Durham E-Theses Ospring of the Aurochs: A comparison of a reference collection of Dexter cattle skeletons with archaeological and historical data GIDNEY, LOUISA,JANE How to cite: GIDNEY, LOUISA,JANE (2013) Ospring of the Aurochs: A comparison of a reference collection of Dexter cattle skeletons with archaeological and historical data, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/10561/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Contents Contents 1 List of Tables 7 List of Figures 10 List of Plates 15 List of Abbreviations 21 Declaration 22 Statement of Copyright 22 Acknowledgements 23 Dedication 24 CHAPTER 1 Introduction 25 1.1 Aims and objectives 27 1.2 Major sources of data 28 i. Artistic and historical evidence 28 ii. The Reference Collection of Dexter Skeletons 28 iii. The archaeological sample 31 1.3 Format of thesis 32 CHAPTER 2 The Aurochs and the Domestic Bull 34 2.1 The Legacy of the Aurochs 34 `i. Diminution from the Aurochs to the Dexter 34 ii. Bergmann’s Rule 36 iii. The Trophy Head 38 iv. The Ungulate Paradox 40 v. The Rut or Breeding Season 41 2.2 The Domestic Bull 42 2.3 Historical Information 43 i. Sire selection 43 ii. Management of breeding 45 iii. Husbandry 49 iv. Eating quality of bull beef 51 v. Artistic Representations 52 1 2.3 Data from the Modern Zanfara Dexter Herd 53 2.4 The Dexter Reference Skeletons 56 i. Skeletal ageing 57 ii. Osteology, Pathology and the Stock Bull 57 iii. Skull and Mandibles 59 iv. Ribs and Vertebrae 62 v. Forelimb 65 vi. Hindlimb 67 vii. Phalanges 68 viii. Measurements 70 2.5 Archaeological and Recent Case Studies 71 Case Study 1: Hawick aurochs and Heck cattle 71 Case Study 2: Chillingham Bulls 73 Case Study 3: Comet 76 Case Study 5: The Julius Kühn Museum reference collection, Halle, Germany 79 Case Study 6: Morphology of acetabula from adult bulls 79 2.6 Discussion 80 CHAPTER 3 The Calf (and other young stock: stirks, stots and heifers) 83 3.1 Historical and Literary Information 85 i. Slaughter of the First-Born 86 ii. Weaning from Suckling 87 iii. Calf Slaughter and Vellum 88 iv. Cheesemaking and Rennet 90 v. Seasonality of Calf-Rearing 91 vi. Selection of Traits in Calves to Rear 92 vii. Artistic Representations 93 3. 2 Data from Modern Herds and the Dexter and Jersey Reference Skeletons 94 i. Birth Weights of Dexter Calves 943 ii. Age Estimation of Foetal and Perinatal Calf Bones 97 iii. Chondrodysplasia in the Dexter 98 2 3.3 The Dexter and Jersey Reference Skeletons 101 i. Stillborn calves 102 ii. Sucking calves 102 iii. Weaned Dexter stirks 103 iv. Jersey grass-fed veal calves 104 v. The Beef Dexters and Jersey Crosses, up to 30 months old 106 vi.Three year old Dexter 113 3.4: Archaeological and Recent Case Studies 114 Case Study one: Ulkestrup Lyng, Neolithic Europe and Grimes Graves 118 Case Study two: Welsh Row, Nantwich 119 Case Study three: Lindisfarne 120 Case Study four: Emden, Germany 121 Case Study five: Monkseaton Chapel Lane 123 Case Study six: Durham Cathedral Precinct 124 3.5 Discussion 127 CHAPTER 4 The Cow: Dairy 130 4.1 Historical Information 130 i. Hendre and Hafod, Shielings and Vaccaries 132 ii. The Breeding Season 135 iii. Everybody’s Daughter 136 iv. Artistic Representations 140 4.2 Data from Modern Herds 143 i. Milk Records and Milk Quality 143 ii. Practicalities of Milking 148 iii. Lameness in Dairy Cows 149 iv. Dwarf Dairy Cows 149 4.3 The Dexter Dairy Cow Reference Skeletons 151 i. Skeletal Ageing 156 ii. Osteology, Pathology and the Dairy Cow 157 iii. Skull and Mandibles 157 iv. Ribs and Vertebrae 158 3 v. Forelimb 159 vi. Hindlimb 159 vii. Phalanges 160 viii. Measurements 160 ix. Discussion 161 4.4 Archaeological Evidence and Case Studies 162 Case Study 1: Neolithic slaughter patterns 165 Case study 2: Possible evidence for dwarf cows 166 Case Study 3: Possible vaccary cows at Green Shiel, Lindisfarne 166 4.5 Discussion 168 CHAPTER 5 The Cow: Beef 172 5.1 Historical Information 173 i. Natural Mortality and Casualty Slaughter 174 ii. The Eating Quality of Cow Beef 175 iii. Artistic Representations 179 iv. Cow Sports 181 5.2 Data from Modern Herds 182 i. Population dynamics of the herd, feeding and housing over winter 182 5.3 The Dexter Suckler Cow Reference Skeletons 186 i. Life Histories of the Dexter Suckler Cows 187 ii. Skeletal Ageing 190 iii. Osteology, Pathology and the Suckler Cow 193 iv. Skull and Mandibles 193 v. Ribs and Vertebrae 195 vi. Forelimb 