Anomalistic Psychology a Study of Magical Thinking This Page Intentionally Left Blank Anomalistic Psychology a Study of Magical Thinking

Anomalistic Psychology A Study of Magical Thinking This page intentionally left blank Anomalistic Psychology A Study of Magical Thinking

SECOND EDITION

Leonard Zusne Warren H. Jones

University of Tulsa

I p Psychology Press A Taylor &. Francis Group

NEW YORK AND LONDON First published 1989 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Zusne, Leonard, 1924' Anomalistic psychology : a study of magical thinking / Leonard Zusne, Warren H. Jones.— 2nd ed. p. cm. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Psychical research— Psychological aspects. 2. Occultism— Psychological aspects. 3. Supernatural— Psychological aspects. 4. Magical thinking. I. Jones, Warren H. II. Title. BF1040.Z87 1989 133.8'01'9—dcl9 89-1050 CIP

ISBN 13: 978-0-805-80507-9 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-805-80508-6 (pbk) Contents

Preface ix

1 Introduction to Anomalistic Psychology I Terminology 1 Anomalistic Psychology and Parapsychology 5 Anomalistic Psychology: From the Beginning 9

2 Magical Thinking 13 Uncertainty 13 Self-Awareness 17 Causation and the Human Agent 20 Chance and Coincidence: A Modifying Variable 23 Magical Thinking in Developmental Perspective 26 Summary 3 1

3 Psychophysiology 33 Miraculous Healing 34 Miraculous Injury 53 Control Over Pain 59 v i CONTENTS

Yoga and the Occult 64 The Neurology of Transcendental Experience 67

4 Perception 71 Attention 71 Size Distance Invariance, Frame of Reference, and Size Constancy 73 Interpretation 76 Sensory Hyperacuity 83

5 Divided Consciousness and Imagery 87 Divided Consciousness 89 Imagery and Hallucinations 111

6 Memory 135 Paramnesia 136 D&ja Vu 147

7 Cognitive Processes 151 Parapsychological Research on Extrasensory Perception 152 Theories and Explanations of ESP 169 Apparent ESP in Real-Life Situations 176 Psychokinesis 183 Psychometry 193 Word Magic 196

8 Personality 199 Diagnosis and Guides for Action 199 Spiritualism, Mediumship, and Survival 210 CONTENTS vii

9 Beliefs 229 Attitudes and Beliefs 229 Magical Beliefs 231 Dynamics of Magical Beliefs 250

10 Psychopathology 26/ Magical Thinking, Superstitions, Neuroses, and Psychoses 262 Magical Thinking as Therapy 271 Psychopathology and PSI 273

References 211

Author Index 301

Subject Index 309 This page intentionally left blank Preface

A decade ago we prepared the first edition of the present text because we felt there was a need to present to our students a systematic and scientifically respectable account of anomalistic psychological phenomena—those behav­ ioral and experiential phenomena that seem to violate natural laws. Except for an occasional discussion of parapsychology, the introductory texts offered little, if anything, along these lines, and other textbooks were likewise silent on these matters. Yet, as every psychology instructor who has taught the introductory course knows, it is precisely these phenomena that guarantee the undivided attention of the class. The term anomalistic psychology was first used in the 1980 edition of this book and in the title of a symposium held at the 1980 meeting of the American Psychological Association. (A second one was held in 1984.) We thought of anomalistic psychology as an aspect of general psychology that was coextensive with it but merited special attention (and a special name). Our text was accordingly organized in a manner similar to that of an introductory psychol­ ogy text, each chapter covering one of the ways in which humans learn about the world, perceive it, think about it, and otherwise interact with it. Our view of the place of anomalistic psychology within the field of psychol­ ogy remains unchanged, and in this second edition we have not only retained the original general outline but have emphasized it: For instance, the material that appeared in the first edition under the heading “Parapsychology” now appears in the chapter on “Information Processing. ” All chapters have been updated. The major change, however, has been the inclusion of a chapter on magical thinking and the consistent and explicit reference to it of the entire gamut of relevant behaviors, experiences, and phenomena. Magical thinking X PREFACE is the central concept of this book. It provides an orientation that ties, we hope, the many separate parts of the field of anomalistic psychology into a meaningful whole.

