Child Studies in Diverse Contexts www.e-csdc.org 2012. Vol. 2, No. 1, 61-75 http://dx.doi.org/10.5723/csdc.2012.2.1.061

Liminal but Competent: Latin American Migrant Children and School in

María Florencia Amigó* Macquarie University

Indisputably school is the main institution that socialises migrant children into the culture of their new country. Through school they learn the new language and customs, which will enable them to become cultural brokers between the new cultural world and their families. During this process migrant children often transit a liminal terrain where their roles and identity become at the same time diverse and ambivalent. Despite the challenges involved these children often become experts in juggling different cultures, environments and expectations. This study explores the experiences of Latin American children and their families as they start primary school in Australia.

Keywords : migrant children, Hispanics, school, identity, liminality, Australia

Manuela1 is seven and is finishing year one. English. “She has a big sense of responsibility,” She was born in Spain of Peruvian parents, who her mother says. Manuela, as millions of other migrated to Australia about three years ago. migrant children, mediates between different Manuela says she likes Spain best although she cultural environments. Her life unfolds between has almost no memories of it, and hasn’t been Spanish and English, between images of Spain, back. She can speak some English and is doing Peru and Australia, between her Latin American fine at school, although she still has problems home and her Australian school, and she making friends. There are some other migrant mediates between her Peruvian family and their children in her classroom but she is the only –still unfamiliar—new homeland. This article Spanish-speaking one. Now that she can speak will delve into the lives of recently arrived English her mother says Manuela feels migrant Spanish speaking children and their responsible for the wellbeing of her mother and families in Australia and the impact of starting grandmother who cannot speak the language. school in the new country. Manuela teaches her mother English, and helps her communicate whenever they go out together. She also makes sure that her two younger Hispanics in Australia siblings who were born in Australia make an effort to talk to their grandmother in Spanish Spanish speaking migrants have been settling since she does not understand a single word of in Australia from the mid 1880s. López (2005) identifies four successive immigration waves: a first one consisting of Catalán migrants between * Corresponding Author: María Florencia Amigó, Honorary the mid 1880s to 1933, a second larger one of Research Associate, Children and Families Research Centre, Spanish migrants during the 60s and 70s, a third Macquarie University, NSW, 2109, Australia. E-mail: maria. [email protected] one from South America during the 70s and

Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) 61 Amigó early 80s, and a fourth one from Central acculturation –the cultural changes derived from America during the 80s to early 90s. The vast intercultural contact—has paid less attention to majority of these migrants came to Australia for women and children and family dynamics than either economic or political reasons. During the it has to men (Sam, 2006). Also, although last decade, however, there has been a fifth wave studies of cultural diversity in schools have been of Spanish speaking migrants, predominantly significant in the US and European contexts, from Latin America, who, in turn, are highly they are still scarce in Australia (A few recent skilled and recount coming to Australia looking studies are Dockett & Perry, 2005; Guo, 2005; for a safer and more promising environment for Sanagavarapu & Perry, 2005; Santoro, 2009). themselves but especially for their children. The literature on first generation migrant They choose Australia for its skilled migration children’s school experiences in the new country scheme that enables certain professionals within –in Australia and overseas—is limited, and a specific age range, and with a good command tends to concentrate on refugees (e.g. Matthews, of the English language to apply for permanent 2008). Finally, research that has looked residency. Argentineans, Chileans, Colombians, specifically at the mutual influences that schools Peruvians, and Venezuelans are the larger and first generation migrant children and their groups. Most of them are middle class, hold one families exert on each other is rather incipient. or more university degrees, and had a good Some works have marginally touched on these standard of living in their home countries. issues (Adams & Kirova, 2007; Beraldi, 2006; First and second generation children of Devine, 2007, 2009; Sanagavarapu, 2010) but migrants comprise a large proportion of children the field is mostly unexplored and children’s in Australia. The 2006 Australian Household voices mostly absent. This article aims at Census showed that 35% (or 1.5 million) of contributing towards our understanding of children in Australia live in migrant families, children’s experiences of migration in Australia with about half of the total children living in by exploring the interplay between children’s migrant families being under 9 years of age, and school and family lives, and the processes of within that group about half a million having adjustment involved. been born overseas (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008). Figures from the New South Conceptual Background Wales Department of Education and Training also reflect this large child migrant population. There is an array of issues involved in the A 2010 report shows that almost 30% of total lives of migrant children as they start school in enrolments in government schools were of an unfamiliar culture. Primarily, children students of language background other than embark on a transition process through which English (Department of Education and Training, they are progressively integrated to the new 2010). Children of Spanish speaking cultural world through school. This process is, background were identified as the seventh however, by no means linear. They are largest group in public continually referred back to the original cultural schools. Despite Australia’s history as a country system prevailing in their families at home. The of immigrants, the slow but steady increase in transition process seems to be embedded in sets the new arrivals population each year, as well as of binary opposites children confront recurrently its increasing diversity in terms of origin, through their daily immersion in the domains socioeconomic background and settlement of home and school. The data gathered for this patterns, has meant that many schools that had study suggests that issues of approval/ remained mostly culturally homogenous, are disapproval, sameness/difference, inclusion/ experiencing significant cultural variety in their exclusion, expansion/confinement permeate student population (Santoro, 2009). The migrant children’s lives and require adjustment literature that has focused on migration and strategies from them. A few analytical concepts

