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http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. Supportive Environments for Active Living?: A Case Study of Local Government Discourses of the Built and Social Environments and Physical Activity A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Masters of Sport & Leisure Studies at The University of Waikato By Tony Ryks University of Waikato 2008 ABSTRACT Lack of physical activity among New Zealanders is typically regarded as a serious public health concern. Surveys indicate that a considerable proportion of the population fail to engage in even modest amounts. As well as conferring health benefits, leading an active life can help to build social capital, achieve manual tasks, enhance enjoyment, and reduce traffic congestion and pollution. The research of physical activity in New Zealand is, therefore, important. Many factors influence physical activity behaviour, but traditionally there has been a focus on individual- level behaviour-change approaches. In recent years research has started to focus more on characteristics of physical and social environments, such as provision of cycle paths and development of community social cohesion. Concerned by what I observed to be an over-emphasis by New Zealand agencies on encouraging individual behaviour change, I set out to examine the factors that contributed to the shaping of built and social environments, and their effects on population physical activity. Identifying a gap in the research, I examined these factors via a case study of the Hamilton City Council (HCC). My study employed Foucauldian ‘tools’ to examine selected HCC documents and interview transcripts with a view to identifying the discourses underpinning local government action with regard to built and social environments and physical activity. In this process I interviewed seven HCC staff members from six relevant departments, including Parks and Gardens, Community Development, and Roading and Transportation. Data was gathered from the staff members using semi-structured interviews, based on pre-prepared guidelines, developed following a review of relevant literature. Relevant HCC strategy and planning documents were selected only after interviews were completed and included their urban design, transportation, creativity and identity and social well-being strategies. I adopted a Foucauldian perspective to analyse the data because I wanted to examine the phenomena of increased physical inactivity by questioning particular ‘ways of knowing’ and ‘truths’. Such an examination, at the level of local government, could help reveal why some cities are more conducive to active living than others. This theoretical approach helped reveal a number of underpinning discourses, including discourses of economic rationality; the council as nurturer; i safety and surveillance; participative government; and work efficiency. Key discourses of economic rationality and participative government were pervasive in both the interviews and documents, highlighting the degree to which economic considerations and consultative practices dominate local government actions. My four main findings were that HCC is shaped by and shapes certain discourses; HCC activities are contingent upon many factors outside their control; the creation of supportive environments for active living is a complex task; and, that dominating discourses can silence or obscure other equally valid discourses. These findings gave rise to discursive effects. Firstly, local authority planning, strategizing and action can promote population behaviour control by facilitating resident self- regulation. Secondly, factors outside the control of local authorities can impact on their ability to realise active living goals. Lastly, valid but silenced ‘ways of knowing’ about physical activity, health, and governance can constrain population physical activity participation. I found that HCC actions were reflective of the discourses identified, illustrating wider societal concerns regarding physical inactivity, obesity, citizenship, economic success, ‘democratic’ practices, and efficiency. This study contributes to population physical activity research by recognising the value of environmental approaches, but underscoring the need to consider the sources, mechanisms of maintenance, and effects of discourses circulating in local government using appropriate theoretical approaches. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Writing a thesis is a long, lonely, and often frustrating process, so I want to take the time to acknowledge the people that have made the process easier for me through their support. First of all, thank you Richard. I know I have had many moments of low motivation but you have encouraged me to keep going, think things through some more, and keep working on my drafts. Even though we didn’t meet up too often I really appreciated the quick turn-around and helpful comments on my work. It’s always good to receive guidance from someone who has ‘been there’ and ‘done that’ and is an expert in the field. Secondly, my thanks go out to Holly, you have always been only too willing to be my contact for discussion here in Hamilton. I have enjoyed your constructive critique and encouragement and appreciate your open-door policy. Maybe we’ll bump into each other out snowboarding one day. Thank you also to all the other staff within the Sport and Leisure Studies department of the University of Waikato who have helped me to engage in challenging and stimulating discussion and words of encouragement during my years of study. I also want to thank my family; Mum, Dad, Ted, Carina and John, plus partners and nieces; and my friends. Thank you all for supporting me throughout, it has been very reassuring and greatly appreciated. It has been very helpful talking to many different people about what I have been doing, my progress and findings. I have found casual discussion about beliefs, experiences and ideas, over a coffee or a beer, to be an extremely useful part of the whole process! Finally, my thanks and hugs go out to you Adrienne. Having recently completed your Masters thesis and I have really benefited from your words of support and encouragement. Also, good luck with your PhD! Thank you to you all. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i Acknowledgements iii Table of contents iv Chapter 1 - Introduction 1 Introduction and personal experiences 1 Focussing my interest 3 My research paradigm and general research question 5 Hamilton City and the Hamilton City Council 7 Significance of the study 9 Outline of thesis 10 Chapter 2 - A review of literature 12 Introduction and conceptual overview 12 Public health and physical activity 15 The case for environmental influences on active living 18 Government, politics, power and behaviour 34 Summary, research question, and rationale 37 Chapter 3 - Theoretical Approach 40 Social Ecological Theory 41 Social constructionism and discourse 45 Foucault and discourse 48 Power/knowledge 50 Bio-power and governmentality 52 Chapter 4 - Methodology 57 Data Collection 58 Data Analysis 61 Limitations of this study 65 iv Chapter 5 - Active citizens, prosperous city: Analysis of documents, findings and discussion 67 Guiding frameworks, strategies and plans 67 Underpinning discourses and ‘truths’ 72 Chapter 6 - Reconciling ideals and realities: Analysis of interviews, findings and discussion 83 Discourses of economic rationality 84 Discourses of safety and surveillance 94 Discourses of health and active living 99 Discourses of participative government 103 Discourses of work efficiency 108 Chapter 7 - Conclusions 115 Appendices 122 Appendix A – Interview guides 122 Appendix B – Open spaces in Hamilton’s CBD 138 Appendix C – Peacocke Structure Plan 142 Appendix D – Rotokauri Neighbourhood Centre 143 Appendix E – Rototuna Town Centre 144 References 145 v List of Figures Figure 1. Determinants of physical activity 17 Figure 2. Proposed ecological model of influences on walking and cycling 22 Figure 3. An ecological model of physical activity 43 Figure 4. Social ecological model of urban design influences on physical activity 44 Figure 5. HCC Vision and Mission statements 55 Figure 6. HCC Strategic Framework for the City 68 Figure 7. Relationship between Strategic Framework and key plans and policies 71 vi CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION …for legislators make the citizens good by forming habits in them, and this is the wish of every legislator; and those who do not effect it miss their mark, and it is in this that a good constitution differs from a bad one. (Aristotle, [1980; 1998 Trans.], p. 29) Little else is required to carry a state to the highest degree of opulence from the lowest barbarism, but peace, easy taxes, and a tolerable administration of justice: all the rest being brought about by the natural course of things. All governments which thwart the natural course, which

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