BRIAN PENDLETON In May 1935, imperial princes, influential businessmen PH.D. and élite members of Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai (The “Submerged Society for International Cultural Relations) hosted ninety members from the Garden Club of America by the nobler (hereafter GCA) on a 21-day tour of gardens in Tokyo desire”: The and Kyoto. The American guests also experienced Japanese culture—tea (fig. 1), Noh, ikebana, dance, Garden Club art displays and the best of Japanese and western of America food. For the Japanese hosts, this was more than an Tour to Japan, opportunity to showcase traditional practices and cultural treasures. The tour was “garden diplomacy,” an 1935 attempt to utilize the positive impression of Japanese gardens to impact influential Americans at a time of growing tension between Japan and the United States (fig. 2). The welcoming speech by the president of the Katakura Silk Manufacturing Company illustrates the larger goal: The finest example of international trade between Japan and America is the interchange of our silk for your cotton. Here lies the basis for permanent peace. The mutual ties of friendship produced by the tiny filaments of silk and cotton form a far greater basis for peace that all the diplomatic conferences that were ever held. In the friendly interchange of our products we find mutual understanding and a desire for peace.1 Similar sentiments were expressed many times by the Japanese hosts. This essay analyzes the tour program, itinerary, and the interactions between the Japanese hosts and their American guests. It reflects on the event’s underlying motivations that crystallized the political dimensions of garden tourism and produced some early important books in English on Japanese gardens. 1. R. L. Warren, “Japan,” Garden Club of America Bulletin, September 1935, p. 36. Several Club members helped collect and analyze material for this paper, for which the author is most grateful. 51 Historical Context The 1935 tour took place in the context of tumultuous political, cultural, and international events. The Great Depression caused by the 1929 stock market crash, saw skyrocketing unemployment, bankruptcy and social instability. In Japan the banking crisis deepened, zaibatsu (business conglomerates) pushed for cartelization, farm families struggled with cheaper imports from Japan’s colonies in Taiwan and Korea, and militarists blamed government leaders. As nations retreated into protectionism, anti-Asian immigration fears re-surfaced. Japan joined the League of Nations after World War I, but felt discriminated against when proposals on racial equality were defeated and the Washington Naval Conference approved unfavorable ship ratios. When Imperial troops established the puppet-state of Manchukuo in 1932, international criticism led to Japan’s withdrawal from the League in February1933—further isolating the country. Natural disasters added to the despair, specifically the 1934 Muroto typhoon which resulted in 2,702 dead, 334 missing and 14,994 injured.2 Its destruction was felt from Kobe to Tokyo, including many gardens. This loss led, in part, to the decision by Shigemori Mirei (1896-1975) to document more than three hundred gardens to assist in their future restoration. The result, the twenty-six-volume Nihon teienshi zukan (Illustrated History of Japanese Gardens), renewed interest in garden history and design.3 Western authors also promoted interest in Japanese gardens—for example, Charles Sherrill published Some Old Kyoto Gardens and their Thought (1935) and Loraine Kuck wrote One Hundred Kyoto Gardens (1936) based in part on work done for the 1935 tour.4 TOP (Fig. 1): Tea ceremony in Mr. Hirai’s garden, Photographic 2. Various sources document the destruction. See, for example, http:// Diary, May 23. www.google.ca/search?q=1934+typhoon+Japan CENTER (Fig 2): Kasumigaseki Detached Palace, at the special 3. Christian Tschumi, Mirei Shigemori-Modernizing the Japanese invitation of H.I.H. Prince Takamatsu (center), with Prime Garden (Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press, 2005), p. 15. Minister Okada (4 L) and U.S. Ambassador Joseph Grew (4 R), Tokyo, Photographic Diary, May 14. 4.Charles H. Sherrill, Some Old Kyoto Gardens and their Thought (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai, 1935). It excerpted parts of his BOTTOM (Fig 3): Garden Society of Japan President, Raita earlier book, Have We a Far Eastern Policy? (New York: Charles Fujiyama’s private garden reception, Shirokane, Tokyo, Photographic Diary, May 19. Scribner’s Sons, 1920), pp. 105-41. 