197 vii. Hindlimb 198 viii. Phalanges 201 ix. Measurements 202 x. Discussion 203 5.4 Archaeological Evidence and Case Studies 206 Case Study 1: Grimes Graves 206 4 Case Study 2: Lincoln 207 Case Study 3: Flixborough 209 Case Study 4: Ripon Market Place 210 Case Study 5. St Peter’s Lane, Leicester 211 5.5 Discussion 212 CHAPTER 6 The Ox 215 6.1 Historical and Literary Information 216 i. Up Corn, Down Horn 217 ii. Status of oxen and ploughmen 218 iii. Age of castration and life span of oxen 219 iv. The Fat Ox 221 v. Eating Quality of Ox Beef 222 vi. Roast Ox 225 vii. Artistic Representations 226 viii. Ox Sports and the Exhibition Ox 228 6.2 Data from Modern Herds 229 i. Training of oxen 229 6.3 The Dexter Ox Reference Skeleton 233 i. Dexter X Jersey Steer 233 ii. Skeletal Ageing 234 iii. Osteology and Pathology 235 iv. Skull and Mandibles 235 v. Ribs and Vertebrae 235 vi. Forelimb 235 vii. Hindlimb 236 viii. Phalanges 236 ix. Measurements 237 x. Discussion 238 6.4 Archaeological Evidence and Case Studies 238 Case Study 1: Example of a “Commoditisation” Interpretation of Archaeological Data 239 Case Study 2: Shapwick 240 Case Study 3: Dorchester 246 5 Case Study 4: St Giles by Brompton Bridge 247 Case Studies 5 and 6: Masham and Alnwick 248 6.5 Discussion 250 CHAPTER 7 The Herd 253 7.1 The Dexter Reference Collection 253 7.2 Archaeological Comparanda 254 i. Metrical Data 254 ii. Dwarf Cattle 259 iii. Dairy Conformation 260 iv. Size Variation 260 v. Cattle Sports 261 vi. Hunting 261 vii. Calf Slaughter and Milking 262 viii. Pathology 263 ix.Identification of Oxen 263 x. Eating Quality of Meat 264 xi. Women and Cattle 264 CHAPTER 8 Conclusions 266 APPPENDICES 269 Appendix 1: 1 Review of Historical Sources Cited 269 Appendix 2: 1 Bull Sports 275 Appendix 3: 1. Aseasonal Breeding and Calf Survival 282 Appendix 3: 2. Archaeological Ageing Schemes 287 Appendix 4: 1 Milk and calving records for Vycanny cows in reference collection 288 Appendix 5: 1. Zanfara Cull Cows 289 Appendix 6: 1. List of oxen in Boldon Book requisitioned for carting the Bishop of Durham’s wine. 291 REFERENCES 292 6 List of Tables Table 2:1 Dexter Bulls: Calves sired 330-31 Table 2:2 Scrotal Circumference Data 332-33 Table 2:3 Dexter Bulls: Mandible Wear Stages (after Grant 1982) 334 Table 2:4 Distribution of Osteochondrosis Depressions in Dexter Bulls 335 Table 2:5a. Greatest Length Measurements (mm) 336 Table 2:5b. Estimated Withers Heights from above measurements, using factors of Matolcsi (Driesch & Boessneck 1974, 336) 336 Table 2:5c. Estimated Withers Heights from metapodial measurements, using average of factors for cows and steers given by Boessneck (B), Zalkin (Z), Fock (F) and Matolcsi (M) (Driesch & Boessneck 1974, 336) 336 Table 2:5d. Estimated Withers Heights from metapodial measurements, using factors for entire males (Driesch & Boessneck 1974, 338) 336 Table 3:1 Values of Cattle in Welsh Law (after Wade-Evans 1909, 217) 337 Table 3: 2 Summary of Dexter Calf Weights 338 Table 3: 3 Summary of Knotting herd calf weights 338 Table 3: 4 Knotting herd: calf birth weights by month 338 Table 3: 5 Summary of Harron herd calf weights 339 Table 3: 6 Mean lengths of foetal bones 338 Table 3: 7 Lengths of calf bones: stillborn Dexters and archaeological finds from Lindisfarne. 339 Table 3: 8 Newborn Dexter calf skeletons 339 Table 3: 9 Sucking calves reference skeletons 340 Table 3: 10 Slaughter profile of Jersey calves 340 Table 3: 11 Young male Dexters for whom some bones are extant 341 Table 3: 12 Epiphysial fusion Dexter cull cohort 11-30 months 342 Table 3: 13 Epiphysial fusion Jersey cross cull cohort 11-30 months 342 Table 3:14 Distribution of osteochondrosis depressions in Dexter male cull cohort 6-30 months old 343 Table 3: 15 Distribution of osteochondrosis depressions in Jersey X 7 male cull cohort 11-30 months 344 Table 3: 16 . Epiphysial fusion in feet of Dexter steers 345 Table 3:17 Distribution of osteochondrosis depressions on feet of Dexter steers 345 Table 3: 18 Karst and Aurelian, distribution of osteochondrosis depressions 346 Table 3: 19 Karst and Aurelian epiphysial fusion 347 Table 3: 20 Mandible Wear Stages Young Dexters 348 Table 3: 21 Dusty epiphysial fusion 349 Table 3: 22 Romano-British calf bones from Nantwich and Dexter calf 350 Table 3: 23 Emden: foetal calves 350 Table 3: 24 Monkseaton Chapel Lane foetal calf bone lengths 350 Table 3: 25 Occurrence of veal