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Biofuels from Vegetable Oils As Alternative Fuels 291 Biofuels from Vegetable 13 Oils as Alternative Fuels Advantages and Disadvantages Nabel A. Negm, Maram T.H. Abou Kana, Mona A. Youssif, and Mona Y. Mohamed CONTENTS 13.1 Tribology and Surface Properties of Biodiesel ..........................................291 13.2 Diesel and Biodiesel ...................................................................................292 13.2.1 Chemical Composition ................................................................292 13.3 Types of Biofuels ........................................................................................293 13.3.1 Biodiesel ......................................................................................293 13.3.2 Green Diesel ................................................................................293 13.3.3 Bioethers .....................................................................................293 13.3.4 Biogas ..........................................................................................293 13.3.5 Syngas .........................................................................................293 13.3.6 Solid Biofuels ..............................................................................293 13.4 Resources for Biodiesel Production ...........................................................293 13.4.1 Edible Oils ...................................................................................294 13.4.2 Nonedible Plant Oils ...................................................................294 13.4.3 Used Edible Oils .........................................................................294 13.4.4 Microalgae ...................................................................................295 13.4.5 Animal Fats .................................................................................295 13.5 Biodiesel Production ..................................................................................295 13.6 Technological Options to Utilize Vegetable Oils as Alternative Fuel for Diesel Engines ......................................................................................297 13.6.1 Transesterification (Alcoholysis) ................................................297 13.6.2 Dilution of Vegetable Oils with Petroleum Diesel: Performance and Emission ..........................................................305 13.7 Thermal Cracking (Pyrolysis) and Catalyst Cracking ................................307 13.8 Microemulsification of Vegetable Oils .......................................................313 13.9 Physical and Chemical Properties of Biodiesel ..........................................315 13.9.1 Cloud Point and Pour Point .........................................................315 13.9.2 Cold Filter Plugging Point ..........................................................315 13.9.3 Flash Point ...................................................................................315 13.9.4 Kinematic Viscosity ....................................................................316 289 290 Surfactants in Tribology 13.9.5 Cetane Number............................................................................316 13.9.6 Density ........................................................................................316 13.9.7 Acid Number ...............................................................................316 13.9.8 Carbon Residue ...........................................................................317 13.9.9 Iodine Number ............................................................................317 13.9.10 Calorific Value .............................................................................317 13.9.11 Sulfur Content .............................................................................317 13.9.12 Sulfate Ash Content .....................................................................317 13.9.13 Water and Sediment Content .......................................................317 13.9.14 Free and Total Glycerin ...............................................................318 13.9.15 Phosphorous, Calcium, and Magnesium Content .......................318 13.9.16 Moisture, Impurities, and Unsaponifiable Content .....................318 13.10 Effect of Chemical Structure on Biodiesel Performance ...........................318 13.11 Storage Stability of Biodiesel .....................................................................323 13.12 Fuel Properties ............................................................................................326 13.13 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodiesel Fuel ......................................333 13.13.1 Advantages of Biodiesel..............................................................333 13.13.1.1 Produced from Renewable Resources ......................333 13.13.1.2 Can Be Used in Existing Diesel Engines .................333 13.13.1.3 Less Greenhouse Gas Emissions .............................333 13.13.1.4 Grown, Produced, and Distributed Locally..............333 13.13.1.5 Cleaner Biofuel Refineries .......................................333 13.13.1.6 Biodegradable and Nontoxic ....................................334 13.13.1.7 Better Fuel Economy ...............................................334 13.13.1.8 Positive Economic Impact .......................................334 13.13.1.9 Reduced Foreign Oil Dependence ...........................334 13.13.1.10 More Health Benefits ...............................................334 13.13.2 Disadvantages of Biodiesel .........................................................334 13.13.2.1 Variation in Quality of Biodiesel .............................334 13.13.2.2 Not Suitable for Use at Low Temperatures ..............334 13.13.2.3 Food Shortage ..........................................................334 13.13.2.4 Increased Use of Fertilizers .....................................335 13.13.2.5 Regional Suitability .................................................335 Downloaded by [Maram Abou kana] at 11:09 26 September 2017 13.13.2.6 Water Shortage .........................................................335 13.13.2.7 Monoculture .............................................................335 13.13.2.8 Fuel Distribution ......................................................335 13.13.2.9 Use of Petro-Diesel to Produce Biodiesel ................335 13.13.2.10 Slight Increase in Nitrogen Oxide Emissions ..........335 13.14 Biodiesel and Diesel Engine Emissions .....................................................335 13.14.1 Emissions ....................................................................................336 13.15 Biodiesel Toxicity .......................................................................................340 13.16 Biodiesel Quality from Different Sources as Compared to Conventional Petroleum Diesel Fuel ......................................................343 13.17 Effect of Wastewater Irrigation on Biodiesel Quality ................................344 13.18 Tribological Issues with Biodiesel .............................................................348 Biofuels from Vegetable Oils as Alternative Fuels 291 13.18.1 Favorable Tribological Effect of Biodiesel .................................348 13.18.2 Some Serious Tribological Problems with Biodiesel ..................349 13.19 Lubricity of Biodiesel Relative to Petroleum Diesel ..................................349 13.20 Conclusions ................................................................................................351 References ..............................................................................................................352 13.1 TRIBOLOGY AND SURFACE PROPERTIES OF BIODIESEL Biodiesel, a mixture of fatty acid monoalkyl esters, is obtained by transesterification of vegetable oils, animal fats, or used frying oils, with short-chain alcohols, such as methanol or ethanol, in the presence of a catalyst [1]. Because biodiesel properties strongly depend upon the fatty acid profiles of the feedstock, they can be tuned using raw materials containing components that will provide more favorable properties to biodiesels. Thus, prediction of the physical property for biodiesels makes it pos- sible to optimize biodiesel production and blending processes, with the final aim of improving the fuel performance in the engine, particularly during atomization. One of the most important properties of biodiesel in the application field is atomi- zation. Atomization is the breakup of bulk liquid jets into small droplets using an atomizer or spray [2]. Adequate atomization enhances mixing and complete combus- tion in a direct injection engine, and therefore it is an important factor in engine emis- sion and efficiency. This applies to microturbines and gas turbines as witnessed in the need for an atomizer in gas turbines when diesel is being used. A correct atomization allows for proper mixing and complete combustion in an injection engine, reducing emissions and increasing the engine efficiency [3]. Surface tension property has a major impact on fuel atomization, that is, the first stage of combustion [4]. Higher surface tensions make the drop formation of bio- diesel difficult, leading to an inefficient fuel atomization. Furthermore, just like most biodiesel properties, surface tension increases with long fatty acid hydrocarbon (HC) chains and a level of unsaturated bonds [5], more unsaturated biodiesel fuels will present a higher surface tension. The atomization of fuel is crucial in the combustion
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