52 Acknowledging the need to counterbalance these is best understood in this challenges, cultural organizations and ambassadors framework of realities and continued old practices and started new ones. The objectives. month-long tour in November 1934 of American baseball stars updated a practice initiated by the Tour Planning, Japanese in the early 1900s.5 Program and Personalities in Japan In contrast, the garden tour was an international bi-lateral effort by public and private organizations. Planning fell to many To improve ties with its neighbors, the Japanese individuals and groups. On government established the Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai the Japanese side, the General (hereafter KBS) in April 1934.6 It coordinated Committee for reception of international cultural relations and worked alongside the Garden Club of America such organizations as Bureau of International Tourism (the Committee), composed (1930), International Tourist Committee (1931), The of more than one hundred Association of International Tourists (1931), and the individuals of social rank, Japan English Speaking Students Association (1933).7 addressed social, cultural KBS programs included translations and publications, and logistical issues.10 The list exhibits and lectures, film production, scholar and of dignitaries and members student exchanges, and contact with cultural groups was five pages long—the abroad. Its main principle was national diplomacy with same as the 90-member list each citizen acting as a “private” diplomat to help of GCA tour delegates—a foreigners understand Japanese viewpoints or Japan ratio designed to maximize itself. The goal was to eliminate “misunderstandings” individual contact.11 The about Japan by international or transnational non- distinguished names (given state actors.8 A core part of the message was Japan`s in western surname order) “special” status as the only Asian country to have of the committee reveal “survived” the impact of 19th century western the political import of the imperialism, having modernized without losing its event.12 The chairman was essence.9 The premise was that Japan could best Prince Iyesato Tokugawa, and integrate Oriental culture with Occidental culture. The vice-chairs Marquis Yorisada 1935 tour of Japan by the Garden Club of America Tokugawa and Count Aisuke 5. “Babe Ruth comes with Baseball Team,” The Japan Times, Friday, November 2, 1934, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/ news/2009/11/15/national/history/babe-ruth 6. Atsushi Shibasaki, “Activities and Discourses on International Cultural Relation in Modern Japan: the making of KBS (Kokusai Bunka Shinkō Kai), 1934-53,” Journal Global Media Studies, vol. 8 (March 2011), pp. 25-41. 7. Shibasaki, p. 26. See also, Sang Mi Park, “Wartime Japan’s Cultural Diplomacy and the Establishment of Culture Bureaus,” WIAS Discussion Paper No. 2008-2009, Waseda Institute for Advanced Studies, March 5, 2009. http://www.waseda.jp/ wias/eng/achievement/dp/data/dp2008009.pdf 8. Shibasaki, pp. 27-30. 9. Ibid. 10. A Photographic Diary of the Visit of the Garden Club of America to Japan at the Invitation of Prince Iyesato Tokugawa, May 13th to June 2nd, 1935 (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai, 1935), np. This unpaginated book documents chronologically tour activities and social functions. 11. Photographic Diary. 12. Handbook for Delegates of the Garden Club of America to Japan, May 13th to June 2nd 1935 (Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkōkai, 1935), pp. 13-17 and Photographic Diary. 53 (Fig. 4): Baron Mitsui’s villa, Hakone, Photographic Diary, May 20. Kabayama. Notable members included: Tominosuke Asayama (Mayor officials or dignitaries.14 Clearly the of Kyoto), Baron Ino Dan (KBS), Raita Fujiyama (Garden Society of Japanese organizers saw this as Japan; fig. 3), Kensuke Horinouchi (Department of Foreign Affairs), more than a meeting of garden Michiko Kinoshita (Imperial Household Department), Baron Ichizaemon enthusiasts. During the tour, GCA Morimura (America-Japan Society), Tsuyoshi Tamura (Garden Society of members visited the following Japan) and Toratora Ushizuka (Mayor of Tokyo). Several of these men public and temple gardens: were western educated and would play important roles in international Sankei-en, Meiji, Shinjuku, Ryōanji, relations. An Executive Committee of ten was assisted by a Ladies’ Daitokuji, Ginkakuji, Heian Jingū, Committee of nearly one hundred under the joint patronage of the Kyoto Imperial Palace, Nijō Castle, Imperial Prince and Princess Fumimaro Konoye and the American Katsura, Saihōji, Tenryūji, Kinkakuji, Ambassador and Mrs. Joseph C. Grew. Among these women, divided and Shūgakuin. In addition, they into boards and subcommittees, were Marchioness Yorisada Tokugawa, were hosted at many private Mrs. Shigeru Yoshida (wife of the politician and post-war Prime estate and villa gardens, including Minister), Mrs. Yoneo Arai (a teacher of ikebana living in Riverside, those of Baron Shidehara, Baron Connecticut, who served as U.S. planning liaison), and nearly a dozen Fujita (Chinzan-sō), Baron Iwasaki,