The Mexican Telesecundaria: a Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 076 059 EM 011 065 7

AUTHOR Mayo, John K.; And Others TITLE The Mexican Telesecundaria: A Cost-Effectiveness 1 Analysis. INSTITUTION Stanford Univ., Calif. Inst. for Communication Research. SPONS AGENCY Agency for International Development (Dept. of State), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Mar 73 NOTE 173p. 1i

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$6.58 DESCRIPTORS *Cost Effectiveness; Developing Nation Educational Change; *Evaluation; Instructional Media; *Instructional Television; *Intermediate Grades; 1 Program Descriptions; Rural Education; Secondary Education IDENTIFIERS Mexico; *Telesecundaria

ABSTRACT " Telesecundaria" has for the past six years attempted to provide secondary education (grades 7-9) by television to those :5); students who would normally not be able to continue their education beyond the primary level. The study reported here aimed to evaluate ; the system, especially its cost-effectiveness, suggest strategies for improvement, and make Mexico's experience available to other nations wishing to use technology to expand education opportunity. ) le Characteristics of the Telesecundaria system, the evaluation 11,s methodology, costs of the television and conventional systemsper pupil, the ability of the two systems to satisfy educational demand, 6 the results in terms of student learning and attitudes, andsome general conclusions and strategies are reported. (Author /RH) 1°

C 3 FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPY 1

THE MEXICAN TELESECUNDARIA: A COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS

JOHN K.. MAYO EMILE G. MCANANY STEVEN J-..KLEES THE MEXICAN TELESECUNDARIA: A COST-EFFECTIVENESSANALYSIS

John K. Mayo Emile G. McAnany Steven J. Klees

U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATIONORIG- INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY

Institute for Communication,Research Stanford University March,;1973 Work performed under Contract No. AID/csd 3284 between the Agency for International Development and the Institute for Communication Research, Stanford University Stanford, California.

Points of view expressed hereinare not necessarily those of the Agency for International Development. Acknowledgements

The evaluation of Mexico'sTelesecundariawas a col- laborative effort between the AudiovisualDepartment of the MexicanSecretariat of Public Education (SEP)and the Institute forCommunication Research at StanfordUniversity. Many personscontributed to the study, both inMexico and at Stanford.

The field research was carried out withtireless dedica- tion by the following members of theAudiovisual Department's evaluation t=am:

Alicia Ariza Rodriguez

Alicia Buenrostro Millen Isabel Calvo Lopez

Miguel Castro Duque

Jacinto DelgadoCastro Berta Flores Salinas

Consueld Garc(a dela Parra

Marta EugeniaHerrera Puente

Marta RomanaHerrera Scaccioni

Marco Antonio JassoCantu _Eneyda Reyes Ortuilo

Ines Dulce MartaVergara Rosillo

MartaEugenia VergaraRosillo Without their helpand the leadershipof the Department's 0 director, Dra. Mamadel Carmen Millan,and Prof. Antonio Noguez Raml'rez, chief of the TechnicalSection, the study could not have beendone. Dr. Wilbur Schramm, director of the Institutefor Communication Research, provided encouragementand wise counsel throughoutthe study andwas a particularly helpful critic of an earlier draft of this report. Bob Hornik, Dean Jamison, Osvaldo Kreimer, JudyMayo, and Ellen Wilson were also extremely helpful in reviewingsections of this report and in preparingthe final draft. Finally, we wish to thank the many students,teachers, state supervisors, and SEP administratorswho graciously gave of their time in the course of thestudy, and we hope the results willbe of benefit tothem.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables

Summary vi Background vi Input characteristicsof the Telesecundaria and regular secondary schools vii Output characteristicsof the Telesecundaria and regular secondaryschools The future of Telesecundaria xiii Scope of this report xiv I. Background of the Study 1 Characteristics of the Telesecundaria system 1 The methodology of this study 8 II. Input Componentsof the Telesecundariaand Ensenanza Directs Systems 14 School and community characteristics 16 Student characteristics 18 Teacher characteristics and behavior 21 Costs of theTelese-undaria and Enserianza Directa 25

System Performance of the Telesecundariaand EnseWanzaDirecta 39 Producing graduates 40 Satisfying educational demand 43

iii IV. Outputs of the Telesecundariaand Ensetanza Pirecta Systems 48

Description of evaluationareas, instruments and procedures 49

Results of studentoutput measures 56

Conclusions on learning 70

Aspirations: more schooling,better jobs, and higher salaries 72 The follow-up studyof Telesecundaria. graduates 82 Attitudes: Affectiveresponse to change in society 86

Opinions about theTelesecundaria system 91 V. The Future of Telesecundaria . 98 Short range alternativesfor the development of Telesecundaria 102 Long range alternativesfor the development of Xelesecundaria 110 Appendices

A. Student questionnaire 119 B. Notes on cost estimatesand comparisons 131 C. Additional tables forChapter IV 137 D. Telesecundaria programming:Costs of video-taping production 150 References 152

iv LIST OF TABLES

I-1 Student Enrollmentin Telesecundaria 1-2 Telesecundaria Subjects 3 by Grade 6 II-2. Student Samplesby Area and System Instructional 11-2 15 Parents' Educationby Instructional 11-3 Annual Cost System 20 per Student of EnsenanzaDirecta and Telesecundaria- 1972 11-4 Sources of Funding 28 11-5 31 Annual ProgramProduction Costs of daria Telesecun- 11-6 Annual Cost 32 per Student of EnsenanzaDirecta vs. Telesecundariaas Student Enrollment Increases 11-7 34 Annual Costper Student of Ensenanza in the Environment Directa of Telesecundaria 36 III-1 Number of Graduates of Telesecundariavs. EnsenanzaDirecta 111-2 Rate of Demand 44 Satisfaction ofTelesecundaria vs. Ensenanza Directa 46 IV-1 Results of Beforeand After Achievement for Telesecundaria Testing IV-2 and EnsenanzaDirecta 58 Results of Beforeand After Achievement for Telesecundarie Testing IV-3 by state 60 Results of Beforeand After Achievement for Ensenanza Testing IV-4 Directa by State 61 Test Resultsfrom the Otis, Tests for Analogy and Number Telesecundaria Students,Total and by GeographicalAreas IV-5 Pearson Correlations 63 of General Abilityand Achievement Tests for Mathematics,Spanish and Chemistry forTelesecundaria 1V-6 Educational and 65 Occupational Aspirationsof Students ofTelesecundaria and Ensenanza Directa IV-7 74 Pearson Correlationsfor Student and Background Aspirations Factors forTelesecundaria and AnsenanzaDirecta IV-8 Reactions of 77 Telesecundaria Studentsto Statements aboutthe Television IV-9 System 93 Student Preferencestoward Specific Lessons (Telesecundaria Television only) 96 SUMMARY

Background

In 1972, members of the Institutefor Communication Research at Stanford University, inconjunction with the Mexican Secretariat of Public Education(SEP), conducted an evaluation of the latter's Telesecundariasystem, a six-year-old project using televisionto provide secondary school (grades 7-9) to students who,because of their distance from regular schools and otherfactors, would normally not be able to continue theireducation beyondthe primary level. This report summarizes the largeamount of field research that was carriedout as part of this study by members of the Secretariat'sDepartment of AudiO- visual Education (Direceigh General de EducationAudiovisual y DivulgaciOn) withStanford's collaboration. The study hadthree basic objectives: 1) to evaluatethe Telesecundaria system and particularlyits cost-effectiveness; 2) to suggestpossible strategies for its improvement;and 3) to makeMexico's experience with Telesecundariaavailable to other nationswho are also anxious to use televisionand other technologies to expandeducational opportunity. Because strategies for extendingor reforming education often requireincreased expenditures of scarce publicfunds, they are limitedby very real financial constraints. For vi this reason, decision-makers seekalternatives thatare both pedagogically sound and within thebounds of present and projected future budgets. By analyzingTelesecundaria's current performance and costs alongsidesome alternative strategies for the expansion of secondaryeducation in Mexico, the evaluation was designed to contributein a positiveway to the decision-maker'stask. Although the Telesecundaria is meantto complement rather than compete with the regularsecondary school system, a comparative Cost-effectiveness framework was selectedfor the evaluation. Accordingly, samplesof 9th gradeclasses from the Telesecundaria and the regularsecondary were selected randomly from within a four state region, andthe input and output characteristics of the two systemswere compared. Costs of the two systems were analyzedin detail aswere the achievementlevels and attitudes of students. The systems' current and potential abilities to satisfyeducational demand and produce more secondary graduateswere also evaluated in some detail.

Input characteristicsof the Telesecundaria schools and regular secondary

School and community characteristics. The majority of Telesecundaria schools (teleaulas) consistof two or three rooms which have beenleased, donated, or built by localparents' associations. In contrast, regular secondaryschools are larger, more formal, institutions which are financedby the federal

I vii government. Regular secondary schoolsare better equipped

than teleaulas, althoughmost teleaulas doseem to provide sufficient reference materials and laboratoryequipment to

enable teachers tofollow-up the televisedlessons.

Students. Boys outnumber girls inboth instructional systems, and the ratio ofboys to girls is substantially higher in rural areas. Telesecundaria students live inthe

more rural areas andare both older and poorer thantheir

counterparts in regularsecondaries. The parents of regular secondary students are better educated than theparents of

Telesecundaria students. They also have been ableto provide their children with better primaryschooling and more

educational experiencesof all kinds. These facts help

explain the higher generalability scores assumed for students in regularsecondary schools.

Teacher characteristicsand classroom behavior.

Telesecundaria teachers,known as coordinators,are certified

primary school teacherswho have receivedsome special training in the utilization of television. They are paid by the federal government and are given a bonus for their work inTelesecundaria. Unlike regular secondary school teachers, whoare subject specialists, the coordinators teach all the subjects ina particular grade. Guides geared to thetelevision lessons are provided to assist themin the classroom. In an observation study of classroom teachingbehavior, few significant differenceswere found between Telesecundaria coordinators and regular secondary teachers.Student partici-

viii pation in the form of questions or group workwas rare in both groups, although the presence ofthese activities in a few classes related positively to studentachievement in mathematics and Spanish. icsc of the blackboardand

television, classroomteachers made littleuse of other audiovisual materials. The lecture methodof teaching and rote memorization predominated in bothinstructional systems. Costs. Telesecundaria is a muchless expensive instructional system than the regular secondaryschool. Owing to the financial and administrative responsibilitiesborne by the local Iommunities and also to thesubstitution of primary school teachers for secondary teachersin the classroom,

the Telesecundaria isless expensive invirtually all cost components: admiristration, facilities, teachers,and student expenses. In the cost components applicable to bothsystems, the costs of Telesecundaria amount to approximately $125per student per year as compared to $200per student per year for regular secondary school -- a savings ofalmost 40 per cent for the Telesecundaria. The Telesecundaria addsapproximately $26 per student per year for ';elevision. This additional expense brings Telesecundaria's total cost per studentto $151, a figure still 25 per cent belowthat of regular secondary. Costs were analyzed in a number of differentways to see: 1) how much it would cost to expand regularsecondary schools to the areas now served by Telesecundaria,and 2) how the systems differ in their ability to satisfyeducational demand

ix and to produce secondary graduates at differentbudget levels. If the regular secondary schools wereexpanded to the environ-

ment currently served bythe Telesecundaria,the costs would be at least 50 per cent greater than thosecurrently incurred by Telesecundaria. Furthermore, with only10,000 students

enrolled in the system,the Telesecundaria isat a break- even point with the regular secondary on a costper student basis. At increased enrollment levels, the costdifferential would increase in favor of Telesecundaria,approaching a

minimum theoretical valueof $130 per studentper year with a million pupils in the system. In terms of cost,then, the Mexican Telesecundariais an efficientway to extend educational opportunity.