Leonard Zusne Warren H. Jones 1______Introduction to Anomalistic Psychology

TERMINOLOGY

Our ancestors of not so many centuries ago regarded any psychological anomaly with awe, attributing its origins to supernatural agencies. Among such anoma­ lies were not only precognitive dreams, cases of miraculous healing, sleepwalk­ ing, and automatic behaviors, but all cases of severe psychopathology. The psychotic individual was said to be possessed by an evil spirit, an explanation that was also applied to the neurotic individual suffering from hysteria. Eventu­ ally, demons and spirits were given up as explanations of psychopathology. Behavior that in some way deviated from the statistical norm, or what most people regarded as normal behavior, was designated as abnormal and treatable by physical and psychological means. There remained the other phenomena that were also deviations from the norm, but these were abnormal in a different sense. They were not unusual because they did not occur very frequently, the way the absence of pain sensitivity or color blindness in one eye only are unusual (anomalous) phenom­ ena because they are rare. These phenomena violated certain “basic limiting principles” (Broad, 1953), which are general principles that describe how nature works. They are not laws of nature but, like the principles of logical reasoning, “are commonly accepted either as self-evident or as established by overwhelming and uniformly favorable empirical evidence” (Broad, 1953, p. 9), at least as far as most everyday events are concerned. Broad divided the basic limiting principles into four categories. One concerns general principles 2 TERMINOLOGY of causation (e.g., an effect cannot precede its cause), another the dependence of mind upon brain (e.g., no mental event is possible without a corresponding brain event), and the remaining two deal with limitations, one with limita­ tions on the action of mind on matter (e.g., objects cannot be moved simply by willing them to move or be transformed into other objects in the same way), the other with limitations on ways of acquiring knowledge (e.g., it is impossible to know about objects and events, the mental activities of another person, or events that have not yet taken place, except by means of direct sensations, information based on sensations, or inferences based on sensory data). It is significant that, with the exception of the first category, examples of violations of principles in the other three categories require the belief that mind, instead of being a process, has thinglike properties and is separable from its substrate, the brain. In chapter 2 we discuss the proposition that reification of the subjective is one of the roots of magical thinking which, in turn, underlies many of the phenomena that we have called anomalistic. We refer to all behaviors and experiential phenomena that traditionally have seemed to constitute violations of the basic limiting principles as anoma­ listic. The term anomalistic psychology suggested itself to us upon coming across a proposal, made by the anthropologist Roger Wescott (1977), to prefix the term anomalistic to the name of any discipline that dealt with what are often called paranormal phenomena. The meaning of the term paranormal is not very clear. Among parapsychologists, two views prevail concerning the nature of extrasensory perception, psychokinesis, and other so-called psi phenomena. Some parapsychologists hold that such phenomena are not outside the natural order, only that they are not yet understood. Others hold that psi phenomena are not fully explicable in naturalistic terms, and that extraordinary mind- matter interactions are involved that do not obey known laws of physics and chemistry. The term paranormal, as used by parapsychologists, therefore, may include either one of these conceptualizations. In the following, we avoid this term except where its use has been well established by custom. In speaking of paranormal or anomalistic phenomena we do not mean that the phenomena themselves are extraordinary. The only sense in which an event itself may be extraordinary is in the sense of the degree to which its frequency deviates from a theoretically expected frequency. Science deals with both ordinary (frequent) and extraordinary (infrequent) phenomena, but there is no idea of the paranormal associated with the latter. That notion arises only in connection with the explanations offered for phenomena, be they ordinary or extraordinary. It is the terms of the explanation that may violate the basic limiting principles and not the phenomenon itself. Anomalistic psychology therefore deals with phenomena of behavior and experience that have been explained in paranormal, supernatural, occult, in short, magical terms. We must also point out that in deciding which phenomena should or should not be included in this text, our criteria did not include such factors 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 3