62 Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) Liminal but Competent: Latin American Migrant Children and School in Australia have been coined to refer to these oscillating The interconnectedness and intimacy between experiences of self and belonging in situations researcher and subjects of study makes of of migration, intercultural contact, or social ethnography a prime methodology for shedding change. The concept of “multiple belongings” light on different cultural and social worlds. (Vandenbroeck, 2001), has been particularly The term “participant observation” captures the illuminating, as it sheds light on the dynamics of essence of the ethnographic approach. identity formation in mobile, globalised and The ethnographic phase lasted six months. post-traditionalists societies where individuals During this period I endeavoured to meet Latin can adhere simultaneously to various reference American families who had arrived in Australia groups, such as national, ethnic and language within the last five years and had children aged groups. The concept echoes the experiences five to eight attending primary school in the city implied in the idea of liminality (Turner, 1967), of . I firstly contacted a Spanish speaking an anthropological notion that has been used playgroup where mothers meet once a week to to understand the psycho-social processes play with their pre-school aged children. In this individuals undergo during change of status playgroup I became acquainted with several rituals in traditional societies. The concept of migrant families from different Latin American liminality refers to an undefined, ambiguous countries (Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, state of being, and has been used to shed light on and Venezuela). Four of these families showed situations of transition in social life. These interest in the research and fitted my selection theoretical conceptualisations have guided the criteria as they had recently arrived in the interpretation of the data collected during this country and had school aged children aged five study. to eight. Playgroup mothers referred me to other settings where I could contact more recently arrived families that responded to the selection Method criteria. To be specific, I was invited to be a participant observer in migrant community The data presented in this article is drawn centres, religious meetings, and private events from a small scale qualitative study that such as birthday parties. My familiarity with consisted of two stages, a first one based on an Latin American cultural groups and my ethnographic approach, and a second one based proficiency in Spanish were undoubtedly an on semi-structured interviews. advantage to make migrant families interested in the research. Each week during the first six Ethnographic Phase months of data collection I attended the Spanish Playgroup which runs for two hours, and on The purpose of including an ethnographic average I participated in at least one other phase was to grasp “the native’s point of view”, migrant reunion, whose length could range from or to understand what it is like to be a migrant between two to four hours. In these occasions I family who faces the process of schooling in an not only had the opportunity to meet newly unfamiliar setting. Ethnograpy is a qualitative arrived families, but also to interact with them methodological procedure where the researcher informally, get a good understanding of their immerses herself in the everyday lives of the social realities and learn about their issues as group she wants to study in order to get an new migrants in the country. I recorded all data insider’s understanding. Ethnography entails gathered in these instances through thorough thorough observation and detailed note taking note taking during and after each meeting or of the everyday use of language, behaviours, event. and habits of a particular group, which are then analysed in order to develop conceptual interpretations of the social life of that group.

Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) 63 Amigó

Interviews Phase questions. Parents were asked, for example, about what were their expectations in relation to Compared to formal interviews, an their children’s education in the new country, ethnographic approach allows for a more how did education system unstructured and relaxed collection of data, differed from the one in their countries, and where the researcher interacts informally with what were their pleasant surprises and the group and the information flows naturally, in disappointments in relation to school in part, perhaps, due to the avoidance of Australia. Questions for children were short and questionnaires and recorders. But the need for straight forward. They were asked to answer ten more specific information and the need to questions on issues such as what were their compare responses to the same questions made a memories when starting school in Australia, second data collection phase involving formal what are the best ways to make friends, or what interviews a necessary component. had been the most difficult aspect of attending During the ethnographic stage I recruited ten school in Australia. Interviews took place at families from four different countries (Argentina, each family’s house and lasted between one Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela) with children hour and one hour and a half. I interviewed the aged five to eight born overseas who did not parent or parents first (both parents were present speak English when starting school. Besides in seven out of ten interviews, while only these criteria, the families were recruited mothers were available for the other three), because they agreed to participate in the second followed by a short interview to the child. In stage of the project and to be interviewed. Four almost all instances (eight out of ten) the of these families were recruited through the interviewed child preferred that one or both Spanish playgroup and the other six were parents be present during the interview which families I had interacted with during other meant the parents made comments to some of migrant gatherings (mentioned above). the child’s responses (the opposite did not occur). As described in the introductory section these All interviews were conducted in Spanish, days about 80 per cent of migrants come to digitally recorded and professionally transcribed. Australia through the skilled scheme, which implies that most new arrivals are professional Data Analysis middle class and used to a have a good standard of living in their countries of origin. It is worth Data from the ethnographic phase (in the noting too that the application to obtain a form of memos and written notes), and from the resident visa through this scheme is both interviews phase were analysed qualitatively expensive and demanding in terms of requisites. following the procedure suggested by grounded For example, in order to be eligible a skilled theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Grounded applicant needs a good level of English, theory encourages the researcher to develop professional studies and related work experience. theory from the data by means of coding for This means that recent migrants who arrive recurrent themes that emerge from it. Based on under this scheme come from privileged her interpretation the investigator then groups backgrounds, a feature that was evident in the themes into categories to eventually develop an families recruited for this second phase. explanation that fits the data and is relevant to As mentioned the second stage consisted of the research question. The software NVIVO was interviewing the parents and children in these used to organise and code all interviews, memos families. Two different questionnaires were and notes taken. The results of this interpretative prepared for parents and children, and questions process are presented in this article. revolved around the experiences of starting It is important to make the note that when school in a new country. The questionnaire for participants’ direct quotes are included in the parents consisted of 12 semi-structured article these are translations from Spanish into

