulu before delegation was feted at formal receptions hosted by Japan’s political arriving in Yokohama on May 13. and social elite, including the official residences of Prince and Princess The American delegation was, Takamatsu, Foreign Minister Kōki Hirota, and the Peers Club. Prince like their hosts, comprised of Tokugawa’s welcome at the May 14 America-Japan Society dinner individuals of high means and pinpointed the cultural and political motivations of the hosts and, social status. The GCA Delegation perhaps, the guests: List identifies ten officials, and 113 members (including 13 men) This is the first time in the life of our society that the opportunity from 53 clubs listed alphabetically has been given us to receive such a large delegation, composed of by club affiliation, though only members of high cultural attainment who are joined together by the about 90 persons made the trip.16 desire to foster the aesthetic nature of mankind. In the recent years Most delegates came from the we have exchanged goodwill missions between our two countries northeast. Famous names included for the promotion of better understanding. Such missions have had DuPont (Delaware), Hooker for their objects the improvement of political relations or furthering (Connecticut), Warren (Michigan), economic accommodations in order to forward the interest of the Lapham (Massachusetts), and countries concerned. Sewell (Texas). The high social standing of most GCA members In the conception of your journey to Japan, however, all thoughts of was reflected in the officers; gain or profit have been submerged by the nobler desire to enjoy however, in keeping with the the beauties of nature and of the artistic achievement of men. I practice of the times, women were believe I can safely say that we have never had such a large group usually identified by association of visitors from abroad who have come neither to advance interests with their husband`s name. nor to seek simple pleasures, but to study and appreciate cultural The president, Sarah Tod (Mrs. endeavors and accomplishments of our nation. To me it seems as Jonathan) Bulkley, was active in if it were the work of Providence that you should be brought here YWCA Settlement work and a to study the gardens of our country. That our people have used

16. Handbook, pp. 7-12 and Photographic Diary. 17. “Daytonian in Manhattan – the 1911 Jonathan Bulkley House, No. 600 Park Avenue, http://daytoninmanhattan.blogspot.ca/2011/09 18. “Sarah Gildersleeve Fife,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Gildersleeve_Fife 19. Warren, p. 34.

55 many other mediums of artistic expression no one years now some of your beautiful flowers, will deny….But perhaps no other form of artistic such as wisteria, azalea and the iris (which expression has made such universal appeal to all we call Japanese) have been prime favorites classes in our country and has occupied such an with us and we should be bereft indeed were important place in the hearts of our people as that we to lose their beauty from our gardens. But of creative gardening. the most delightful reminder to us of your country, as well as your far famed courtesy, is In addition, the Prince spoke diplomatically of the the wonderful gift of cherry trees you sent us renewed importance in Japan of defining and accepting several years ago. “national character” as the country dealt with the evolving domestic and international challenges: Although noting the different approaches to garden design, Mrs. Bulkley speculated on the Our love of gardens is nothing but our love of role gardens might play in the “desire for peace” nature. No Japanese dwelling, however, humble, can through mutual understanding: exist without its garden, because the garden is as essential as the sheltering roof or the protecting Your gardens are full of symbolism—they wall. Between the house and the garden there imitate in construction the beauty of Nature’s is no line of demarcation. The garden has been landscape, they are exquisite in detail, in plant developed to bring nature into the dwellings of our material and in the spiritual interpretation of people, equally for the wealthy and the humble…. their meaning. Our gardens attempt rather It is, indeed, a great revelation to us that the quiet to create a picture complete in itself. They charm of our gardens has found such a responsive combine in their planting, the influences of chord in the hearts of the people of America. many lands. We look to them more for bloom Your coming will bring to us a new inspiration for and color, and as a rule they lack traditional appreciation of nature will awaken us to a new background, but we go to them, as do you, for realization of our national character. It seems most recreation and to enjoy the fragrance and the fitting that we should receive such selected friends beauty of the flowers; we go to them to escape from beyond the Pacific in the quiet of our gardens the turmoil of modern life and above all to for the enjoyment of true companionship….On our seek the spiritual refreshment which brings part we hope to receive from you invaluable lessons with it peace of mind and body. in social virtues, for beautification of communities, and for proper preservation of natural beauties.20 I know that dreams are not supposed to come true, but I like to dream that perhaps In response, Mrs. Bulkley spoke of the GCA, its someday a great International Garden may be members, and then the purpose of the trip: built by those nations who share each other’s love for this fine art. In my dream garden Compared with the recorded civilization of Japan the people of the world will meet and learn our nation is indeed very young….Therefore, it is but to know each other and so acquire a fuller recently as history goes that interest in gardening understanding of their mutual interests, with a as an art has swept across the length and breadth keener appreciation of each other’s gifts and of our land, the Garden Club of America claims a consequent desire for peace—peace not that it has been among the foremost influences only in the life of the individual but that of the which has made this movement possible. For many nation as well.21