as the credibility or reputation of the source of the paranormal explanation or the plausibility of the reports of the phenomena. What we did consider was (a) whether a behavioral or experiential phenomenon had been in fact observed, (b) whether it had been given a magical explanation, and (c) whether such an explanation had been offered with sufficient frequency, that is, we left out of consideration extraordinary but idiosyncratic explanations of phenomena offered and adhered to, in the extreme case, by a single individual, however vociferously. Although these criteria do help to distinguish between phenomena in psychology that are anomalistic and phenomena that are only anomalous, they do not provide a clear line of demarcation between the former and anomalistic phenomena of other types. Anomalistic phenomena of any type are observed phenomena and, therefore, involve not only the nature of that which is being observed but also the characteristics of the observer, such as the observer’s biases and preconceptions, beliefs, and current misperceptions, at least to some extent. The UFO is a case in point. It is a fact that there are objects or various origins in the sky and that sometimes these objects cannot be identified. If the behavior of such an unidentified flying object is perceived as unusual, the phenomenon may be classified as an anomaly. The hypothesis that some UFOs have an extrater­ restrial origin does not necessarily place its originator among pseudoscientific or magical thinkers, because life in other solar systems is a distinct possibility. The UFOs acquire psychological interest when misperception of objects under difficult viewing conditions is involved or when beliefs and expectations affect that which is perceived. They also acquire interest for the psychologist when people experience fantasies or hallucinations of being abducted by UFOs, examined or raped by their occupants. This still does not make these fantasies and hallucinations different from others. The link between UFOs and magical thinking is largely an indirect one in that UFOs usually form part of larger belief systems that include other anomalies and phenomena whose explanations do include magical thinking, such as the belief in reincarnation, extrasensory perception, astrology, and the like. The preferred mode of communication between UFO occupants and terrestrials, for instance, may be asserted to be telepathy. In addition, what is anomalistic and what is not are also functions of the passage of time. Although the concept of hypnosis has evolved through the clearly magical stages of magnetic fluids and mysterious influences over dis­ tance to the present-day scientific concepts of altered state of consciousness or role-playing, it retains its magical connotations through association with hypnotic age regression, reincarnation research, various automatisms, and the like. In more recent times, parapsychologists speculated that psychic ability was involved in bats’ aerial navigation and the skill displayed by some individu­ als in reading and identifying color with their skins (“dermal vision”). When 4 TERMINOLOGY bat sonar was discovered and some of the skin readers were identified as frauds or other cases were shown to be instances of trainable differential sensitivity of the skin to thermal radiation, parapsychological interest returned to its former concerns. In some quarters, however, a magical explanation of these phenomena is still preferred. The labeling of anything as supernatural implies that the cause of the phenomenon is known, that it is some supernatural entity—a god, a devil, or a spirit—and that no further enquiry concerning the nature of the phenome­ non is necessary. Rich as it may be in emotional meaning to many people, the term supernatural has no standing with science. A scientist who decides to investigate a phenomenon that seems to defy natural explanation will first attempt to explain it by establishing a relationship between its antecedent causes, physical or psychological, and their consequent effects. If the phenom­ enon defies subordination to the natural order of things at first, observing it repeatedly may lead to the establishment of a reliable relationship and a formulation of the general principles according to which the phenomenon occurs. It is possible for a phenomenon to elude all attempts to establish a cause-effect relationship for it. This still does not mean that it is supernatural. Chance alone can produce highly meaningful coincidences. An unusual event may also