64 Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) Liminal but Competent: Latin American Migrant Children and School in Australia

English made by myself. I endeavoured to explain their children’s high academic represent participants’ voices as accurately as achievement. The well documented emphasis possible. migrant parents place on their children’s education is most likely another reason. In the Australian context, a recent report suggests Results ethnic minority children themselves have big professional aspirations and want to succeed in A New School in a New World school (Collins , Reid, Fabiansson, & Healey, 2010). There is no published data on Latin Education for their children is one of the American children school’s performance in services migrants need the most, and most Australia, but this emerged as a recurrent topic urgently. It is not unusual, therefore, for migrant during my conversation with parents, all of children to come into contact with the receiving whom proudly mentioned that in spite of culture sooner and more intensely than their the difficulties surrounding the migratory parents do. As Suárez Orozco and Suárez experience their children’s academic Orozco (2001) note, schools are where achievement had been remarkable, as the immigrant children first come into systematic following quotes show: contact with the new culture and they are probably the most important sites of cultural The teachers have been telling me how contact for them. Similarly, Laosa (1999, p. 372), surprised they are with Jacinta’s progress claims that for ethnocultural and linguistic and how she is excelling in school. In fact, minority group children, schools are “the first— even some Australian mothers who know and perhaps the only—influential point of direct her have told me that they can’t experience with a mainstream socializing understand how a migrant child can write insitution". And Luykx (2005) points at how and read even better than their own sometimes the language and cultural distance children (Consuelo, Mexican mother of between home and school make the school six-year-old Jacinta). overshadow the family in its socialising role. In fact, he is the best in spelling in his The questions this study raises are therefore, class. And the teacher told us that for her how do migrant children –and their parents— it was remarkable that a child for whom experience this abrupt and culturally different the first language was not English could socialisation process of starting school in a new be so good at spelling. He also writes very country? And, what are the outcomes and well. His teacher is surprised by his good implications of this process for the children? spelling and grammar (Leticia, Studies that have focused on child migrants Venezuelan mother of eight year-old and school have been concerned almost Martin). exclusively with academic performance (Some exceptions are: Adams & Kirova, 2007; Beraldi, There are myriad factors that impact on 2006; Devine, 2009). In Australia, academic migrant children’s school performance, from performance of first generation migrant children specific familial conditions such as parents’ is not currently a matter of concern. Recent child socioeconomic background and education, to migrants seem to perform well in school and broader contextual factors such as the receiving there appears to be no significant connection country’s attitude towards specific groups of between school achievement and being a child migrants. As Zhou (1997) states for immigrants of a non-English speaking background. Katz and in the United States “In the long journey to Redmond (2009) suggest that migrant parents’ becoming American, progress is largely high educational attainment, due to Australia’s contingent upon human and financial capital that current skilled migration policy, could partly their immigrant parents bring along, the social

Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) 65 Amigó conditions from which their families exit as well There is a different construction of as the context that receives them, and their interculturalism for members of minority cultural patterns –including values, family groups in which maintenance of minority relations, and social ties—reconstructed in the languages and cultures is conditional on process of adaptation” (p. 999). But even when adaptation to the majority culture and first generation migrant children excel in school, language. (…) Interculturality for the as has been the case for many migrant groups in majority is a disposition towards other Australia and elsewhere (Duchesne, 1996; Katz practices rather than an engagement with & Redmond, 2009; Ogbu & Simons, 1998; Sam, diversity, while for minorities it is seen as 2006) reducing their lives to their academic necessitating participation in the dominant performance as a measure of wellbeing is rather culture, with the possibility of adding to or simplistic. Research on the school lives of adapting linguistic and cultural repertoires migrant children has neglected the psychological to add economic value. burden that can accompany intercultural transitions (Laosa, 1999). Some small studies in In the context of schools, Devine (2007, p. the Australian context (MacNaughton, 2001; 150) refers to this lack of significant engagement Mansouri & Kamp, 2007; Mansouri & with cultural diversity as “pragmatic Trembath, 2005; Santoro, 2009) show that multiculturalism”, meaning that the school prejudices and tensions in relation to migrant community acknowledges and respect the (first or subsequent generations) children in multiculturalism of the school but does not fully educational institutions are common among the engage with it. Although she refers to Irish children as well as between the teachers and schools Devine’s assessment echoes in Australia. the students. In fact, all interviewed parents were confident their children would do well Learning English and making friends. academically. Conversely, their main Despite Australian schools’ emphasis on preoccupation was whether their children would multiculturalism and respect for diversity Latin feel comfortable socially. American children’s own experiences of feeling It has been argued that immigrants in different are certainly more real than what their Australia have a less satisfactory acculturation teachers and even parents perceive. For Martin, experience than in other countries, since despite a Venezuelan boy, his own appraisal of his Australia’s multicultural policy, the emphasis is command of the English language provides an on assimilation rather than on integration (van interesting example. His mother recounted: Oudenhoven, 2006)1. 2That is to say, there tends to be an expectation that migrants should set Martin frequently tells me that he wants aside their cultural and linguistic characteristics to learn more and more English, and then to be able to function fully in the host culture I tell him, “But my son, you already speak and adopt its core values. In his review of English and you speak English very well”. Australia’s language and multicultural education And he replies, “Not yet, Mum. Not yet”. policies since the 1970s, Liddicoat (2009, p. Academically, his performance is 201), put it succinctly: excellent, but socially, he feels he is in disadvantage. He is having a difficult time. For his teacher, his English is more than fine, and he is doing really well. But when 1 Acculturation strategies are broadly grouped by Berry (1997) into: he plays with the other children, he misses a) Assimilation strategies - where the acculturating group does not retain previous cultural identity, b) Separation strategies – the out on a lot. That is because the adult acculturating group holds on to previous culture and avoids contact world he is in contact with is in Spanish, with the new, c) Integration strategies – the acculturating group holds on to both the old and new cultures d) Marginalisation – the unlike that of his classmates which is in acculturating group finds it impossible to relate to either the old or English. Martin asked me to go to after new culture.