20. Warren, pp. 24-25. 21. Warren, pp. 25-26.

56 The GCA visitors’ knowledge of Japanese gardens was enhanced by the Handbook which provided details on specific gardens and a bibliography of books in English and Japanese, including Josiah Conder’s Landscape Gardening in Japan (1893), Harada Jiro’s The Gardens of Japan (1928), and several works by Tatsui Matsunosuke. Harada lectured at the Miyako Hotel on May 22 on mood and symbolism, aesthetics and Zen, and the garden designs of Sōami and Kobori Enshū.22 Earlier, following a garden party hosted by Prince Takamatsu on May 14, each GCA member was presented with a book commissioned by KBS and written by Tamura Tsuyoshi, Art of the Landscape Garden in Japan. In his introduction, Tamura noted that despite broad interest in studying and building Japanese gardens, few westerners “rightly comprehend” their form or spirit, preferring instead “wrong imitations or arbitrary adaptations.”23

Whether Tamura`s skepticism was ever addressed further is unknown, but tour members had ample opportunities to learn about gardens. Although few tour members likely read all 245 pages, the book extensively explained the characteristics, history, design and materials of Japanese gardens.

It was richly illustrated with more than one hundred pages of photographs. In addition to the official garden sites and social functions, the hosts encouraged their guests to visit optional locations during unscheduled periods. In Tokyo they recommended the Imperial Museum, Ōkura Art Museum, Tokyo Golf Club, several public gardens, and the Giant Buddha in Kamakura. Suggested places in the Kyoto region included Mt. Hiei, Takao Valley, Hozu River Rapids, several famous temples and gardens, and Mount Rokkō in Kobe. The Japan Tourist Bureau suggested three post-tour journeys to southern locations.24

The complex logistics of moving a large group led to several challenges and observations, both humorous and substantive, by hosts and guests.25 The Japanese side regretted that the visitors were often driven to a garden, temple or shrine entrance—thereby depriving them of the peaceful experience gained by walking. Some hosts commented that the guests’ shoes and clothing were not suited to the sites visited—or to those with “big bodies.” The guides also noted that their guests sometimes missed aspects important to the Japanese. For example, at Ryōanji, some “counted rocks only,” at Nijō Castle, the interior drew more attention than the garden, and at Daitokuji, only a few “saw the whole layout.” Among the guests, some thought that Kinkakuji, well-known from photos, was “not so

22. Handbook, 38 and Warren, pp. 43-44. 23. Tsuyoshi Tamura, The Art of the Landscape Garden in Japan (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai, 1936), p. 3. 24. Handbook, 30, p. 52-54. 25. “63 nenmae no nichibei teien shinzenki,” Nihon no niwa no miryoku (The Fascination of Japanese Garden[s]) ’98-6 (Tokyo: Kenchiku Shiryo Kenkyusha, 1998), pp. 183-89.