be a non-event, in that it may not be a uniform set of phenomena but a different kind of thing every time it is observed. There is, of course, the possibility that it might be necessary to invoke a new principle of nature to explain an anomalistic phenomenon and, in the process, to revoke one or more of the basic limiting principles. Because a revision of what is normal, natural, and scientifically lawful would be called for, in addition to requiring compliance with the usual requirements that are imposed on scientific methodology, the burden of proof that a paranormal event has occurred is placed on those who make the claim. What this amounts to is that as long as a naturalistic explanation is possible, that explanation, regardless of how unlikely it may appear, will be invoked by the skeptic, it being up to the proponent of the paranormal explanation to show that the naturalistic explanation is inappropriate. In addition, the demand is made that the weight of evidence presented in favor of the paranormal claim be commensurate with the strangeness of the facts. Demanding that extraordinary proof be produced for extraordinary claims is known as the principle of Laplace (so named after the French astronomer and mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace, 1749-1827). These requirements may appear to be unduly limiting. They may be not only used but misused to the point where no amount of evidence of a paranormal claim will avail against a skeptic who has already prejudged the issue. To temper the harshness of the principle of Laplace, Theodore Flournoy, a Swiss psychologist, suggested that both it and another principle, which he called the “principle of Hamlet,” be used when investigat­ ing paranormal phenomena. The principle of Hamlet simply states that all is 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 5 possible. It is not very frequently invoked by disbelieving scientific investiga- tors of the paranormal, however. Two other terms that are used in the following pages are occult and esoteric and their derivatives. Occult means (a) that which is mysterious and beyond the reach of ordinary knowledge; (b) secrecy, exclusiveness, and the communica- tion of arcane knowledge to the initiated only; and (c) pertaining to metaphysi­ cal systems characterized by monistic idealism, which stress the basic interrelat­ edness of everything in the universe and, hence, the possibility of action through affinity or magic, as in astrology and theosophy. Esoteric means designed for or understood only by those who have been properly initiated. It therefore overlaps with only the second meaning of occult and can be applied to knowledge that has no paranormal connotations whatever. Although the term is so used ordinarily, some groups use the term esotericism as a synonym for occultism. Social scientists have stressed different, sometimes contradictory aspects of occultism. Marcello Truzzi, who has concerned himself with the problem of defining the occult (Truzzi, 1971), stated that the common denominator for most perspectives labeled occult “is that they in some way concerned them­ selves with things anomalous to our generally accepted cultural storehouse of ‘truths.’ That is, we are dealing here with claims that contradict commonsense or institutionalized (scientific or religious) knowledge” (p. 367). Because the basic limiting principles are part of the “cultural storehouse of truths,” occult and anomalistic become synonymous in Truzzi’s definition. In his definition of occultism, Truzzi stated that its claims are contradicted by both scientific and religious knowledge. They are not only contradicted, but rejected, by institutionalized science and religion. The best example of this is theosophy. Modem theosophy is a body of teachings labeled as a synthesis of science, religion, and philosophy, but is rejected equally by all three. Theosophy is the best example of what occultism means because it represents a body of knowledge that incorporates most of the esoteric teachings and occult practices of the past, does not accept the supematuralism of religion, but equally rejects the materialistic and deterministic views of science and emphasizes the hidden, occult nature of its knowledge. Much of this knowledge, of course, has been made openly available through numerous publications, lectures, and courses. Some of it, however, has been reserved for an inner circle of disciples, to whom it is imparted after due initiation, as has always occurred in all mystery and initiatory groups.

ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY AND PARAPSYCHOLOGY

Psychology’s relationship to the paranormal and the occult has always been ambivalent. Even though parapsychology has the word psychology in its name, it has never been part of psychology, and parapsychology has not exercised 6 ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY AND PARAPSYCHOLOGY

BOX 1.1. THEOSOPHY

Theosophy (from the Greek theos [god] and sophia [wisdom]) is religious and philosophical thought that derives a view of the universe, humanity, and humanity’s place in the universe from gin insight into the constitution and operation of the divine. The insight is arrived at intuitively or is revealed by superior or more advanced beings. Because no clear distinction is made between religious and philosophical modes of thinking and the role of logic is minimized, theosophy is closer to Oriental than Occidental thought. India gave birth to the earliest theosophical speculations, and the similarity between these and certain features in the thought of Western theosophists who knew little or nothing about India is often pointed out. The imperfection of this world and of human beings and the aspiration to achieve the same exalted states of being as characterized by seers and masters who reveal the divine wisdom is a cardinal feature of theosophical systems. Jakob Bohme is the best example of an early Western theosophist. He was influenced by such men as Paracelsus and Cardano, who during the Renaissance, combined theosophy with physics or chemistry as well as with such other but related forms of thought as neoplatonism, mysticism, hermeticism, and cabalism. It is the modem version of theosophy that is of importance to anomalistic psychology. It combined into a synthetic conglomerate Indian philosophy, Buddhism, gnosticism, hermetism, cabala, most of the paranormal and occult practices dealt with in this book, as well as many others, and added a generous portion of modem science, especially the notion of evolutionary development. Theosophy became the treasure trove from which hundreds of groups, organiza­ tions, cults, and movements that were to parallel it took their items and, in combination with their own special revelations and terminologies, presented them to the world as their brand of Ancient Wisdom. The founder of modem theosophy was a Russian adventuress, Helena Pe­ trovna Blavatsky, an extraordinary woman of the 19th century who represented an amazing blend of intelligence, shrewdness, vulgarity, unattractive physical appearance, temper, prodigious working capacity, and contempt for people with the ability to control them if they were eager to believe in miracles. She was bom Helena Hahn in Russia in 1831. At age 17, she married an official by the name of Blavatsky, 25 years her senior. The marriage lasted only a few months, after which HPB, as she is known among occultists, went traveling in different countries, reportedly in Greece, Egypt, Turkey, and Tibet, among other places, although what she did for the next 25 years is mostly mystery clad in legend. It is known that for a number of years she made a living as a medium in Cairo. any major influence on psychology. On the other hand, if telepathy and other such phenomena are granted even the most tenuous status of unlikely hypotheses, these hypotheses clearly concern subject matters that are psycho­ logical in nature and therefore ought to be tested by psychologists. Parapsy­ chologists deal with human experiences and behaviors using the same labora- 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 7

In 1872, she arrived in New York, met Colonel H. S. Olcott, who immediately fell under her spell and with whom she founded the Theosophical Society in 1875. In 1877, HPB published her first compendium of theosophical lore, Isis Unveiled (Blavatsky, 1877/1950). The aims of the Society were declared to be: (a) to form a nucleus of the universal brotherhood of humanity; (b) to promote the study of comparative religion, philosophy, and science; and (c) to investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent in man. Isis Unveiled was an incredible collection, totally unsystematic, of the occult lore of all nations, which HPB had presumably gathered during her extensive travels, presented as the secret wisdom of the ages and revealed by her. Both acclaim and criticism followed. The magnum opus of theosophy, The Secret Doctrine, (Blavatsky, 1888/1946) in six volumes, replaced Isis Unveiled in 1888. It was a somewhat more coherent work than its predecessor. HPB claims that in order to write it she had consulted numerous reference works in many libraries—not in person but traveling in her astral body. In The Secret Doctrine, HPB made an important connection with science by claiming the idea of evolution as the focal part of her doctrine. Not only do plants and animals evolve over very long periods of time, but so do humans, human races, planets, and deity itself. Evolution is the law of the universe. Many pages of polemic are devoted to this subject. The second important point that was added to the occult lore by HPB was the notion of the Mahatmas or Masters. Unlike the spiritualists who obtained their informa­ tion from the spirits of the departed, HPB claimed a much more refined and exalted source of information, humans who had advanced far ahead of the rest of humanity on the evolutionary road, had access to knowledge no ordinary human had, possessed marvelous abilities, such as those of materializing objects, teleportation, and clairvoyance, and who usually worked on levels of existence other than that of gross physical matter, although they still used their physical bodies when convenient. The Masters were said to control the destiny of humanity by means of messages to world leaders, to be fighting the forces of evil, and to reside in secret places, not visible to anyone but those specially favored. At first, HPB located the secret brotherhood of Masters in Luxor, Egypt, with Tuiti Bey as the leader. Later, the Mahatmas were transferred to Tibet, and the leadership acquired an Indian complexion. In the fully developed theosophical scheme, the Masters are of all nationalities, and include such personages as Jesus and the Count Saint Germain. Other topics that may be found in The Secret Doctrine, either in full or in germinal form and elaborated later by theosophical writers, and that are now familiar to those who are “into” the occult are: the lost continents of Atlantis tory methodologies and statistical treatment of data as conventional psychologists are using. Still, surveys show that of all groups of scientists, psychologists are least apt to believe parapsychology’s findings (e.g., Wagner & Monnet, 1979). With the exception of relatively few individuals who have shown interest in parapsychology or have done parapsychological research 8 ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY AND PARAPSYCHOLOGY