Output characteristics of the Telesecundariaand the regular secondary schools

Learning and general ability. To compare studentlearning in the two instructional systems, achievement testsin mathematics, Spanish, and chemistry were administeredin sample 9th grade classes at the beginning and end of thesecond semester of the 1971-72 school year. The results showedthat, although the regular secondary students obtainedroughly equal scores on the pre-tests, Telesecundaria students gained moreon the achievement tests over the course of thesemester.

Detailed analyses ofthe learning datarevealed no striking differences between thetwo groups. It was concluded that students in the two systems are learning withabout the same degree ofsuccess.

Learning was related strongly not onlyto the students' general abilities,but also to their origins. Urban students in both systems outperformed theirrural counterpartson all measures of achievement and general ability. On the basis of this finding, decisionmakers mightreconsider the traditional policy of exparcling educationalopportunity at the secondary level without regard for thespecial handicapsand learning difficulties that rural childrenoften endure by virtue of theirunderprivileged backgrounds. Aspirations and attitudes toward change. Students in both instructional systems nold higheducational andcareer aspirations. More than half expressed the desireto continue their studies beyond the secondarylevel. Telesecundaria students were somewhat less ambitiousthan theirpeers in regular secondary schools, and boysheld higher hopesthan did girls. Aspiration levels were strongly relatedto the student0 backgrounds (i.e., urbanvs. rural origin),as well as to their levels of achievementand general ability. On an attitudescale designed to measure the students'views toward social change and modernization,Telesecundaria students demonstrated a somewhat more conservativeresponse pattern, although the two groups held quite similaropinions in most areas.

A desire toleave the countryside was evident in therural students' answersto several survey questions. A lack of

xi attractive job opportunities in therural areas, coupledwith the appeal of city life, seem toencourage urban migration amcng secondary students in most developingcountries. If this trend persists in Mexico, and ifthe school system fails to replenishthe rural areas with trained manpower, thepolicy of extending educational opportunitymight run counterto Mexico's goa]$ forrural development. Follow-up of Telesecundaria graduates. With the help of the Telesecundaria coordinators, an effortwas made to find out what recentgraduates of the system were doing andwhether or not their aspirations had been fulfilled. Unfortunately, because of difficulties in obtairingan adequate responserate among the coordinators, this projectwas not carried toa successful conclusion. However, in the threestates where an acceptable response rate was obtained, approximately45 per cent of the 9th grade graduateswere enrolled insome advanced academic or training program and 30 per centwere employed, while the remaining 25 per cent couldnot be accounted for. While a majorityof the graduates apparently stayed intheir local communitiesand did not migrate to a city, morefollow-up studies of this kind would be neededbefore definite trends could be identified.

Attitudes toward Telesecundaria. Telesecundaria students in the four-stateregion were quite positive in theirresponses to a series of statements designed totap their attitudestoward instructionaltelevision. Favorable answerswere elicited on

xii all items, although a sizable minority ofstudents (25

percent) claimed tohave trouble seekingthe telelessons clearly. When asked whetherthey would transfer toa regular secondary school should theopportunity arise, only 16 per cent of the Telesecundariastudents said they would definitely doso.

The future ofTelesecundaria The Mexican Telesecundaria has proven to bea highly cost-effective system for extending educationalopportunity. It has relied heavily upon the initiative andresourcefulness of rural communities to provide the essentialschool facilities that the federal government customarilyfurnishes. By employing primary school teachers and television,the Tele- secundaria has demonstrated that old and neweducational resources can be mobilized in unique ways to solvespecial problems or meet special needs. The popularity ofthe Telesecundaria is reflected in the fact that,in recent years, the growing number of requests for teleaulashave had to be turned down because of the SEP's inabilityto provide additional primary school teachers to act as classroomcoordinators. Despite the service the Telesecundaria has renderedto date, it has been vigorously attacked inthe Mexican press and elsewhere as a second-rate educationalsystem. In a new spirit of reform, the current director ofTelesecundaria has sought to improve program quality and redefinevarious administrative responsibilities for the system. Only time will tell whether leaders of secondary educationwithin the SEP will accept more responsibility fora system about whichthey have deep misgivings.

In the long run, there are manyalternative strategies for the use of television in Mexico. The Telesecundariacould be allowed to wither away, or it could be expandedthrough a national network to cover many more students. An "open"

instructional system usingtelevision could bedeveloped to reach students of all ages in theirhomes. The task confronting Mexico's educational planners,therefore, does not seem primarily to be one of a.00singamong available technologies, but rather one of rethinking educationalpriorities in terms of development needs and subsequentlydefining more efficient

instructional systemsto implement thosepolicies.

Scope of this report

The report is organized in the followingmanner: Chapter I discusses the characteristicsof Mexico's Telesecundaria along with the methodology thatguided the evaluation.

Chapter II compares the input characteristicsor components of the television and regular secondaryschool systems,as well as their related costs.

Chapter III compares the overall performanceof the two systems in terms oftheir cost per graduate and theirability to satisfy educationaldemand.

xiv Chapter IV analyzes student learningand attitudesas outputs of the two systems and relatesthem to the inputs described in ChapterII. Chapter V uses the information presentedin previous chapters to draw general conclusionsand to suggestsome possible alternative for the use oftelevision in Mexico.

xv CHAPTER I

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Characteristics of theTelesecundaria System Faced with a large school age populationand a concom- itant increase in educational demandat all academic levels, the Mexican government has turned tonew educational technologies, principally radio and television,to supplement the services of and alleviate thepressures on its traditional school system. The Telesecundariais the largest andmost important undertaking of this kind inMexico today. It uses television to provide a full, three yearsecondary education to students who, for a wide variety ofreasons, would not otherwise have access to schooling beyondthe 6th grade. In 1965, the number of primary schoolgraduates unable to enter secondary school in Mexicowas over 180,000 or approximately 37 percent of the previousyear's 6th graders. The lack of opportunity at thesecondary level was most acute in the rural areas where the number ofprimary school graduates is still relatively small butwhere there havenot been sufficientfunds to provide either secondaryschools or qualified teaching personnel. The vast majorityof Mexico's rural communities (those with lessthan 2,000 inhabitants) produce fewer thanthirty 6th grade graduates per year,and under such circumstances the government hasnot felt it

-1- economically feasible to provide thesame kind of secondary schools found in larger Mexican townsand cities. For these reasons, a group of educational plannersand mass media specialists within the Direccion Generalde Educacion Audio- visual y Divulgacion (DGEAD), a divisionof the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP), inauguratedthe Telesecundaria system.

Telesecundaria began cautiously andon a small scale in September, 1966, with closed-circuitbroadcasting toan exper- imental school inMexico City. Eighty-three 7thgraders divided into fourclasses received televised instructionin the standard subjects. Three of theclasses had regular teachers to help utilize the televisionlessons; one class received the lessons without the aid ofany classroom personnel. An evaluation was performed atthe end of the 1966-67 school year, and the experiment wasdeemed a success. The following year, open broadcastingbegan to 6,569 7th grade students in 304 classroomsscattered throughout eight states. As Table I-1 illustrates, theTelesecundaria expanded rapidly in its first threeyears. By 1970, Tele- secundaria was serving over 5 percent ofthe secondary students in its eightstate region or approximately3per- cent of the entire Mexican secondaryschool population.

-2- -,' TABLE I-1

Student Enrollmentin Telesecundaria

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 7th grade 6,569 10,916 12,175 14,499 12,432 8th grade 5,324 8,240 9,459 9,194 9th grade 5,473 6,997, 7,350 Totals 6,569 16,240 25,888 30,955 28,976 Source: DGEAD data.

Unlike most other educational televisionsystems which have been developedin the last decade, the MexicanTelesecun- daria has been designedto complement rather than reformor replace the traditional secondary schoolsystem. Its basic purpose continues to be the extension ofsecondary education to young peoplewho have previously been denied suchoppor- tunity. The system's administrators alsofeel that television can help achieve other important educationalobjectives, such as providin, a pedagogical example to classroomteachers throughout the reception area and offeringout-of-school education to peoplewho did not finish secondary schoolbut who are able andanxious to do so in their ownhomes. Stu- dents enrolled in the Telesecundariahave equal official status with thosein the traditional system. They meet the same requirementsfor admission with the exception ofthe entrance exam andreceive the same diplomas,although a

-3- secondary school diplomadoes state whether itwas awarded by a teleschoolor a regular one. So far, approximately 18,000 students have graduated from theTelesecundaria system.

While retaining theidentical curriculumand goals of

the traditional Mexicansecondary school system,the Tele- secundaria employs a mix of national andcommunity resources. In place of large, federallyfinanced school buildings,

Telesecundaria classescustomarily meet inspace provided by the local communities. Such space consistsof one, two, or

three rooms (designatedteleaulas) donatedby the municipal government, local cooperatives or other social serviceagen- cies. Occasionally, space isgiven by a local patronor by one of the students' families. In communities whereinterest in the Telesecundaria runs particularly high,parent organ- izations (patronatos) have been instrumentalin raising money for the construction and maintenance of permanentfacilities. Instead of fully-accreditedand specialized secondary school teachers, theTelesecundaria reliesupon classroom coordinators (maestroscoordinadores) tooversee all instruction. The coordinators are drawn from the ranks of 5thand 6th grade primary school teachers andthey arc paid by the federal government.Unlike their counterpartsin the traditional system who specialize in one subject,Telesecundaria coordinators are assigned to one class ofstudents whom they must instruct in the whole range of 7th, 8thor 9th grade subjects. The coordinators are provided some specialtraining

4101:IWO in the use of television and are supplied witha monthly

outline and schedule ofthe topics to be coveredin each

telelesson. Workbooks to assiststudents in the daily utilization of teleclasses are prepared by the DGEADand distributed at low cost throughcommercial bookstores.