66 Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) Liminal but Competent: Latin American Migrant Children and School in Australia

school care so that he can learn more Spanish of course”. And Julio, a Peruvian father English and make friends. mentioned that for his son Francisco “the first friend was difficult to get”. Francisco As the case of Martin illustrates being able to remembers that he was teased severely in speak the local language well is a major concern kindergarten, perhaps, he thinks, because he was for migrant children. Related studies in the US coming from Peru, looked different and couldn’t have also pointed out at children’s awareness of speak the language: “My number one friend is the power and status of the English language Michael. He was being very nice to me, when all against their own. For example, Monzó and my other friends were bullying me in Rueda’s (2009) study of Latin American school kindergarten”. Finally, Antonieta, a Venezuelan children in the US highlights the effort these mother recounted how her seven year-old son children make to pass as fluent English speakers, tells her he always has lunch alone and is too an observation that is consistent with this study’s shy to ask anyone to play with him as he has to findings. think too much before being able to speak in Migrant children strive to speak the local English. language well, but also to make friends, as For many Latin American migrant children, shown by Martin’s example. These seem to making friends from outside their language be two intertwined and paramount aspects in group is not easy. The data gathered for this Latin American children’s school lives. Not study shows that language and cultural barriers surprisingly, the need to speak the language well can be major impediments for these children to and make friends has also been emphasised as feel confident in establishing relationships at the crucial for other migrant children groups in the beginning. Making friends might involve Australian context (e.g. Millar, 2011). My minimising or hiding their cultural or ethnic findings suggest that friendships are very identifiers such as special clothing, food, or their important in migrant children’s lives. As Vedder accent. As Devine discusses in her study of and Horenczyk(2006, p. 424) observe, migrant migrant children in Ireland, children did not tend children “find friends as helpers in their struggle to see their ethnic identities as positive attributes to find their position in the new social and in facilitating their relationship with the local cultural environment”. Devine (2009) also children. She also noticed that in order to make notices friendships are important sources of friends, migrant children participated in extra- social capital for migrant children because they curricular activities that confirmed their provide support, knowledge and access to commitment towards the local culture (p.526- networks. 528). Devine’s findings resonate in my study, The value of interpersonal relationships where all parents and children interviewed for collectivist cultures – such as Latin suggested children’s fervent commitment to the American societies who place emphasis on school’s ethos and activities, as well as interdependence and reciprocal obligations – is mentioned instances where children would crucial. So understandably, the topic of making refuse to eat their ethnic food at school, speak friends at school was recurrent in both parents’ their language with their parents in front of and children’s accounts. For instance Consuelo, friends, and try to talk, dress and behave like a Mexican mother, told me that it was quite their non migrant peers. difficult for her daughter Jacinta to make friends It has been argued that for migrant children at the beginning. One of her daughter’s school provides a social field of knowledge and classmates used to give her a hard time, and she opportunities for participation in culturally couldn’t communicate with her. Jacinta used to valued activities (Devine, 2009), and the tell her mother, “She talks to me in her language development of social networks for both child and I can’t understand.” “And how do you reply and parents which are essential to successful to her?” the mother would ask, “Oh well, in cultural adjustment (Christopoulou & de Leeuw,

Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) 67 Amigó

2004). My data reflects these analyses: for Latin made explicit, while their ethnic ones made American children friendships provide the dormant. Parents, in particular, referred to habits means for them to engage in the language and and practices within the Australian school the codes of the receiving culture. When asked system that were very unfamiliar to them and about what is it that they enjoy the most about were even a cause of concern. For example, all school, all children interviewed mentioned their parents found the academic standards and the friends with whom they play sport, play in the school discipline system of Australian schools playground, share food, and with whom they much more lenient than expected, and tried to develop their shared Australian side of their counterbalance this with stricter rules and extra identities. homework at home. Also more trivial issues such as Australian schools’ quick, informal and Migrant Children at a Crossroads of cold lunches sitting on the playground’s floor Expectations are a shock to many parents who come from countries where lunch is the most important In her study of Bangladeshi children in meal and where formalities sitting at the table English schools, Brooker (2005, p. 126) makes need to be safeguarded, and still are in their the point about the difficulty migrant children new homeland. Likewise, they mentioned may face when starting school in an unfamiliar disapproval towards the carefree ways pupils setting: tend to use their uniforms, use their hair or sit down during classroom time, and emphasised The direct clash of beliefs and practices they did not want to see this behaviour in their between their parents and their teachers own children, especially when at home. meant that they had double the work to do Migrant parents therefore face the dilemma of on starting school: not just becoming a how to manage – whether to accept, oppose or pupil, but becoming a different kind of negotiate – their children’s acculturation. As a child from the one their family and migrant child progresses into school, traits of the community had created. new culture will quickly make a way into the child, overshadowing the culture taught at home In fact, as Vedder and Horenczyk (2006, p. (Qin, 2006). Although most parents mentioned 420) point out schools are much more concerned they accept their child was becoming Australian with acculturating migrant children, or helping in many aspects, all families clearly emphasised them adopt values and understandings of the that it was paramount for them to reinforce their receiving culture, rather than with enculturating culture at home, and also to maintain the them, or helping them understand their own Spanish language. However, in spite of their cultural background. Discontinuities or efforts, most parents feared that their cultural inconsistencies between the home and school influence over their children was limited, as environments can be detrimental for the children Consuelo, a Mexican mother explained: academically, socially and emotionally (Dockett & Perry, 2005). Although there would be I think that if we reinforce our culture, “discontinuities of experience” between school our food, our festivals and all that belongs and home settings for any child (Lam & Pollard, to us, to our children, they will incorporate 2006), for migrant children the disparities it. But they will grow… Perhaps I am a bit between both settings are more significant. afraid of the future when they will have The tension between expectations from home new friends…and new ways… and school was made evident in all interviews, where parents and children suggested that for The analysis of the experiences recounted by children school was the space where the Latin American children and their parents Australian values and identifiers need to be suggests these children become entangled in a

68 Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) Liminal but Competent: Latin American Migrant Children and School in Australia crossroads of expectations soon after they arrive different dimensions of our identities depending in the country. Their teachers and parents expect on the context, however for the children in the them to do well in school and learn the language study reported in this article, the cultural as well –and as fast—as possible, while their clashes between different contexts and the parents also aim at reinforcing their native concomitant behaviour that is expected from culture and language. Their peers –responding to them is sharper. a particular socialisation system—pressure them Children’s relation with food and language to assimilate into the mainstream and to discard can be cases in point of how migrant children strong ethnic identifiers. Two socialisation may use such cultural resources as an expression systems interplay in the everyday lives of these of their newly forged identities. Almost all children, the one that aims at transforming them children and parents referred to children’s into good Australian citizens operating at school, preference of taking Australian food for their and the one that struggles to preserve their lunch break in school, while refusing to take ethnic and cultural traits operating at home. their country’s typical food which they would happily eat at home. Food can be used as a Multiple Belongings symbolic resource to negotiate group boundaries in peer interaction (Nukaga, 2008). When I What are the implications of this complex asked Marta, the Argentinean woman, in which position that Latin American migrant children in aspects she thought her daughter Rocio was Australia occupy? Identity obviously comes into more Australian than Argentinean, she question. How do young children in the process immediately mentioned food: of making sense of and moulding their identities go about juggling cultural traits and responding The most Australian feature that I to the expectations of two different cultural notice in Rocio is in her food habits. She systems (their families and their schools)? is very Australian in that sense. She eats Whereas newly arrived adult migrants who carrot sticks and wants vegemite come with a defined cultural identity might not sandwiches every day to take to school. It be immediately urged to interact with members surprises me. In that respect she is more of the host country and use the new language on Australian than the Australian people. a daily and systematic basis, school children are. And therefore for them, the acculturation Similary language, as a powerful symbol of process can be more confronting than it is for national and ethnic identity (Spolsky, 1999, p. their migrant parents, at least during the period 181 ), can be an indicator of migrant children’s immediately after arriving. Besides experiencing multiple belongings. Five of the children two sudden changes of status as they start school interviewed expressed a reluctance to speak – they become Australian “pupils” and “migrant Spanish outside their homes, and mentioned students” –, and the sudden immersion into an being embarrassed when their parents spoke unfamiliar cultural and social world, back home Spanish in public situations. They were, they encounter a continuation of the social and however, willing to use their native language at cultural life they left behind in their home home with their families. Even for some, the countries. What impact does this dual process way they combine both languages in everyday have on migrant children’s evolving identities? speech could be interpreted as the result of the During interviews both parents and children ambivalent social space in which their lives alluded to situations where children would dress, unfold. For example, during the interview, behave, eat and speak in particular ways Manuela, the Peruvian girl did not say any depending on the cultural context, suggesting sentence fully in Spanish or in English. Talking strong contrasts in how children act out their about school rules, she said, identity. One could argue that most of us unfold

Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) 69 Amigó

Asi, en kindergarten cada rato necesita Marta, the Argentinian mother when referring to sit in line, y ahora nosotros sit in that line, her daughter. “I can’t think ‘she is more in kindergarten necesita sit in that line. Australian, or she is very Argentinian’. It’s just Ahora es that way. Y necesita se sit in the her”. sun y que no tiene gorro te vas hacia el Some recent studies have pointed out that calor, gorro, tu vas a sit in the shade, no despite their oscillating identity faces and roles, playing time. Y también otro rule, y migrant children do not necessarily show signs también otro rule. Hay muchos rules en el of being confused, dislocated or out of context colegio…Hay muchos rules en el colegio. (e.g. Bak & von Bromssen, 2010; Eskner & Hands off and don’t talk when the teacher Orellana, 2005), but rather seem to “embrace is talking. Yo no dije que puedes hablar quite harmoniously their different belongings cuando la teacher está talking! Asi y and be inspired by the wider world” (Bak & von también cuando tu no estás watching, Bromssen, 2010, p. 121). Despite some initial you’ll never learn again. (English words difficult times the children in the study also are underlined) respond to this assessment. Their multiple belongings and liminal position may not only Studies of code-switching, which linguists make them more culturally aware and strategic, describe as alternation in the use of two but may also circumstantially empower them. languages between two bilingual speakers, have described it as a strategy to enhance the “Betwixt and Between”: Migrant Children as communication between the speakers, or as a Mediators symptom of language deficiency (Cheng & Butler, 1989). However my analysis suggests (The liminal state is) ambiguous, that code switching in children is also an neither here nor there, betwixt and indication of the fluctuating cultural and between all fixed points of classification linguistic spaces they engage with on a daily (Turner, 2002 p. 96) basis. Schools and peer pressure are strong Turner’s description of the liminal phase has influencers of children’s identity. For Latin been borrowed by many to illustrate situations American migrant children in Australia, of transition in social life. Although referring however, this process is often times specifically to rites of passage in which a change counterbalanced at home with differing of status is involved, many of the characteristics expectations. These children need therefore to of the liminal phase described by Turner find ways of responding to both systems while resonate when exploring the lives of child developing their sense of self and belonging at migrants and the impact of school during their the same time. According to Santoro the identity first years in the new country. Issues of migrant children construct is “a newly forged ambiguity, change of status, vulnerability, identity rather than an identity that is an transition between different contexts, lack of amalgam of the distinctive characteristics of a membership in established categories –typical of number of cultures” (Santoro, 2009, p. 38). the liminal phase – are recognizable in the lives Similarly, Eskner and Orellana (2005) mention of migrants. how the practices of immigrants can become Eksner and Orellana (2005) have, however, permanent new social practices that lead to new warned us about the shortcomings involved in cultural forms and identities. In fact, most applying the term unconditionally to understand parents interviewed for this study, saw their migrant lives. These authors find the concept children and their practices in this way, neither inappropriate to refer to migrants’ lives because Latin American, nor Australian, nor a it is a) temporarily bound, referring to a period combination of both. “That’s how she is,” said of time that has a clear beginning and end, b)

70 Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) Liminal but Competent: Latin American Migrant Children and School in Australia does not account for the complex power issues put your tongue like this to pronounce it interplaying in migrants’ lives, and c) does not well…” And now that we are on holidays allow for the “multiple liminalities” as the I ask her to talk to me in English so that I complex system of memberships, exclusions learn, but we start in English and then I go and transitional phases present in migrants’ back to Spanish and she tells me “Come experiences. While I acknowledge these on Mum, didn’t we agree we were going limitations, and do not attempt to apply the term to practise English?” unconditionally, I believe the concept of liminality is illuminating when exploring the Mariela, an Argentinian six-year-old, lives of recently arrived migrant school children recounted how she helps a newly arrived who find themselves in situations of ambiguity Spanish speaker in her classroom: and who may embrace multiple identities or belongings. In particular, its associated notion of There is a new child at school who “betwixt and between” is even more elucidating speaks Spanish and I am helping him so when exploring the mediating roles many of that he can understand what the teacher these children perform for their parents and says. They put him in my class because I siblings, teachers and peers. As they start speak Spanish. The teacher wants me to operating ‘betwixt and between’ two cultures, help him too. So for example, if the two languages and two socialising systems— teacher says “draw a flower”, I tell him their families and the school—their situation of what she is saying so he can do it too. liminality makes them at the same time competent individuals who are able to navigate And Antonia, a Peruvian mother gave an the cultural domains of two systems. The example of how her seven-year-old daughter accrual of experiences, skills, and knowledges and ten-year-old son introduce her to the (including of course language) that Latin Australian ethos: American children in Australia acquire through school enables them to become cultural In Peru it’s OK to identify people by mediators, often undertaking a major role in their ethnicity or religion. You can say socialising their parents into the new language “that one is a black person, that one is a and culture. Chinese, that one is a Jew”. But my References to children acting as mediators daughter and son get really upset if I refer were frequent during interviews. Parents gave to anyone in that way. When I told my numerous examples of their children assisting daughter once “so you have a Chinese with language, but also helping them understand friend”, she got really upset and said: value systems in Australian society. Similarly, “That’s being racist. My friend has a children themselves gave us examples of how name. In Australia we are all the same and they would help their parents and grandparents you call people by their names”. This is in everyday situations, and even translate to what they teach them at school and I am teachers and peers when needed. Consuelo, the learning from them. Mexican woman, explained to me she is still having a very hard time trying to communicate Issues of role reversal are worthy of analysis in English, and her daughter is of invaluable here, where sometimes Latin American migrant assistance: children, who usually master the English language after two years, not only become their Jacinta helps me. She helps me a lot parents’ language teachers, but also the ones when we are out and about. I ask her all who explain the new country’s culture to them, the time, “How do I say this or that?” And or even feel responsible for their wellbeing. she tells me “Mum, you say it this way, Several works have shown how children

Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) 71 Amigó become their parents’ cultural mediators, betwixt and between what the state and translators, and carers in some situations community desire from them and what their (Christopoulou & de Leeuw, 2004; De Block & parents expect from them and teach them. Buckingham, 2007; Orellana, Dorner, & Pulido, While challenging, this position they occupy 2003; Smokowski, Rose, & Bacallao, 2008). is enabling –rather than disabling. The lives of Children’s new roles have the potential to migrant children have often been conceived interfere with the socialising role of their within a “deficit model” that emphasizes what home environments by introducing more these children cannot do (speak, understand, culturally and educationally valued practices adjust) instead on focusing not only on what (Christopoulou & de Leeuw, 2004), and often they can do, but also on how they take present a disruption of the Western adult-child advantage of their liminal position to act relation model where adults guide and protect strategically and mould their lives in ways that their children and might generate anxiety in benefit them. parents (Eskner & Orellana, 2005). However, In the end, they become the link between the the core argument of this paper is that children’s old world and the new one. As Orellana et al. crucial roles as language and cultural brokers (2001) say, children in migrant families help offer the potential to empower them and to constitute and reconfigure transnational social counterbalance the vulnerability they are fields and transnational practices that shape subjected to in their condition of liminal subjects. particular childhoods. As Bak and Von Bromseen (2010) have argued, Despite the small-scale nature of this study, migrant children have “diasporic consciousness”, and the specificity of the population studied the which entails “diasporic practices” and analysis of the data gathered has shed light on “multiple social identities” makes them the complexity of issues newly arrived migrant competent migrant children rather than children in Australia and their families may incompetent ones (until today, the prevalent experience. Recent waves of migrants to perception of ethnic minority children in school Australia, as this study shows, differ settings). significantly from previous ones in that they are highly educated and often determined to make their language and culture prevail. This can have Conclusion policy implications: schools could seize this opportunity and take advantage of the multiple Latin American migrant children in Australia belongings of these children not by merely transit between cultural worlds on a daily basis– respecting diversity, but by engaging with it and hence their liminality–often experiencing embodying it through their ethos and practices. anxiety both at home and in school. Through Migrant children carry with them the invaluable school they incorporate the norms, codes, and ability to connect different cultural worlds, a practices of the new culture –usually with potential that needs to be acknowledged and difficulties—which they will then translate to utilized. their parents, grandparents and sometimes even younger siblings. But while the school aims at standardising diversity at least to certain References degree—one of the tacit purposes of public education—the family attempts to maintain a Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2008). The strong sense of connection to an ethnic, people of Australia: Statistics from the 2006 linguistic and cultural identity. Therefore this census. Canberra: Department of Immigration research suggests that Latin American children and Citizenship. Retrieved from www.immi. in Australia –and this may be true for many gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm.../s migrant children in diverse contexts—are often ource.htm.

72 Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) Liminal but Competent: Latin American Migrant Children and School in Australia

Adams, L., & Kirova, A. (Eds.). (2007). Global childhood? Exploring children's welfare in migration and education: Schools, children time and space. Odense: University Press of and families. New Jersey, London: Lawrence Southern Denmark. Erlbaum Associates Devine, D. (2009). Mobilising capitals? Migrant Bak, M., & von Bromssen, K. (2010). children's negotiation of their everyday lives Interrogating childhood and diaspora through in school. British Journal of Sociology of the voices of children in Sweden. Childhood, Education, 30(5), 521-535. 17(1), 113-128. Dockett, S., & Perry, B. (2005). Starting school Beraldi, C. (Ed.). (2006). Education and in Australia is 'a bit safer, a lot easier and intercultural narratives in multicultural more relaxing': Issues for families and classrooms. Rome: Offizina Edizioni. children from culturally and linguistically Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, diverse backgrounds. Early Years: An and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5- International Journal of Research and 34. Development, 25(3), 271-281. Brooker, L. (2005). Learning to be a child: Duchesne, S. (1996). Parental beliefs and Cultural diversity and early years ideology. In behaviour in relation to schooling. (Ph.D. ), N. Yelland (Ed.), Critical issues in early Macquarie University, Sydney. childhood education (pp.115-130). Eskner, J., & Orellana, M. (2005). Liminality as Maidenhead: Open University Press. linguistic process: Immigrant youth and Cheng, L., & Butler, K. (1989). Code switching: experiences of language in Germany and the A natural phenomenon versus language United States. In J. Knörr & A. Nunes (Eds.), deficiency. World Englishes, 8(3), 292-309. Childhood and migration: From experience Christopoulou, N., & de Leeuw, S. (2004). to agency. Bielefeld & Somerset, NJ: Home is where the heart is: Family relations Transcript and Transaction Publishers of migrant children in media clubs in six Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery European countries. Children in of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative communication about migration (CHICAM). research. Chicago: Aldine Transaction. Retrieved from www.chicam.org/reports/ Guo, K. (2005). Developing in a new language- index.html speaking setting. Australian Journal of Early Collins , J., Reid, C., Fabiansson, C., & Healey, Childhood, 30(3), 39-44. L. (2010). Tapping the pulse of youth in Katz, I., & Redmond, G. (2009). Review of the cosmopolitan South-Western and Western circumstances among children in immigrant Sydney. Retrieved from www.immi.gov.au/ families in Australia. Innocenti Working media/publications/.../tapping-pulse-youth.pdf Paper (Vol. 2009-12). Florence: UNICEF De Block, L., & Buckingham, D. (2007). Global Innocenti Research Centre. children, global media: Migration, media and Lam, M. S., & Pollard, A. (2006). A conceptual childhood. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. framework for understanding children as Department of Education and Training (DET). agents in the transition from home to (2010). Students from language backgrounds kindergarten. Early Years: Journal of other than English. Sydney: New South International Research & Development, 26(2), Wales (NSW) Department of Education and 123-141. Training. Retrieved from https://www.det. Laosa, L. M. (1999). Intercultural transitions in nsw.edu.au/about-us/.../key-statistics-and- human development and education. Journal reports. of Applied Developmental Psychology, 20(3), Devine, D. (2007). Immigration and the 355-406. enlargement of children's social space in Liddicoat, A. J. (2009). Evolving ideologies of school. In H. Zeiher, D. Devine, A. T. the intercultural in Australian multicultural Kjørholt & H. Strandell (Eds.), Flexible and language education policy. Journal of

Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) 73 Amigó

Multilingual and Multicultural Development, family translators or "para-phrasers". Social 30(3), 189 - 203. Problems, 50(4), 505-524. López, R. (2005). Hispanics in Australia: An Orellana, M. F., Thorne, B., Chee, A., & Lam, imagined community of communities. W. S. E. (2001). Transnational childhoods: Journal of Iberian and Latin American The participation of children in processes of Studies, 11(1), 103-110. family migration. Social Problems, 48(4), Luykx, A. (2005). Children as socializing 572-591. agents: Family language policy in situations Qin, D. B. (2006). "Our child doesn't talk to us of language shift. Paper presented at the 4th anymore": Alienation in immigrant Chinese International Symposium on Bilingualism. families. Anthropology and Education MacNaughton, G. (2001). Silences and subtexts Quarterly, 37(2), 162-179. of immigrant and nonimmigrant children. Sam, D. (2006). Acculturation of immigrant Childhood Education, 78(1), 30-36. children and women. In D. Sam & J. Berry Mansouri, F., & Kamp, A. (2007). Structural (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of deficiency or cultural racism: The educational acculturation psychology. Cambridge and social experiences of Arab-Australian Cambridge University Press. youth. Australian Journal of Social Issues, Sanagavarapu, P. (2010). What does cultural 42(1), 87-102. globalisation mean for parenting in immigrant Mansouri, F., & Trembath, A. (2005). families in the 21st century? Australasian Multicultural education and racism: The case Journal of Early Childhood, 35(2), 36-42 of Arab-Australian studentsin contemporary Sanagavarapu, P., & Perry, B. (2005). Concerns Australia. International Education Journal, and expectations of Bangladeshi parents as 6(4), 516-529. their children start school. Australian Journal Matthews, J. (2008). Schooling and settlement: of Early Childhood, 30(3), 45-57. Refugee education in Australia. International Santoro, N. (2009). Teaching in culturally Studies in Sociology of Education, 18(1), 31- diverse contexts: What knowledge about 'self' 45. and 'others' do teachers need? Journal of Millar, N. (2011). Korean children's cultural Education for Teaching, 35(1), 33-45. adjustment during transition to the early years Smokowski, P. R., Rose, R., & Bacallao, M. L. of school in Australia. Australasian Journal (2008). Acculturation and Latino family of Early Childhood, 36(3), 10-18. processes: How cultural involvement, Monzó, L. D., & Rueda, R. (2009). Passing for biculturalism, and acculturation gaps English fluent: Latino immigrant children influence family dynamics. Family Relations, masking language proficiency. Anthropology 57(3), 295-308. & Education Quarterly, 40(1), 20-40. Spolsky, B. (1999). Second-language learning. Nukaga, M. (2008). The underlife of kids’ In J. Fishman (Ed.), Handbook of language school lunchtime negotiating ethnic and ethnic identity (pp. 181-192). Oxford: boundaries and identity in food exchange. Oxford University Press. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 37(3), Department of Education and Training (DET). 342-380 . (2010). Students from language backgrounds Ogbu, J. U., & Simons, H. D. (1998). Voluntary other than English. Sydney: New South and involuntary minorities: A cultural- Wales (NSW) Department of Education and ecological theory of school performance with Training. Retrieved from https://www.det. some implications for education. nsw.edu.au/about-us/.../key-statistics-and- Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 29(2), reports. 155-188. Suárez-Orozco, C., & Suárez-Orozco, M. (2001). Orellana, M., Dorner, L., & Pulido, L. (2003). Children of immigration. Cambridge, MA: Accessing assets: Immigrant youth's work as Harvard University Press.

74 Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) Liminal but Competent: Latin American Migrant Children and School in Australia

Turner, V. (1967). The forest of symbols: Vedder, P., & Horenczyk, G. (2006). Aspects of Ndembu ritual. Ithaca, N.Y.: Acculturation and the school. In D. Sam & J. Cornell University Press. S. Berry (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Turner, V. (2002). Passages, margins and Acculturation Psychology. Cambridge: poverty: Religious symbols of communitas. Cambridge University Press. In J. Vincent (Ed.), The anthropology of Zhou, M. (1997). Segmented assimilation: politics: A reader in ethnography, theory and Issues, controversies, and recent research on critique (pp. 96-101). Oxford: Blackwell the new second generation. International Publishing. Migration Review, 31, 975-1008. van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2006). Immigrants. In D. Sam & J. Berry (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Received November 1, 2011 Vandenbroeck, M. (2001). The view of the jeti. Revision Received December 18, 2011 The Hague: Bernard Van Leer Foundation. Accepted January 20, 2012

Child Studies in Diverse Contexts, 2012, 2(1) 75