BOX 1.1., continued

and Mu and their civilizations; the nonphysical bodies of man, such as the etheric and astral bodies; astral projection; clairvoyance, karma and reincarna­ tion; vibrations and forces unknown to science, ancient astronauts, and many others. Through all of this runs the unifying thread of the idea of evolution as the supreme law of the universe and its implications for humans in terms of the possibility of spiritual advancement and the development of capacities not available to those who do not work toward self-perfection. Madame Blavatsky remained in New York until 1882. In that year, she decided to move the headquarters of the Theosophical Society to the mother country of theosophy, India, where the “vibrations” were better and the Masters were closer. Accordingly, headquarters was established in Adyar, Madras, where it remains to this day. In 1885, during an absence of Madame Blavatsky, the London Society for Psychical Research conducted an investigation of her miracles (over 50 had been listed by her adherents), such as the precipitation, from the ceiling, of letters written by the Mahatmas. The investigation disclosed that her miracles had been fraud or trickery, performed in collusion with a caretaker couple, the Coulombs. The disclosure had little effect on the Society, however. HPB died in 1891, and Colonel Olcott, who had been President of the Society, died in 1907. In that year, the presidency was taken over by Annie Besant, an English socialist, social reformer, union organizer, and Indian independence leader, who in 1889 had suddenly converted from materialism and atheism to theosophy upon reading The Secret Doctrine. Her ability as an organizer and propa- gandizer was responsible for the spread and influence of theosophical ideas in spite of the numerically small size of the Theosophical Society The most dramatic event during Annie Besant’s presidency was the discovery, in 1909, of Jiddu Krishnamurti, an Indian boy who she believed would serve as the vehicle for the reincarnation of a new world savior. By 1929, Krishnamurti decided that was not to be, and went his own philosophical way, renouncing the need for reliance on any masters for occult knowledge. Like the Coulomb affair, Krishnamurti’s defection had no major impact on the Theosophical Society or on the acceptance of its teachings. Today, there are no messiahs or miracles associated with the Society, but the legacy of Helena Petrovna Blavat­ sky continues to live in Adyar, the American headquarters at Wheaton, Illinois, and other centers throughout the world, the journals of the Society, its books, and especially in the minds of all those who are members of the countless groups that are the offshoots of the theosophical tree. themselves, psychologists have shown little interest in parapsychology, and contacts between the two fields have been infrequent. After the introduction of the methodology of controlled observation in psychology in the mid-19th century, two trends in research on anomalistic phenomena can be seen. They are less distinguishable in terms of the specifics 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 9 of research methodology than in terms of the world views held by the research- ers involved. Paranormal research is usually instigated by a person who is already predisposed to believe in the reality of paranormal phenomena and will offer explanations of such phenomena in terms of energies and principles not recognized by science. This type of researcher will typically hold a dualistic world view, which he or she seeks to validate by placing it on an empirical foundation. Although anomalistic research has been conducted as long as paranormal research, it has not been identified as such until recently. One of the reasons is that it has been confounded with paranormal research because the subject matter is the same. Another reason is that it may often blend with ordinary research. Much of the research that is mentioned in this book has been culled from the work of many people in just about every field of science who, at the time they did their research, may not have even been aware that they were doing anything out of the ordinary. The home base of an anomalistic re­ searcher is one of the established sciences, and the anomalistic phenomenon is investigated and subsumed under one or another rubric of that science. For this reason the two kinds of researchers will often look at the same phenome­ non in the same way, that is, use the scientific method, but draw entirely different conclusions regarding the meaning of what they see.

ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY: FROM THE BEGINNING

Benjamin Franklin’s experiments on animal magnetism, conducted in 1784, were not only some of the earliest psychological experiments but probably also the first instances of experiments in anomalistic psychology. During his stay in France as the American ambassador, Franklin was appointed by the French government to head a commission to investigate animal magnetism, in vogue as a cure for assorted ills. The commission’s finding, based in part on several experiments carried out by Franklin, was that imagination was responsible for the magnetic cures. It had been claimed that cures could be achieved by having afflicted persons stand under trees that had been “magnetized.” Frank­ lin performed the experiment of telling some peasants that certain trees had been magnetized when in fact they had not, and asking them to stand under these trees. Those who did were cured as effectively as the mesmerists’ patients. The significant aspect of this affair was that Franklin used the method of science to test a paranormal claim and that he explained the phenomenon in terms of the then current scientific knowledge. In 1848, the Fox sisters began the modem age of communication with the dead by surreptitiously making raps with their toe joints at their Hydesville, New York home. Spiritualism was soon to blossom. Psychical research came into being, at first, to investigate the performance of the mediums who claimed 10 ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY: FROM THE BEGINNING to act as intermediaries between the living and the dead, and later also to research the phenomena associated with mediumship, such as telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition, psychokinesis, altered states of consciousness, unorthodox healing, as well as perception and eyewitness testimony. For this purpose the Society for Psychical Research was founded in London in 1882. And yet, neither the psychical investigations of the Society nor the later parapsychological investigations of J. B. Rhine were anomalistic psychology. The material is grist for the mill of the anomalistic psychologist, and the psychical researchers often use psychological language to describe what they find, but the enterprise itself is not anomalistic psychology because those engaged in that enterprise do not treat the material within the framework of the science of psychology, do not start out and return to the base of psychology, and do not relate their findings to psychological knowledge in general in any systematic way. Rather, the research is to prove a particular ideological point: that humans have souls, that these souls survive the death of the body, that telepathy, and so forth, are a fact, and therefore, science’s view of human beings and the world is invalid. Public interest in psychical research in the 1880s and 1890s was so great that psychologists were forced to react to it, even if they did not believe in spirits. G. Stanley Hall, Edward Bradford Titchener, Edward Wheeler Scripture, Edmund Burke Delabarre, and others were incorporating material on psychical research into their texts and lectures, and they published papers on the subject. Titchener kept a running count of believers among his students. Hall was able to start the American Journal of Psychology because a psychical research enthusiast offered him the money to start a psychological journal in the mistaken belief that experimental psychology was a synonym for psychical research. Joseph Jastrow was laying the foundation of American abnormal psychology by translating psychical research findings into the language of abnormal psychology, and wrote a popular book on the occult in the light of psychological knowledge. William James, the best known American psychologist of his time, played a particularly important role in psychical research. Besides being a cofounder of the American Society for Psychical Research, he published some 15 papers, lectures, book chapters, and reviews on topics of psychical research, wrote numerous letters in which he dealt with its issues, and studied mediums personally. He advocated experimentation, but of his four pub' lished experimental studies, three were on topics in anomalistic psychology. His work on automatic writing (James, 1889) influenced Jastrow, who pursued it using a planchettelike device. Still, with all his involvement in psychical research and related matters, James was neither a psychical researcher nor can his work be called anomalistic psychology. What James did was a reflection of