The television teachersand producers whoare responsible for the development and presentation of thebroadcast

lessons are recruited fromthe traditional schoolsystem on the basis of their subject specialties, pedagogicalskills, and, in the case of the television teachers, theirpoise on camera. Television teachersare hired on an hourly basis

and given special trainingin elocution, thetechniques of television teaching,script-writing, and theuse of audiovisual aids. Approximately thirtytelevision teachers have

been trained to date. Producers are givenextensive tech-

nical training in audiovisualinstruction as well as studio management. Their selection andtraining reflectsa basic Telesecundaria policy that itis better to train academic specialists to be television producers than to expectexper- ienced producers to becomeacademic specialists. In a typical week, students receive 30televised lessons divided among the various subjects and vocationalactivi- ties listed in Table 1-2. Teleclasses average 20minutes in length with the remaining 40 minutes of each classdivided between preparation and follow-up activitiessupervised by the classroom coordinators. Teleclasses are broadcastbetween 7:45 A.M. and2:00 P.M., Monday through Friday, withSatur- day morning being reserved for broadcaststo the classroom coordinators. To accomodate a very tight broadcastschedule, transmissions to the three secondary gradesare staggered so that a twenty minute lesson to the 7thgrade is followed immediately by one to the 8th grade, andfinally by one to the 9th grade.

TABLE 1-2

Telesecundaria Subjectsby Grade

Sub ects 7th grade Spanish Civics Mathematics Art Biology Physical Education World History Vocational Training English 8th grade Spanish Mexican Geography Mathematics Civics Biology Art English Physical Education Mexican History Vocational Training 9th grade Spanish Civics Mathematics Contemporary History Physics Art Chemistry Fhysical Education English Vocational Training

Production activities of the Telesecundariaare centered in four studios maintained by the DGEADin Mexico City. The large number of subjects broadcast to threegrades, and the fact that almost all teleclasses are broadcastlive, are powerful incentives for using studiotime efficiently. Each teleteacher has only one hour in the studioto rehearse and deliver a 20-minutelesson. All Telesecundaria lessons are transmittedover XHGC- TV, Channel 5 in Mexico City, or over XHAJ-TV,Channel 6, a repeater station in Las Lajas, Veracruz. Mexican law requires

commercial broadcastersto donate 12.5percent of their broadcast time for government use, although this rulehas rarely been enforced. Channel 5 has farexceeded this requirement, donating over 40 percentof its broadcastday to Telesecun- daria. Despite Channel 5'sgenerosity, the growthof the Telesecundaria system has been limited by thefact that it must rely solely on that channel. Coverage has been confined to those areas able to receive Channel5's signal: the Fed- eral District, and the states of Mexico,Hidalgo, Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla, Tlaxcala, and Veracruz. A project was in- itiated in 1969 to send taped lessonsby plane to the northern state of Sonora, but this effortwas discontinued because of administrative andscheduling difficulties. The Methodology of thisStudy

Two d:".ctinct approachesmay be taken in evaluating

an educational system. The first attempts toanswer such

questions as these! What skills and attitudesshould be

developed in young people?What subjects should theybe taught? How many graduates shouldbe produced? These

questions deal with whatan educational system should be

producing. An attempt to answer themrequires that evi-

dence be gathered concerningthe cost and benefits to

society of different educationalactivities. This is cost- benefit analysis; and it tendsto assume that present (or past) cost reflect efficient uses of educationalresources. Cost-effectiveness analysis,on the other hand, examines

the efficiencies ofalternative methods for usingeducational resources. This second type ofanalysis provides tentative

recommendations on how toproduce something; it doesnot

question what set ofoutcomes to produce. Thus, cost-effectiveness analysis isconcernedeither with minimizing

the cost of obtaininga given set of outputs, or withmaxi-, mizing the outputs of a system at a fixed level ofexpenditure. Because the present c:valuationexamines how well alternative instructional systems are performing atthe secondary level in Mexico, the cost-effectiveness frameworkwas selected. Accordingly, the Telesecundaria and the EnsenanzaDirecta*

* Ensenanza Directa refers to Mexico's regularacademic secondary schools andnot to technical or vocational schools which also enrollprimary graduates.

-8- systems are compared in terms of their relativecosta and effectiveness. In addition, severalalternatives to these two forms of secondary education are evaluatedin regard to their probable effects in improvingthe overall efficiency of the secondary school system. The current goalsof Mexico's school system are taken for granted throughoutthe analysis; however, in Chapter V, some possible alternativeeducational goals are discussed.

By structuring this evaluation as a comparativecost- effectiveness study of alternative educationalstrategies, it is hoped that the study will be directlyrelevant to

decision-makers. Many previous studiesof educational technology projects, even when well executed, havebeen of limited practical value to decision-makers: first, because theyhave examined only the effectiveness of a singleapproach and did not evaluate alternative means of accomplishing thesame

educational tasks;and, second, becausecosts were frequently not analyzed and compared. If the effectivenessof only one educational strategy is considered, it isvery difficult to

decide whether it isthe most sensiblestrategy to pursue when there could well be other instructionaltechniques that could do a moreeffective job. When several instructional systemsare compared on some criteria of teaching effectiveness andone system is found to be "better" than the others, itmay still be very difficult

-9 - to decide which instructional systemshould be adopted without some consideration of therelative costs ofthe different systems. If a new and "better"system costs substantially more than the currentone, it is necessaryto consider how well the current systemcould perform ifthe cost differential were applied to improvingit. Imagine, for example, an educational systemthat is experimenting on a pilot basis withinstructional television in hopes of improving what isconsidered to bea generally low caliber of mathematics instruction. Suppose a comparative study of the pilot project andthe ongoing system indicates that student achievement inmathematics has increased by 20 percent with theinstructional television system. Should ITV therefore be adopted ona national scale? In terms ofrelative teaching effectiveness, theanswer would apparentlybe "yes"; hoWever, if thefull-scale implementation of such an innovation wereprojected to cost $30 moreper student per year than the fmgoingsystem, the answer might not be so clear-cut. There might be several otherways of spending an extpa $30 per studentper year even more effectively thanon a nOional ITV system. Assuming an average class size of 40,it would be worth asking whetherthere might be some better way to spendthe equivalent of $1200 per class per year.* In many developing countriesi, forexample, sucha sum could provide

* There is also the importantquestion of wnetheror not the 20% increasein student achievement per year. is worth $30per student Cost-benefit analysiswould be neededto attempt to answer thistype of question. -10- the yearly salary of an additional,full-time classroom teacher. Or, perhaps, the $1200per class per year could be spent on in-service teacher-training inmathematics, or on new learning materialsfor students. While it might not be possible to examinethoroughly every possible use of additional funds, evaluatorsshould investigate costs and effectiveness in termsof alternative

educational strategies. Comparative cost-effectiveness analysis provides the most useful framework forcarrying out a system evaluationin this way.

To execute this typeof analysison Mexico's Telese-

cundaria and the EnsenanzaDirects it isnecessary to specify at the outset what is meant byeffectiveness in terms of the measurable outputs of the schoolsystems. Second, the inputs or resources that go intoeach alternative must be identified. Third, those inputsmust be trans- lated into their component system costs. Finally, the inputs and outputs should be linked withmathematical or statistical models that relate changes in theoutputs to changes in the inputs.

It is also useful to structure sucha comparative analysis on two levels ofaggregation. At a disaggregated, microscopic level theeffects of a systemon the individual student are considered. Student outcomessuch as achievement test scores and attitude measuresare examined in terms of their relationship to the type of schoolsystem and the family and social backgroundthat the student hasbeen

exposed to. The results of suchan evaluation allow one

to compare the instructionaleffectiveness of different systems.

At a more aggregated, macroscopiclevel the evaluation

examines the relationship betweenthe overall outputs ofa system and its overall inputs. The system outputs considered at this level are measures of the systems' enrollmentcapa-

cities and their abilityto produce graduates. Such system outputs are determined by analyzing the relativeenrollment

limitations put on each systemby a fixed budget. It is at this level that the "cost"part of the cost-effectiveness

analysis really comes intoplay. Given informationon the

component costs of a systemand the particular typesof input combinations the systemuses, it is possible to determine

the number of teachers,classrooms, and other inputsthat

could be provided bya certain budget. This can be trans-

lated easily into the maximumstudent enrollment possible

with a particular systemand budget. Given additional figures on drop-out, repetition, andpromotion rates, this informa-

tion can also be translatedinto the number ofgraduates the system is capable of producing. If a growing budget iscon-

sidered, the results of theevaluation at this level willbe a comparison of the enrollments and number of graduatesthat could be produced by different systemsover time.* The methodology outlined above willbe followed inthe present evaluation. Some alternativesmay be clearly better than others (e.g. better on everyoutput dimensionfor any fixed budget), while others may bebetter in one respect and poorer in another. In the lattercase, educational decision-makers willhave to evaluate the pedagogical,eco- nomical, political and social implicationsof various potential outputs todecide which is the best overallinstructional system.

* The modelby which this macro-analysis isaccomplished, as well as the generalmethodology discussed developed more fully here, is in Dean Jamison,"Notes on Cost- effectiveness Evaluation of Schooling inDeveloping Countries," Institutefor Communication University, 1972. Research, Stanford CHAPTER II

Input Components of theTelesecundaria and EnserlanzaDirecta Systems

In this chapter theinput components of theTelesecun-

daria thenceforth TS)are compared with those of theolder, more prestigious, and much largersystem of direct class-

room teaching, the EnseRanza Directs(henceforth ED). To

understand the similaritiesand differences betweenthe two systems, and to provide a framework for the subsequentinter-

pretation of learning andattitude output data,the systems

were examined on four dimensions:school and communitychar- acteristics, student characteristics, teachercharacteristics, and costs.

At the outset of thestudy, random samples of9th grade

classes were selected fromeach instructional system. The

classes were chosen fromfour geographicareas: the Federal

District of Mexico,and the states of Mexico,Hidalgo, and

Morelos. These areas were selectedbecause: (1) theywere

large and diverse enoughin economic as wellas geographic

terms; and (2) becausethey were all close enoughto Mexico

City to facilitate classroomobservations as wellas test and survey questionaireadministration.

Table II-1 presents thestudent samples accordingto state and instructionalsystem. In all, fifty-eight 9th grade Is classes containing 1,236 studentswere included in the sample along with twentythree 9th gradeclasses from

the ED totalling 1,101 students. The sampling strategy was

intended to provide a minimum of 1,000students from each

system and because ED classes are customarilymuch larger

than those in the TS, fewer of themwere needed to obtain the desired number of subjects.*

Table II-1

Student Samples by Area and InstructionalSystem

Distrito Valle de Federal Mexico Hidalgo Morelos Tg---75 TS ED TS ED TS ED No. of Classes 15 10 15 4 15 4 13 5

No. of Students 384 462 313 208 252 183 287 248

Average Class Size 26 46 21 52 17 45 22 49

Totals Telesecundaria Ensetanza Directs

58 classes 23 classes

1236 students 1101 students

21 average class size 47 average class size

* The four sampled stateswere chosen from among the eight in which TS exists. This was done afteran analyss of test scores indicatd that these fouradequately represented the range of achievement in all TS classes. The EDsample, although random, is not representatiVE of all ED schBElsthrovghout Mexico. How ever, since SD and TS classes were sampledrandomly from the same states,COmpairions wit'ain the four stateregion are valid.