57 impressive,” and vast Shūgakuin proved a tiring by the mayors of those cities walk. Many of the GCA members, however, were we have visited in our tour. observant, knowledgeable visitors. They often identified plants by botanical name, recognized Perhaps the greatest discovery differing design elements between Japan and which has been made by America, appreciated teahouse simplicity, and the members who have noted the seasonal nature of trees and flowers. never been here before was Both sides lamented the hurried schedules, with what an easy and delightful the Japanese concerned that GCA members trip it was to Japan on your were treated like typical tourists rather than comfortable ships, that it was locals who might prefer to sit and absorb the no further than going to a atmosphere. One American commented that Mediterranean point, and that visiting Ginkakuji (fig. 5) was “an unforgettable traveling in Japan was so very picture from which we would be reluctant to comfortable and delightful. turn were it not time to make our bows to With pleasant memories of a Kyoto’s Mayor.”26 most wonderful three weeks and of dear friends made Impacts and Outcomes since coming to Japan, I am sure most of the group will At the tour’s conclusion, some delegates travelled want to come again and see to other parts of Asia while most boarded ships much more of your country. for the return journey. At the final Farewell Not only that but the other Banquet, incoming President Fife, summarized the 7,000 members are going delegation’s feelings: to want to see and enjoy the beauties we have seen. We We have learned to know and love your do thank you most deeply for gardens. There is such a feeling of restfulness your kindness to us.27 and repose in them. We in America need just such gardens in our lives, and I feel sure that While the experiences were there will come from this visit a new type of positive for the majority of garden made by members of this group, not participants, there was a lingering gardens absolutely like yours, but with some feeling of exotica for some of the same quality and love of nature. We Americans and frustration from have also discovered the beauty of moss the Japanese. On the Japanese and stones. We have visited your palaces side, Count Kabayama, wryly and shrines and temples with their beautiful noted: “I feel as though I was the paintings and sculpture. We have enjoyed Headmaster of a ladies college.”28 keenly your Noh plays and puppet shows and are grateful for the many opportunities that On returning to the United have been given us to see so many interesting States, many delegates spoke to things so deeply rooted in the history and their respective clubs, and were culture of Japan and to be greeted so cordially the subject of short newspaper

26. Warren, p. 43. 27. Warren, p. 56. 28. Photographic Diary.

58 articles. There is little to indicate, however, that the tour experience resulted in an immediate surge in garden building based on Japanese design, themes or influences. It is possible, however, that such good will before the war contributed to the creation of Japanese gardens after the war. In Japan, many Committee members continued their work with KBS to promote cultural relations between Japan and the west. Count Kabayama, Baron Dan and others hosted tours, conferences and exchanges with foreigners into the1940s. With the American declaration of war in December 1941, military and political objectives replaced economic and cultural relations. Among GCA hosts, Prince Konoye, later twice Prime Minister, committed suicide in 1945, and Foreign Minister Hirota (fig. 6), also a war-time Prime Minister, was executed for war crimes in 1948, while Count Kabayama continued to promote cultural contacts until his death in 1953.

The written and photographic records (fig. 7) of the 1935 tour reveal the role played by Japanese gardens in the era of political and economic friction between World Wars I and II. In May 1961, at the invitation of Prime Minister Yoshida, the GCA again toured Japan. This time arriving by air, Garden Club members were met by several members of the 1935 hosting Committee. That tour and its politics are a story for another article.

TOP (Fig. 5): Ginkakuji (Silver Pavilion), Kyoto, Photographic Diary, May 22. CENTER (Fig. 6): Reception by H.E. Foreign Minister Hirota Kōki at his official residence (L-R: Count Kabayama, Mrs. Arai, Mrs. Fife, FM Hirota, Mrs. Bulkley, Mr. Bulkley), Tokyo, Photographic Diary, May 15. BOTTOM (Fig. 7): Mr. Inahata’s four-acre garden residence, Kyoto, Photographic Diary, May 28.

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