his incessant struggle to resolve the subjective' I. INTRODUCTION TO ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 11 objective problem, a problem in philosophy, and not by a desire to enhance a science. The last two decades of the 19th century saw not only the rise of laboratory psychology, the heyday of spiritualism and psychical research, but also the appearance of the first textbook of anomalistic psychology. For having written it, the Danish psychologist Alfred Lehmann [1858— 1921] may be rightfully called the “father of anomalistic psychology.” Neither Lehmann nor his book are very well remembered these days, although at the time he published Superstition and Magic (in Danish, in 1893 and in German, in 1898) he was on his way to become Denmark’s most prominent psychologist. Lehmann had obtained his PhD in experimental psychology from Wilhelm Wundt. Most of his work had been in the area of sensation and emotion, particularly the latter, and a book on superstition and magic might have seemed an unusual excursion away from one’s normal concerns. Lehmann, however, relied heavily on the psychology of perception to bring many of the anomalistic phenomena he discussed to a common denominator by explaining them as errors of observation. Lehmann’s work differed from the work of both his contemporaries and the work of those who wrote on the subject for the next three decades. Lehmann used data, obtained both by others and himself, from experiments and other objective scientific methods, to explain anomalistic phenomena; the explana­ tions were based on the then available knowledge from general and abnormal psychology; and, above all, it was a systematic enterprise covering a variety of anomalistic phenomena. Lehmann’s book is organized by origins, not topics: Of the 543 pages of text, about three fifths are devoted to an exhaustive history of magic and superstition and the remainder to a consideration of the psychological bases of various anomalistic phenomena. The latter portion is significantly titled, “Man as the Center of Magical Forces.” Moreover, the historical part is presented not only as the history of a particular aspect of culture but to show that spiritualism and modem occultism were not new but the continuation of an extremely old tradition and, most importantly, that they were the result of a particular way of thinking, magical thinking, or, as Lehmann called it, the magical states of mind. He maintains an uncompromising scientific attitude throughout his work, even while granting that some extraordinary phenomena might have to wait for a scientific explanation. Lehmann did not publish anything in this area after 1893, although the book enjoyed two subsequent editions in its German translation (1908 and 1925, the latter published posthumously and with collaborators). Joseph Jastrow published a book on extraordinary psychological phenomena just 7 years after Lehmann had published his. Fact and Fable in Psychology (Jastrow, 1900) was a collection of articles that Jastrow had published in the 12 ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY: FROM THE BEGINNING popular periodical literature and had rewritten to fit the format of a book. The book deals exclusively with anomalous and anomalistic behaviors and experiences and refers them to scientific psychological knowledge. Each chap­ ter stands on its own, however, the various topics not being related to the whole field of psychology or to any kind of theoretical framework. After the turn of the century, with the Zeitgeist favoring a more objective psychology, psychologists (and not very many of them), instead of making anomalistic psychological phenomena part of general psychology and dealing with them like the rest, were only occasionally testing paranormal claims, publishing the (negative) results, and assuming that the matter had been laid to rest. Leonard Troland’s (1917) investigative foray into the realm of telepathy is a good example. Carl Murchison (1927) published a collection of arguments for and against psychical belief that he had gleaned from a handful of psychologists, William McDougalPs belief in and activity on behalf of psychical research received some attention, but we see no major events until 1935 when Jastrow’s Wish and Wisdom appeared. It is a work very different from Fact and Fable in Psychology. It compares favorably with Lehmann’s Magic and Superstition as a text of anomalistic psychology. (Neither here nor in Fact and Fable in Psychol­ ogy did Jastrow mention Lehmann or his work). 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