-15- School and Community Characteristics

Included in both the teacher andstudent questionnaires

that were administered inthe sample classes were a number

of questions concerning theschools and communities in which

the two systems were operating. It was known that the TS

had grown up largely inresponse to the demand for secondary

education in Mexico's rural areaswhere regular schools were not available, and that certain qualitativedifferences were bound to exist between the two schoolsystems as well as the communities in which they operated. The surveys were designed to verify and, where possible,quantify such differences. The results of this analysisare summarized below.

Although the TS and ED systemsoverlap in many areas, teleaulas are generally located inpoorer and more rural communitites. This fact was established bychecking the distribution of schools in the foursample regions and by asking teachers to estimate theaverage monthly family income of their students. The wider dispersion of teleaulas throughout the states and theirpresence in very small communities were indication that thenewer system was reaching different elements of the Mexicanpopulation than those served by the larger,more urban-based ED. Evidence that the TS serves poorer studentswas found in the fact that two-thirds of the sample teachersin this system estimated their students'mean family income to be less than thepeso

-16- equivalent of 80 U.S. dollarsper month while only 43 per-

cent of the ED teachers madean equivalent estimate. In

contrast, 30 percent of ED teachersjudged their students'

family incomes to beover 160 dollars a month as against

only 2 percent of the TSinstructors.

Teleaulas tend to be small and ratherflexibly organized institutions rarelyserving more than 75 students in

three grades k ED are large formalinstitutions customarily

serving more than 500 pupils.Teleaulas are housed ina

wide variety of locationsincluding municipal buildings and

village cooperativesas well as rented private rooms. In

contrast, the vast majority of EDschools are located in

buildings owned and administeredby the federal government.

Such buildings generally havea minimum of ten classrooms

as contrasted with the typical teleaulawith only three or

four rooms. The difference in school size,compounded by higher student teacher ratios,contribute to the greater

sense of formality and organizationapparent in the ED.

Teleaulas do not possessas many facilities or ancillary

learning aids as the ED. This fact was not surprisinggiven the small enrollments of mostteleaulas and theircompara- tively low budgets. Considering these constraints,however, the local teleaulas doseem to provide students with most of the essential learningmaterials, at least accordingto the teachers who were surveyed. For example, three quarters of

-17- the respondents fromboth systems said that theirschools had a science laboratory, and a quarter of the TSinstruc- tors claimed to havea school library versus a third of

their ED counterparts. Unfortunately, it was not possible

to determine inany systematic way the sizeor, more impor- tantly, the degree to whichthese facilities are actually

utilized on a day to daybasis.

Student Characteristics

Survey questionnaires wereadministered to students

in the sample classes todetermine what socioeconomicchar- acteristics were common to bothTS and ED students, and which ones were common to one group more than theother. Research in many countrieshas revealed that differences

in social class and thelevel of parents' formaleducation, as well as mass mediaexposure, can influence how well

students learn and how longthey stay in school. In the paragraphs that follow,a number of important differences between the sample studentpopulations are summarized.

Boys outnumbered girls inboth systems, but the ratio of boys to girls is substantially higher in the TSClasses. In the Federal District and in the Valley of Mexicoboys outnumbered girls almost threeto one in the. TS classes. Throughout the ED system, male majorities alsopredominated, but the ratio of boysto. girls never surpassedtwo to one.

TS students are generallyolder than ED sthdents.The

-18- average age for the 9th grade TSstudents was 16years 3 months as opposed to 15 years 0 months for the EDstudents.

Approximately equal proportionsof younger and olderstu- dents was found attending TS classes in the sampleregions; but within the ED, the vast majority of youngerstudents were located in Mexico City whileolder students predomin-

ated in the rural statesof Morelos and Hidalgo.

Students from both systemscome from large families

(average of 8 personsliving in the home)and, in most instances, bot.. parentswere present in the home. There was a higher rate of fathers dead or absent for theTS

students, however, with 18percent of the studentsof this

group claiming that their fatherswere not living with them. Parents of TS students have less formal educationthan parents of ED students. The levels of karentalschooling are presented in Table 11-2. As the table shows, 66per- cent of the'TS fathers had not finished primaryschool versus 40 percent of the ED fathers. Looking at the otherend of the scale, 24 percent of the'ED fathers hadsome training beyon4 the secondary level versus less than 5 percentof the TS fathers. A parallel situationexisted for mothers' schooling, andin both. samplegroups mothirs' educational attainments were substantiallybelow those of fathers.

19 Table 11-2

Parents' Education by InstructionalSystem (percentages)

Fatherla Education Mother's Education TS ED TS ED Did not study 10.1 4.5 17.8 8.3 Completed some pri. 56.0 35.1 53.9 38.9

Completed primary 16.0 19.3 15.4 18.6

Attended secondary 6.4 10.0 4.1 6.2

Commercial course 2.4 7.4 2.7 17.1 Advanced secondary 2.5 16.6 0.9 5.9 and/or university

Fathers of ED students alsohave b:%tter jobs than TS

fathers, a fact obviously relatedto their superior level

of schooling. While only 11 percent ofthe TS fathers had jobs that required more than a primary education, 35per-

cent of the ED fathers heldpositions that could be termed middle level or professional.

Students from both, systemscome from homes* where the

mass media (newspapers) magazines,radio, television, and

books) are presentand are-used extensively. The only note-

worthy difference betweenthe groups occurredon the vari-

able of television ownership: 82percent of the ED students

claimed to have televisionsets in their homesversus 63 percent of the TS students. Despite this difference,however, only 20 percent of.the lattergrouVsaid they had not seen at least some commercial television the weekbefore. -20- Teacher Characteristicsand Behavior

Survey questionnaireswere also administered to class-

room teachers in the two systems,and 52 TS coordinators and 26 ED teachers from the sample classes tooktime to

fill out and return thequestionnaires. These are rela-

tively small samples,particularly in thecase of the ED

group, but the data gathered stillprovides some useful information.

There were more men than women in both teachersamples,

and the proportion ofmen to women teacherswas higher in the TS. The 7:3 ratio ofmen to women in TS and the 6:4

ratio in ED also roughlyparalleled the ratios ofboys to girls in the respectivesystems. As a group," TS coordinators had less generaleducation

and professional trainingthan their ED counterparts. This finding was not surprising when one recalls that TScoor- dinators are drawn, generally,from the ranks of primary school teachers; teachersin the traditionalsystems are usually fully-qualified graduates of the NationalTeachers' College (Normal Superior). Despite this expecteddifference in training level, over 30 percent of the TScoordinators had also studied at some academic level beyond thatrequired to become a primaryschool teacher.

ED "teachers Wereolder and bad more "formalteaching experience than the7S-coordinators.Whereas the majority of teachers in both groups were between 26 and35 years of

-21- age, 27 percent of the TS coordinators were 25or younger.

Yet,not one of the ED group was under 26. Differences in

teaching experience were related toage. More than half

of the ED teachers had begun their teachingcareers before

1960, while the vast majority ofthe TS coordinators- 79 percent - had entered the profession sincethat time. As part of an extensive classroom observation study

carried out by the evaluation unit of DGEAD in1972, the teaching methods of the sample teachers from boththe TS and ED systems were evaluated. TS coordinators, who teach the full spectrum of secondary subjects with the aidof television, were observed in both mathematicsand Spanish while the more specialized ED teacherswere observed only in their subject specialties, in thiscase either Mathe- matics or Spanish. The full results of this study have been published separately,* buta few of the most important findings are considered below as input characteristicsof the two systems.

Despite differences in general education,professional preparation, and years of teaching experiencesthere are few significant differences in theclassroom teaching behavior of the two teacher4roups. In the vast majority of

* Judith A. Mayo, The Ob'servat'ionOf Telesedundaria And Enserianta Directa TeA:hers in Mexico,Institute for Communication Research, StanfordUniversity, 1973. observations, teacher exposition in the form oflecture or dictation was the rule,with very little time being devoted either to dialogue with students or to theanswer- ing of students' questions. Indeed, in four out ofevery

five observations,students never askeda question. Teachers often directed questions at their students,but such questions we2e posed only to maintainattention and/ or to elicit information that the student had beenexpected to memorize. Few questionswere asked that demandedan opinion of the student. In sum, there appearedto be little communication or interchange between students andteachers in either of thetwo systems. The blackboard is the onl instructional aid usedre ulsrly by TS and ED teachers. Although most teachersclaimed to have access to reference books and otherlearning aids, their classes demonstrated little evidence of theutilization of such materials. Again, in four out offive observations, the classroom teacher relied only upon theblackboard to embellish his exposition. On the average, twostudente per class ere directed to the blackboard by theteacher to solve matIlematical problems or completeother kinds of exer- cises. In most classes, the teacher dominatedthe use of the blackboard, employing itto convey problemsor rules which the students wouldcopy in their notebooks.

TS and' ED' teachers'allowtheir studentslittle opportunity-to participate actively in the learningprocess, and

-23- students' participation is limited almostentirely to individual* workat their desks. Individual work by students was observed less frequently inSpanish (15 percent of class time) than in Math classes (35percent of class time), with little difference between TScoordinators and ED teachers. Nonetheless, an importantdifference was found in the amount of individual studentwork that was teacher-supervised: in TS classes, coordinatorssupervised their students' work an average of 23 percentof the time as compared with 6 percent of the time by teachersin the ED system.

ED teachers have more time and do a more thoroughjob of preparing their lessons than do the' TScoordinators. This difference was most noticeable in theobservations of mathematics classes whereit appeared that 85percent of the ED teachers had prepared a lesson plan. Lesson plans were present no more than half the time in theclasses of the TS coordinators. Of course, thecoordinators are responsible for all of the subjects taught intheir particular gradeand this implies that they must make numerous dailypreparations to complement the televised lessons. ED teachers havean advantage in this respect since they are customarilyrespon- sible for onlyone subject matter. The teaching behavior of TS' coordinatorschange's markedly according to the 'sub they are t'e'aching. Classroom observation actually revealed more changes in teachingbehavior between subjects thanbetween instructionalsystems. In

other words, when the teachingmethods of individual TS

coordinators were comparedin math and Spanish, the dif-

ferences between themwere greater than the differences

observed between single- subject teachers in the ED system.

This finding suggests thatthe nature of a particular

subject or at least themanner in which it is presented

in the official curriculummay affect strikingly the teachers' classroom behavior.

Costs of the Telesecundariaand Entenanza Directa

In the first part of thischapter, differences in the

community, student and teacherinputs to the TS and ED systems were examined. The use of differenttypes of inputs generally implies differentcosts for any two systems.

It is ',his diffe ce in cost for TS and ED that willbe examined in this section.

Before undertaking a costanalysis, however, there are several points that must bemade by way of introduction.

First, the costs &summarizedhere and in succeeding sections are the total costs to Mexicoas a whole. They include, in addition to government outlays,costs incurred by local qommunities, students' families,and other groups within the private. sector.* Second, costs are analyzedon a

* The oprc7tunity cost, of studentsare not considered in this analysis. If they had been, theywould have increased the cost differential advantage of the' TS because joboppor- tunities in ruralareas are fewer and lower paying,than those in urban areas. component basis to enable thereader to see precisely how

and why the two systemsdiffer. Third, costs are compared

on a per student basis because thegreat difference in

size between the two systems makesa comparison of total

system costs of only passing interest.* Fourth, because

the burden of proof is alwayson a new system or new tech-

nology to prove its worth, thecosts of the older ED system

have been estimated conservatively(i.e., cost estimates

are somewhat understated). Finally, the assumptionsupon which the cost estimates restare presented in more detail in Appendix B.

In almost every educationaltelevision project, technology has been an add-on cost,forit has supplemented rather than replaced the classroomteacher and other input components of the existing system. Mexico's TS can be viewed in such terms tothe extent that television isadded to the traditional componentsof a system. However, what distinguishes the TS and makes itviable for Mexico is that the traditional componentsof the system are much less expensive than comparableelements found in the ED.

Table 11-2 reveals that thecost per student in 1972 was less for TS than for ED along thefour principle traditional component categories-- administration, classroom teachers, facilities, andstudent expenses. There are

* In 1972 the EDserved 1,060,000 studentsat a total cost of (0211,664300) Whilethe' TS enrolled approximately29,000 students at a total cost of tTk,368,000).

-26- relatively fewer administrativepersonnel throughout the

TS than in the ED and muchless effort is put into thecen-

tral administration of TS. Furthermore, as discussed in

the previous section, the classroomcoordinators have less

.training than their counterpartsin traditional secondary

schools and thus they receive lowersalaries. The teacher

cost per student differential wouldbe even greater than

those shown in Table 11-3 were it notfor the fact that the

average class size for the ED is twice that of theTS,

thereby spreading ED's higher teachercost over more students.

The responsibility for providingclassroom facilities in

the TS system rests with the localparents associations

(patronatos), while in the EDsystem the state or federal government provides such facilities. The local patronato most often finds unusedspace in existing buildings to house a teleaula, although in some instanceslow-cost classrooms have been constructed with thedonated labor of students' families. Furthermore, as discussed previously,the typical teleaula offers less than thetypical ED school in theway of associated school inputs-- libraries, laboratories, workshops, etc. Both these circumstancesserve to lower the relative cost of the TS facility. This differential in the facility cost per student would beeven greater than shown here except for the largerclass sizes and more efficient use of classroom space (double sessions)by which the ED system spreads its facilities'costs among many more students.

27 Table 11-3

Annual Cost Per Student of ED and TS-- 1972*

Ensenanza Traditional Components Directa Teiesecundaria

Administration $ 50 $ 6

Classroom teachers 94 88 Facilities --fully equipped classroom 28 11 Student costs-- books, uniforms, etc. 28 20 Sub-Total $200 $125

ETV Components

Production $. 0 $ 19

Distribution 0 2 Reception 0 5. 0 26 Total Annual Costper Student $200 $151

* The assumption underlyingthese estimations are explained in Appendix B. More detailed cost informationmay also be found there. Student costs are lower in the TS because theguidebooks that are used in the teleaUlas toaccompany the televised lessons are less expensive thanthe standard textbooks used in the ED.

In sum, traditional components of the TS systemare substantially less costly than those ofthe ED -- $125per student vs. $200 per student, respectively. On the surface, dould also appear that the traditionalcomponents of the TS system, taken alone, would providean inferior educational environment to that of the ED. However, TS addseducational television to thetraditional components. The costs of this innovation may be dividedinto three broad categories -- production, distribution,and reception. Production costs include outlays for studios,studio equipment and its maintenance, as-wellas the salaries of all administrative, technical, and television teachingpersonnel. Distribution costs are expenses_incuvred inthe transmission of the televised lessons. They are relativelylow in the TS system because Channel5 donates theuse of its facilities to the Secretariat of Public Education. The distribution costs in Table 11-2 reflect only the costsof the actualuse of resources -- the coats of power,personnel, and maintenance -- incurred by Channel 5 in itsbroadcast of TS. Recep- tion costs are the annualized per studentcost of one television receiver and its maintenance. All told, the ETV components added $26 per student to the cost ofTS, yielding

-29- a cost per student hour of $.07,if we assume 400 hours of programming per grade per year in 1972, and a total costper

student of $151 comparedto $200 for ED. In other words, TS

was approximately 25 percentless expensive than EDon a per student basis.

In comparing the costs of different educationalsystems, it is not sufficient to consider only the amountof money spent on them; attention should also be directed towardwho is paying these costs. Table II-4 breaks down thecosts of TS and ED systems according to their fundingsources. The local community pays a higher percentage of the costsfor

schooling within the TSsystem than with ED-- 24 percent versus 16 percent, respectively. This difference is notas large as might &e expectedgiven the TS's strong reliance on local initiative andparticipation; and it may beconsidered even less significant when viewed in absoluteterms. Families of ED students pay approximately $32 per studentper year*while families (andpatrohato groups) supporting TS students must spendapproximately $36. Despite the fact that there are not overwhelming differences in the fundingsources of the two systems, there is indeed a questionof fairness to be raised here. Why must TS students whocome from poorer families be forced tospend more, both in absoluteand relative terms, for theireducation than students in theED system who come from wealthierfamilies?

* The cost to students in* ED is actually $4per year greater than might le indicatedby Table because the students pay a $4 annual tee. This fee is put towardsmeeting the component costs of thesecondary school system. 30 Table II-4

Sources of Funding

ED TS Cost/student % Cost /student %

Government $168 64% $113 75%

Locality -- student families, 32 16% 36 24% patronato

Private Industry -- Channel 5 "2 1% Totals $200 100% $151 100%

Production costs of ETVprograms are generally the

basis for international comparisons,and for this reason

they are presented in annualizedfcrm in Table A

total of $560,800 is spentannually to produce approxi-

mately 3,600 twenty minuteprograms, yielding acost per

program of $156 or a production costper hour of $467.

Similar estimates for ETVprojects in other countries in-

dicate that Mexico's TS isprobably one of the leastexpen- sive systems of its kind inthe world. Table 11-5

Annual Program ProductionCosts of Telesecundaria

(1) Production Component

Personnel and Administration $220,000 39%

Teleteachers 104,000 19%

Studios 15,200 3%

Studio Equipment 49,600 9% Video Tapes 52,000 9% Maintenance MNIIm129,990 21%

(2) Total Annual ProductionCost $560,600 100%

(3) Annual Program Output (20 minute tapings) 3,600

(4) Production Cost/Program (2) = (3) 156

(5) Production Cost/Hour (4) X (3) 467

* The assumptions underlying these cost estimationsof the various production componentsare explained in Appendix B. The costs presentedare average annualized figures that are representative of anyyear after adjustments have been made for price changes. Costs are given in 1972 U.S. dollars.

-32- Like most other educationaltechnology projects, TS's

per student costs would be expectedto decline as its en-

rollment increases, providedother elements of the system

do not change. This is because a part of thecosts of an

educational technology systemare fixed costs; they do not

vary with changes in the number ofstudents in the system.

The remaining costs that wouldaccrue to TS or ED as a re-

sult of an expanding enrollmentare Variable costs in that

they increase in proportionto the size of the system.

Table 11-6 traces through_ theeffect of changes in

student enrollmenton the per student costs of the TS and

ED systems. In the ED system, the costper student remains constant (because proportionatelymore money must be spent for each student that isadded to the system), whereas in

TS, as the fixed costs ofproduction and transmissionare spread over more andmore students, the cost per student declines. With only 10,000 students in thesystem, TS becomes less expensive thanED, the difference becoming more pronounced as enrollments gethigher. With 1,000,000 students in the system, theper student cost of TS approach its minimum theoreticalvalue of $130.*

* See the footnote inTable 11-6 f6r the assumptionsupon which the division into fixedand variable costs is based. Table 11-6

Annual Cost Per Studentor ED vs TS as Student Enrollment Increase

Telesecundaria Traditional ETVComponent Enrollment Enserianaa Directs CoMrionent Prod. Dist.' Rec. Total

5,000 $200 $125 $112 $10 $5 $252 10,000 200 125 56 5 5 191 30,000 200 125 19 2 5 150 50,000 200 125 11 1 5 142 100,000 200 125 '6 1 5 137 500,000 200 125 1 - 5 131 1,000,000 200 125 1 - 5 131

This table assumes increased enrollment forTS within its existing geographical limits and implies that production anddistribution component costs of the ETVsystem are fixed costs. It is also assumed that students in an expanded systemare to be supplied with the same combination of educationalresources per student that has been provided in the past.This latter assumptionimplies that all traditionalcomponent costs and reception are variable. component costs TS has provenhistorically to bea less expensive secon-

dary school systemthan the ED ($151per student vs. $200 per student), and, as Table 11-6 illustrates, thiscost differential would widen as enrollment for TS increased.However, there is a difficulty with making a direct historicalcompar- ison of this nature because the two systemsare operating in quite different environments. By and large, ED functionsin a more urban environmentthan does the TS. Its average class sizes are larger; it often uses doublesessions; and it incurs substantiallyhigher facility and administrative costs.

Given that historicalcosts reflect the pecularities of a particular environment, a more validbasis for comparison would be to imagine thetwo systems on equal footing. In other words, what would be the probable costs ofexpanding the ED system to serve the students currentlyenrolled in the TS?* Admittedly, it is difficultto forecast exactly what the costs of ED would be under suchcircumstances, but Table II-7 presents both "high" and "low"estimates on a per student basis.

For the low estimate,it is assumed thatthe ED system could operate with the same administrative,facility and student costs as the TSpresently does. This would require the ED to cut downon its current level of administrative overhead, to build classroommuch more cheaply than at

* In order to putthe two systemson an "equal footing", it would also have beenpossible to considerthe probable cost of using TS toserve the students currently in ED. enrolled As this would bemost properly consideredas an alternative for TS, itwill be discussed inChapter V. Table 11- 7

Annual Cost Per Student ofED in the Environment of TS*

Alternative A** Alternative B*** "Low" iitsht Cost Component

Administration $ 6 $110

Classroom Teachers 203 203 Facility 11 90

Student 20 28

TotalAnnual Cost/Student $240 $431

* Environment refersdirectly to the lower classsizes and classroom utilization faced TS's situation as compared to ED's.

** Alternative Aassumes ED in its new environmentwould face an average class size -023 andsir.ae sessions, as well as be able to get by with administration,facility and student costs equal towhat TS now spends.

*** Alternative Bassumes ED in its new environment wouldstill face an average class irzeof 23 and single sessions, but would have costs for theother traditional componentsbased on historical assumptions for ED-- that is, high administrative and facility construcfroncosts and relatively higher t- xtbook costs (seeAppendix B for the detailsregarding these assumptions). present, and to lower textbookcosts. However, even under

these favorable circumstances,the teacher cost per stu-

dent of ED would rise considerablyabove the historical

level of $94 because the typicalTS community would yield

substantially smaller classes, whilethe cost of an ED

teacher would be at leastas high as it is at present.*

If ED were to expand intocommunities currently served

by the TS with no change in thecurrent procedures, the

cost picture might more closelyresemble that, outlined as the "high" estimate in Table II-7. Here, teacher costs remain as in the "low" estimate,while the three other cost components reflect the historicalpattern of ED finan- cing. Thus, administrative costsare unchanged, but are spread over fewer students. Student costs are the same as under ED presently. In this "high" estimate, thetotal annual per student cost of ED risesto $435 Based on the more valid comparisons presented above--- that is, estimating how thetwo systems would fare when asked to do the same job-- TS remains a much less expensive system than the ED. Furthermore, the future cost

* In essence, this approach(using the "low" estimate)examines the relative costs ofED and TS and points out the trade-off that can be made ETan educational technology system wherein lower teachercosts offset the costs of technology. The teachers used in theTS system would cost less than half as muchas those in ED an per studentvs. $203 per student) if ED operated in-781senvironment. This cost differential more thancovers the coat of the ETV technology ($26 per student in 1972).

-37- differential is evenmore favorable toward TS than that

found by examining only historicalcosts. Even under the

".own alternative, the costper student of ED is over 50 percent greater than that for TS ($240per year vs. $151 per year). Yet costs are only part of thepicture, and their meaning and true implicetonsdepend on the evaluation of the effectiveness of thetwo instructional systems.

In the following two chapters,the effectiveness of the system will be critically examined. CHAPTER III

System Performance of the Telesecundariaand Ensenanza Directa

What effect have the different combinationsof inputs

represented by the TS and ED systemson the quantity of

students receiving secondary schooling in Mexicoand on

the quality of that schooling? The present chapter will

consider the quantitative part of thisquestion by evalu-

ating in economic terms the past andpotential performance

of the TS and ED. Chapter IV will evaluate andcompare

how well the two systems perform interms of student learning and attitudes.

Measures commonly applied toevaluate the quantitative

performance of an educationalsystem include the number of

graduates it can produce in a given periodof time and its

ability to satisfy educationaldemand. These measures are directly related to costs. System such as the TS and ED

that exhibit different costper student ratios are bound

to produce different numbers ofgraduates and to'satisfy

different proportions of studentswanting to enter school.

By looking at how well TS and EDhave performed on these

criteria, a decision-maker shouldbe able to determine how well, and at what cost, they could performin the future.

-39- Producing Graduates

A direct historical comparison ofthe numbers of

graduates is obviously not too meaningful.ED functions

with a budget almost 50 times thatof TS and produces many more graduates.* A better way of making such_a comparison is to consider the efficiency withwhich each system produces a single graduate. In cost terms, efficiency may be measured by the amount each system mustspend in a given year to obtain one graduate. The previous cost analysis found the total cost of the'TS system in 1972 to be about $4,368,000. With the system producingapproximately 6,600 graduates in 1972,a cost per graduate of approximately $662 can be computed.For ED total costs in 1972 were found to be approximately $216,608,000. The number of graduates in 1972 was about 238,300,,resultingin a cost per graduate of $909. In sum, in 1972 it cost 25 percent less to produce a TS graduate thanan ED graduate.

Although cost per graduate computationsreflect the overall performance of the twosystems to date, they are not entirely satisfying froma comparative viewpoint. They are based on historical costs which reflect thedifferent operating environments ofTS and ED. These environments

* The budget refers to thetotal annual cost of each system. Since not ail the componentcosts are paid by the SEP, the budget referred to here will begreater than the amount allocated to either system by the SEP. have effects that influence costs. For example, ED gen-

erally operates in more urbanareas with larger class sizes

and higher facility constructioncosts than TS. A more

meaningful comparison of the tirosystems would result if

one were to evaluate them on thesame basis; that is, to

examine their relative performanceas if they were opera-

ting in the same environment. Perhaps the best basis for

comparison would be tosee how both systems would perform

in the present operatingenvironment of TS.*This situa-

tion was already considered froma strictly cost point of

view in Chapter II. Now, one needs to examine howthese

costs affect how the educationalsystems might produce

graduates. As Table 11-6 illustrated,even under the best

conditions (labelled ED(A), ED wouldhave an annual cost

per student of $240 if faced withthe operating environment of TS (e.g. single sessions.and a 23:1 studentto full-time teacher ratio). The question is now tocompare the over-

all system performance of ED(A)with TS.

It is pos.Ible tocompare WA) with TS in thesame

nanner as ED was compared with TS,in terms of the cost

per graduate of each system.** However, a more interesting

* the comparison may also be made on the alternativebasis of how well TS could performin the present operating environment EYED, As this comparisonmore properly con- utitutes an alternativeuse of TS, it will be examined in Chapter V along with. otheralternatives.

** Because ED(A) isa hypotetical system, it would firstbe 'iecessarrto make allthe assumptions thatare used for the flow-through modeldescribed below. method for measuring therelative effectiveness of the

two systems in prodminggraduates would be to examine

how many graduates eachsystem could produceover time

if they were given thesame budget. Jamison (1972) de- scribes a methodology forcomparing two systems in this

manner. The empirical informationneeded to do so is the

total fixed cost andaverage variable cost per student,

the growth rate over time ofeffective expenditures (de.. fined as the growth rate of educational expendituresminus

the growth rate of the costsof providing educationalser-

vices)*, and the drop-out,repetition and promotionrates

for each system.The cost informationwas derived in Chap-

ter II, and the variousflow-through ratescan be estimated

from SEP data and the resultsof a teachers'survey admini-

stered throughout the TS systemin 1972.**Because we cannot know with certainty the rate of growth of effectiveexpenditures, we must compute the results for a number ofreasonable values.

* It isnecessary to look at the growthrate of effective expenditures in order todetermine the increase inpur- chasing power of theeducational budget; that is,really just to know howmany physical units ofresource inputs can be bought with the new budget. See Jamison (1972) for a more detailedexplanation. * * Examination of this datahasindicated that both:ED and TS have approximately thesame repetition, drop-oiN and promotion rates. Repetition in both. systemsis nearly zero due to a system of Makeup examinations.The drop- out rate between the seventh. grade. and the eIghtgrade is 18% and between the eighth.grade and ninth. grade The rate of graduation is 12%. from the ninth grade is 90%. We will assume these rates to hold for the hypothettcal'EDCA.1.

-42- Table III-1 illustrates theresult of applying Jamison's

flow-through model to ED(A) andTS. It is assumed that

both systems began in 1972 with_a budget of $4,368,0(10

(this was the total cost ofTS for 1972). The number of

graduates for each system in succeedingyears is shown as

a function of alternative rates ofgrowth. of effective

expenditures. For example, if the effectiveTS budget In- creased 6 percent annually, thesystem would be graduating

16,000 students in 1985. With a'6 percent effective budget

increase each year, ED(A) wouldonly graduate 9,300 students

in 1985. As might be expected given thedifference in costs,

TS always produces more graduatesthari ED(A) given the same budget.*

Satisfying Educatioriai Denand

Similar results can be seen byexamining the second

dimension of overall system output-- the rate of demand satisfaction (RDS). This is defined as the percentage of

entrants to secondary school ina given year relative to

the number of primary schoolgraduates from the previous

year. The number of primary schoolgraduates is an accept-

able measure of the demand forsecondary school services,

while the entrants tosecondary school constitutea

* This is true becausethe flow-through ratesare the same for both systems. If TS had a higher drop-outrate than ED(A), it would beposy le for TS to. graduate fewer ifUdents than EDeven with. lowezi system costs.

-43- Table III-1

Number of Graduates of Telesecundariavs Ensenanza Directa (A)* (in thouaanaa or atucents)

Growth_ Rate ox' Effective Expenditures**

Year 0% 3% 6% 9% 12%

TelesedUndaria

1972 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6

1974 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1

1976 7.3 8.1 8.9 9.8 10.7

1978 7.1 8.6 10.1 11.9 13.8

1980 7.7 9.5 10.9 14.3 17.4

1985 1.4 11.0 16.0 22.7 31.8

Ensenanza Directa (A)

1972 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2

1974 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 1976 4.6 5.0 5.5 5.9 6.4

1978 4.5 5.3 6.1 7.1 8.1

1980 4.8 5.8 7.0 8.4 10.1

1985 4.6 6.6 9.3 12.9 17.8

* It is assumed that ED beganwith the same budget in 1972 as TS and faced a peir studentcost of $240,

**The rate of growth. ofeffecttve expenditures is defined as the rate of educational expendituresminus the rate of growth of coats of educationalservices.

-44- reasonable measure of thedegree to which that demand is satisfied.* This measure may be ofparticular importanceto an educational planner because TSwas instituted specifi-

cally to satisfy demand forsecondary schooling inareas where ED was not meeting thedemand.

Looking only at the eight-stateregion where TS oper-

ates, the primary systemgraduated 347,800 students in 1971,

but only 229,200 studentsentered the regular secondary

system in 1972 yieldingan RDS of 65.9 percent. This left

a gap of 34.1 percent; that is, 34.1percent of the previous year's primary schoolgraduates were not accomodated by the ED system. Table 111-2 examines therelative ability of TS and ED(A) to help satisfythis unfulfilled demandfor different rates of growth ofeffective expenditures. For example, in 1972 the RDS for TSwas 3.6 percent whereas if

ED(A) had been inoperation instead of TS (withthe same budget as 2§), its RDS wouldhave been only 2.2.percent.

Table 111-2 assumes thatthe growth rate of primaryschool graduates in the eight-stateregion served by TS is 8.0 percent annually (theaverage national growth rate for primary school graduatesin the 1965-70 period). This implies that effective expenditures for either systemmust grow at a rate greater than 8percent if the system isto

* The rate of demand satisfaction as defined aboveis admittedly a very rough measure of the underlying conceptthat one would like to consider. Notall primary school graduates desire secondary schooling,nor do all secondary schoolen- trants come from the ranks of the past year's primaryschool graduates. However, given'existingknowledge and data limitations, the RDSmeasure is the best available. Table 111-2 Rate of DemandSatisfaction of TeIesedUndaria vs EnserianzaDirecta(A)* (percent ages)

GrbWthRate of EffectiveExpenditures**

0% 3% 6% 9% 12$ Year "Telesecundaria 1972 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 1974 2.8 3.1 3.4 3.7 4.1 1976 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.9 4.5 1978 2.1 2.7 3.3 4.0 4.9 1980 1.8 2.4 3.2 4.1 5.3 1985 1.2 1.9 2.9 4.4 6.5

Entehanza Directa (A) 1972 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1974 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.4 1976 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.6 1978 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.4 2.8 19801 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.0 1985 0.8 1.1 1.7 2.5 3.6

* It is assumedthat ED began with the same budget in1972 as TS and faceda per student coat of $240.

** The rate of groithof effective as the rate of growth:of expenditures is defined the rate of growth educational expendituresminus of coats ofeducational services. make any progress in reducing the unfulfilleddemand. Given the same money, TS can do a better job ofreduc-

ing the unfulfilled demandfor secondary school than ED(A).

However, TS cannot reallymake any significantdent in the unfulfilled demand problemwithout a substantial expansion of its budget.

In this chapter, TS hasbeen depicted asa more efficient system for producing graduates than ED. Furthermore, if ED were to attemptto do the same jobas TS, the system would produce fewer graduates and contribute lessto satisfying unfulfilled demand. The implications ofthese results are quite strong. If TS had been giventhe same budget as ED in its eight-state region in 1972, T3 theoreticallycould have produced 50 percentmore graduates than did ED and reduced the amount of unfulfilled demand tozero. However, before any final judgementcan be made as to the relative worth of the two systems, it is necessary toevaluate the impact of each systemon students. Chapter IV

Outputs of the Telesecundariaand Enserlanza Directa Systems

The use of an input-outputmodel in school evaluations

has the advantage ofrelating what students learn inschool

with what they bringto school in the way of personalattri- butes and abilitiesas well as what the school provides in

the way of teachers,facilities, finances andso forth. Such an analysis makes the results of an evaluationclearer in two ways: first, it helps decision-makersrealize that

learning or, more narrowly,achievement is part of a gen-

eral process, influencedby a number of factors,some under their control (curriculum,teachers, methods of instruction,

etc.) and others not(community characteristics,student background, socio-economiclevel of the state, etc.); secondly,

it helps focus thedecisi)a_makers' attentionon those factors that are within theirpower to improve.

The disadvantage ofusing an input-output model isthat it is often 11.mited to a strict cost-effectivenessanalysis

which narrowly definesthe educational inputs andoutputs

and ignores many otherimportant problems with the systemas

a whole. Efficiency is not thesole criterion that interests

decision - makers. An educational system thatis more efficient than another one in producing students witha certain level of learning may have serious social and politicaldraw- backs that were notincluded in the assessment.

-48- In order to give a balanced evaluation, thepresent

chapter focuses on a strictoutput analysis. A final chap-

ter reviews some of theserious problems thatone or other of the two Mexican instructional systems mustface, problems that do not fall within the limits of theinput-output model but are nevertheless ofimportance to decision-makers.

1. Description of EvaluationAreast_Instruments and Procedures The major output measures for the evaluationwere ela-

borated on the basiEof the main educationalgoals of Mexican

secondary education andthe problems facing TS. These were: achievement learning in mathematics, Spanish andchemistry at

the beginning and end ofthe second semester of9th grade; general ability testsin verbal, numerical,and logical thinking skills; student aspirations for furtherschooling, occupation, salary, and place of work; attitudesabout change in modern life as well as opinions about televisioninstruction.

A. Achievement: Limitations of time andpersonnel forced two decisions on theevaluators: first, to limit the subject matters for testing to three and then to choosea sample only from among third year secondary students (9th graders)in TS and ED, Mathematics and Spanishwere selected because theyare core subjects through all theprimary and secondarygrades and they are expected toprovide skills highlyvalued by society. Science is a subject area that is stressed throughoutthe

-119- secondary curriculum and for this reasonChemistry was selected as the third course in which to measurestudent achievement. Third year classes fromboth systems were chosen because if there was an effect of the type ofinstruction, either by television or by traditionalmethods, the cummulative impact of these methods would bemore likely to show up at the end of third year thanat any other time.

A before and afterdesign for the testingwas adopted to gain a clear understanding or whether thecomparative

groups being studied beganthe semester equally. The tests in the three subjects were based on the officialcurriculum for the second semester of the third year. Fifty item (sixty in the case of Spanish) multiplechoice tests were

constructed by the membersof the evaluationgroup of the

DGEAD with the helpof subject matterspecialists and Mexi- can experts from the PlanningDivision of the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP). Items were written andreviewed. Then a pretest of items was made with a sample ofstudents

from Mexico City. Pretest resultswere analysed for levels of discr.imiaationand difficulty anda final selection of items was made in lightof theserst results. The same tests were administered twice to bothsamples. In February, tests were administered to TS classesby their classroom coordinators after they had been givencareful instruction bi-faii evaluation team, and severalweeks later

-50- to the ED classes by members ofthe evaluation team them-

selves. No mention was male of a second testingat the

time so that teachers and studentswould not be motivated

to keep the test or prepare fora later test. When the

second testing period was announced and carriedout in the

middle of June, teachers were not informedthat the test would be identical tc theone given before. Whatever the memory factor from the experience in February thatmay have influenced the results of the secondtest, this factor was equal for students of both samples.

B. Ability Testing: The need for some measure of general ability skills in addition tomeasures of achievement was important for several reasons. First, general skills in reasoning, numerical, and logical thinkingare good pre- dictors of how students will do in futureacademic careers.

These skills are also useful indicatorsof-general intel- lectual capacity and of the opportunity thechild had had to develop such capacity at home and inschool. The reason for the inclusion of such tests in this study,however, was not to predict how students would do in futurestudies but rather to serve as controls forcomparisons between TS and ED students.

The logic of the need for this kind ofcontrol was developed before the evaluationwas carried out. By its nature, TS serves 1 student group that isdisadvantaged.

In large cities and especially in thecapital, TS students are those who have not found a place in the regular schools,

usually as a result of previous gradesor poorer scores on entrance tests. In rural areas, they are generally from

smaller towns where no ED school existsor is likely to be

built. Consequently, it was assumed that TS students had

had fewer opportunities to develop general abilityskills

(regardless of innate capacity) and probablyachieved less

in school. In talking with a large number of Mexicanedu-

cators in the year before the evaluation, therewas a gen-

eral consensus that TS students could not beexpected to

do as well on achievement as regular secondarystudents.

In order to control for these expected differencesand

make some reasonable comparisons between studentsfrom the

TS and ED samples, it was thought thatgeneral ability tests

could form a useful stratificationor control variable.

Stratification on general ability would alleviatethe prob-

lem of having to compare better prepared studentsfrom priveleged backgrounds with less preparedstudents from disadvantaged backgrounds.

The tests of general ability were administeredby members of the National Center for EducationalGuidance (Cen- tro Nadiondi de Oriehtadan Education). The testing was carried out under strict administrative controlof this group during March and Aprils1972,The three teats formed part of a larger battery that thecounseling service ordin- arily administers to the studentsof Mexico's techhical secondary schools. The three that were used for control

purposes were the Otis Beta (Form A),a reasoning and verbal ability test, an analogiestest for logical thinking,

and a test of number skills, developedand used by the group over a period of years.

Two circumstances prevented thefull use of the general ability test as a control for achievement. First, students from ED schools did not take the testswhen they were administered to the TS schools. Secondly, the first administration of the achievement tests in Februaryshowed none of the large differences that were expectedbetween the two groups, and so the ability tests were deemed lessurgent for cross group comparisons.

C. Student Aspiration: The purpose for evaluating student aspirations was to learn as muchas possible about how students regarded their futures beyondsecondary school. Would they want to continue their studiesor begin work? Would they prefer to stay in theirown communities or move to different ones?What kinds of jobs attracted studentsand how confident were they of eventually securingthem?Answers to these questions are important notonly to students themselves, but also to teachers andeducational decision-makers responsible for preparing young people foruseful roles in Mexican society.

Student aspirations are not formed only inschool; indeed, there is ample evidence fromother countries to suggest

-53- that individual interests,as well as previous experience

at home, social class, andother factors may havegreater

influence on aspiration thanschooling. Nevertheless, the amount of schoolingseems to have a definite influence

on various aspirations, not onlyfor more education but

for career choices, salary,and work situations. Unfor-

tunately, the nature of theaspiration measures (a single

questionnaire administered to ninthgrade students in June,

1972) did not permita judgment of what students'aspira-

tions were before enteringsecondary school or duringthe

course of the three year experience. However, the evalu-

ation included considerablebackground information to help guide and interpret currentlevels'lf aspiration.

Information on aspirationwas gathered in a question-

naire (cf. Appendix A fora complete translation of the

instrument) administeredto ninth grade students inthe TS and ED samples at the end ofthe second semester. Coming so close to the finish of theirsecondary schoolcareers, the questionnaire reachedstudents at a time when they were probably thinking seriously abouttheir futures.

Specific items of thesurvey asked about the amount of additional schooling desired,the expectation of achiev- ing that goal, job preferences,salary aspirations, place and type of work preferred,etc. D. Attitudes about Change and Opinionsabout Telesecundaria

A small attitude scaleon the theme of modernization

and change in societywas also applied to students in both

samples in the survey questionnaire. Both the methoe and

the scale had been tried before in ElSalvador and has., shown

good reliability there. The idea that some measure of

affectiveearlingutside the strict cognitivearea was

necessary pro d thehe researchers to include thisscale.

Even though the study of attitudesdid not represent a

complete appraisal of the affectivelearning of secondary

students, it was designed to show thatsome social attitudes important to the educational goalsof secondary school could be evaluated. Furthermore, the relationship ofthese attitudes with cognitive learning wouldhelp give a more complete picture of the effects ofschooling.

An additional attitude scalewas applied to students in the TS sample only. This scale was designed togauge student opinions about the televisionteaching system in their schools. At this point, when changes andimprove- ments are being suggest for the TSdecision-makers particularly need this sort of informationor feedback. 2. Results of Student OA utMetsures

In the following pages. theresults of the outputmeas-

ures of students will be described. The general analysis

will consist of a series ofcomparisons. A comparison be-

tWeen instructional groups '(:I'S and ED)will be made first.

Then the relationships betweenthe particular output and

input measures will be examined withineach instructional

group. This step will examine thepattern of relationships

between output measures of achievement,general ability,

aspiration, and attitudes with majorinput variables of

state stratification, blckgroundand demographic factors

to see what best predicts studentlearning and whether such relationships differ for TS and ED.

Major findings will be summarizedin a series of con-

clusions set off in the text. Few tables will be given

here, but readers interested inmore detail will find additional tables in Appendix C.*

A. Learning Results: Achievementand General Ability Teats:

1. Comparison betwe'e'n TS and EDGrbups: For the pur-

poses of the lost-effectiveness partof this study the basic

comparison was made betweentwo instructionalgroups: students taught by the TS systemand those from the ED taught by regular secondary school teachers. Results of

* The analyses reportedhere are not exhaustive. Some more thorough analyses have beendone at this writing butmore are needed. It doet not appear thatthe conclusions drawn here will be changed bymore complete analysis of the data, rather they will be refinedand perhaps extended.

-56- the three achievements teats are seen in TableIV-1. They may be summarizedas follows:

Result 1: Whereas bothTS-andED groups started more or less equally, thFITSgroups gained slightly more over the semesterin Mathematics, Chemistry. Spanish and

Whether differences on final test scoresor gain scores are statistically significaht or not does not seem tobe important to this context. Achievement learningas measured by these tests of the two instructionalgroups seems to be about equal, with TS student havingperhaps a slight edge.

2. The Influence of Input Factors on Achievement:This section follows from the major conclusionconcerning the overall achievement learning within TSand ED. Once this learning result has been stated,one needs to examinemore thoroughly what the process was and what factorshelp account for it so thatdecision.imakers canuse the inor- mation more precisely.

a. State or ''G eographi'c Zone: Both samples of TS and ED were stratified according to fouradministrative and geographic zones which include theFederal District of Mexico City (DF), Valley of Mexico (partof the State of Mexico surrounding the Federal District),Hidalgo (the state bordering the State of Mexico tothe north and about two hours by car from the capital), andMorelos (the state to the south of DF about one or two hoursby car). Such. a

-57- Table IV-1

Results of Before and AfterAchievement Testing for

Teiesecundarla and EhsenanzaDiretta

TeletethndaVia: (TS) Subject Matter Means 'Std. DeV. Gain' Score No. Of Students* Math 1 (Feb.) 20.24 4.84 1,151 Math 2 (June) 25.92 6.74 +5.68 Spanish 1 (Feb.) 26.39 6.62 1,110 Spanish 2 (June) 31.50 8.44 +5.11 Chemistry l(Feb.) 18.06 4.25 1,132 Chemistry 2(June)24.31 6.15 +6.25

Ensenanza:tlreeta (ED) Subject Matter Means Std. Dev. Gain Score No. of Students* Math 1 (Feb.) 20.15 5.02 836 Math 2 (June) 22.76 5.86 +2.61 Spanish 1 (Feb.) 24.54 6.72 781 Spanish 2 (June) 27.19 6.84 +2.65 Chemistry l(Feb.)18.49 5.02 713 Chemistry 2(June)22.70 6.27 +4.21

* Number of studentsare those who took both tests. stratification of the samplewas necessary since large cul-

tural and socio-economic differences existbetween the capi-

tal or central urban area of the .countryand almost all of

the lesser urban centers outside of threeor four major

cities. Although data were coded by level ofurbanization

as well as by state, difficulties in coding maderesults

from the urbanization analysis somewhatquestionable. The

state stratification, however, revealedsuch striking and

consistent differences that from it hasemerged an approach to the analysis that may have importantimplications for decision-makers. More will be said about this atthe various parts of each output analysis and in the discussionof conclusions in Chapter V.

When the achievement scores of the twogroups are.stratified according to state (asseen in Tables IV-2 and IV-3), the second major learning resultemerges:

Result 2: Change scores on achievementtests indicate a strong pattern of state differences, consistentacross the three tests. This pattern shows more gain in learning in the more urban states of DF andValley of Mexico, less in the more rural states of Hidalgoand Morelos.

This. pattern is found without exceptionin TS results, and although not perfectly replicated in EDresults, it is generally found there as well. How does one explain thisstrong pattern in the achievement data? What is it about the different states that would cause suchdifferences in learning? Would these differences also ahoyup in other output variables in the same order?The answer to these questions will be examined in looking at the relationshipof other variables to achievement. Table IV -2

Results of Before and After Achievement Testing for Tel by State

'ftthetatics Area No.Students Metiri(Feb'.) 'Mean(JUne) Gain

Federal District 353 2E1,28 28,84 +8.56

Valley of Mexico 300 21.46 26.85 +5.39 Hidalgo 226 18.89 23.94 +5.05

Morelos 272 19.96 22.73 +2.77

.. SpAnish MeAri(Feb'.) -"WEin(junt) Gain

Federal District 336 26.06 33.22 +7.16

Valley of Mexico 293 29.03 35.03 +6.00

Hidalgo 210 25.04 29.09 +3.60 Morelos 271 24.73 27.41 +2.68

Cheigistry "Mean(Feb'.) -Meaft(Tune) 'Gain

Federal District 345 18.28 25.52 +7.24

Valley of Mexico 200 18.92 26.00 +7.08 Hidalgo 217 17.19 22.95 +5.76

Morelos 271 17.53 22.00 +4.47

-60- Table IV -3.

Results of Before andAfter AchievementTesting

for Ensenanza.DIretts:hyState '

Mathematics Area No. Students 'Mean(F6U.) ManSune) Gain Federal District 350 20.78 23.80 +3.02 Valley of Mexico 138 19.38 22.95 +3.12 Hidalgo 144 20.04 22.51 +2.47 s" Morelos 199 19.35 20.99 +1.64

Spanith Mearf(Feb.) 'Mean(J..nt) Gain Federal District 340 25.37 2s';14 +2.77 Valley cf Mexico 115 27.10 )8.84 +1.74 Hidalgo 134 21.10 24.28 +3.18 Morelos 192 ,V 23.9h,,V 26.57 +2.63

Chemistry Mean(Feb.) Mean(June) Gain Federal District 2 18.41 22.77 +4.36 Valley of Mexico 159 17.08 21.44 +4.36 Hidalgo 107 21.35 27.96 '6.61 Morelos 199 18.16 20.79 +2.63

f? b. General Ability: Since /the threegeneral ability testa were administered only,:d TS studentsthere can be no direct comparisons betri. groups. However, some in- direct evidence isavable to makea tentative conclusion about the. TS grour results that areseen in Table Iv-4. Without a cor,drison group, it is difficult tojudge how - the TS group did as a whole in thesetests. When asked about the norms developed for these tests forthe technical schools, the chief of the National Centerfor Educational Guidance, who has overseen the administrationof these tests for a number of years, said that the TSresults were well below the technical school norms. She thought thatstudenta from the ED schools would score higheron general ability than students from the technical or vocationalschools and that TS students would be considerablylower than ED students. She further addedthat the TSaverage on the Otis test was well below that for 16 and 17year olds entering Normal Schools outside Mexico City in 1971 (18.41and 17.71

compared with 8.20 and 8.47for the equivalentTS sample in Mexico City). The tentativeconclusion about thegroup comparisons would beas follows:

Result 3; TS studentsscore below the general expected of level students and below therecorded levels of technical secondarystudents. Two other questions are important inunderstanding the .general ability results for TS students: does the usual state pattern Mildfor general ability and, secondly,to

-62- Table ITT -4

Test Results from theOtis, Analogy andNumber Tests for Telesecundaria Students,Total and by GeographicalAreas

Total Sebr,e6 for EntireSample No. Students Test Mean St. 'Devi 978 Otis 14.18 .6.12 976 Analogy 6.02 3.12 976 Number 9.79 5.46

General Ability SeoVelfby State State No. Students Test Mean St. Deviation D.F. 246 Otis 15.94 6.69 Valle de Mex. 286 Otis 14.23 5.60 Hidalgo 178 Otis 13.86 5.99 Morelos 268 Otis 12.71 5.77

D.F. 246 Analogy 7.12 2.98 Valle de Mex. 286 Analogy 6.61 3.03 Hidalgo 178 Analogy 5.33 2.94 Morelos 268 Analogy 4.86 2.97

D.F. 246 Number 11.42 6.02 Valle de Mex. 286 Number 9.96 5.09 Hidalgo 178 Number 10.36 5.49 Morelos 268 Number 7.75 4.63

-63- what extent does general ability predict scoreson the

achievement tests? For the :'irst question,an examination of results by states is foun.1 in the lower halfof Table IV-4 and strongly confirms ps,tterns found inachievement results. Table IV-5 indicates theextent to whichgen- eral ability is positively related to achievement inthe

TS sample. These findings suggestthat:

Result 4: General ability resultsfollow an identical order by state as those of achievement; themore urban the state, the higher the level of generalability. Also, general abilityis strongly related ment and is to achieve- one of the single largestfactors accounting for the variancein achievement.

Such findings suggestseveral things: first, the general skills a student brings wl.th him tosecondary school strongly influences how well he achieves;secondly, students' abilities vary a ;neat deal from onearea to another. In

thinking aboat .cheexpansion of opportunityfor secondary schooling to more rural students, decision-makersshould realize that expanded opportunity can not mitigatethe vary.- ing effects of background. Achievement results of this study indicate that many disadvantaged studentscan learn, but it would be unrealistic to expectstudents with dis- advantages to achieve at the same level as studentsfrom more urban areas, This does not mean 41hat poorer studentsshould get inferior instruction but rather that, inorder for them to have a more equal opportunity to learn, theyneed equal or bette.r instruction.

-64- Table IV-5

Pearson Correlations ofGeneral Ability andAchievement Tests for Mathematics, Spanish.and Chemistryfor TS.

General Ability Tests MatheMatice Achievement'Scores

Before After Change Otis .273 .283 .093 Analogies .293 .353 .153 Number skill .343 .413 .173

Spanish AchievementScores

Before After Chance_ Otis 3 3 .32 .30 GIN MO

Analogies 3 3 .26 .26 MO OM

Number skill 3 3 2 .25 .27 .08

Chemistry AchievementScores

Before After Change. Otis .243 .213 ....., Analogies .223 .213 .... Number skill .283 .293 .092

Note:' Numbers above the correlationsindicate the levels significance: of 19).05; 2-1)1(.01; 3=p4(.001. c. Background Laotors parents'education, income: It was pointed out inChapter Two, Toole 11-2,that the ED students had better educated parents than didTS students. The same was true of fathers'occupations. If ownership o' a television set is used an an indirectmeasure of income level, especially in the three ruralstates outside of DF, the advantage also lies with. the EDstudents (comparisons by state show: Valley of Mexico, 84%vs. 61% families

with TV; Hidalgo, 65%vs. 48%; Morelos, 55%vs. 50%). Result 5: Background factors of parents'education, occupational status of thefather and TV ownershipall relate significantly andpositively to achievement the ED group. for For TS the patterns doesnot hold for achievement but only forgeneral ability. What is striking about this finding is not thatstudents with certain family advantages do betteron achievement, but

that this pattern didnot seem to hold toany degree among the TS sample, e%:ept for the general abilitytests. Such a finding suggests a question to be answered inthe analysis of these data: if background factorsare positively related

to achievement, why didthe ED group, frommore advantaged

backgrounds, not do betterthan the TS groupon their achievement tests? The apparentanswer is that the instructional television of TS makes a difference in learning; thata less talented and disadvantaged group given the chance tolearn by instructional television and a classroomcoordinator can overcome the disadvantage and achieve equany withregular secondary stndents.

66 Another question raisedby the evidence is whether

background factors influencedachievement differentially

across the four states, thatis, are there differentpat- terns for TS and ED across the different geographicareas?

Does background affectachievement differently inmore rural or more urban areas?From Table Two iii AppendixC, the followingsummary may be made: Result 6: Background factors of parents'education and fathers' occupationseem to affect achievement for ED more in urbanthan in rural states; forTS, this influence islimited to Mexico City. TV ownership seemed to berelated to achievement only forTS in the more ruralareas; not at all for ED.

d. Demographic Factors: Age 'and Sex: One might ask whether age and sex showed significant relationshipto

achievement in TS and EDsamples. In fact, neither factor

showed as strong arelationship to achievementas did those

mentioned above.With regard tosex differences, however, boys scored higher on the general ability tests, andwhen sex differences for achievementgain scores were analyzed by state, there was also a small but. consistentadvantage for TS boys. This advantage was reducedin the more rural

states and was not foundfor ED. Age is another variable often related toachievement. It is plausible to expect that older studentsscore lower because they are repeaters or returned drop-outs. There was a large difference in the average age ofstudents in the two samples with EDaveraging 15.0 yearsand TS students

-67- 16.3 years. Within the twogroups, there was greater uni- formity of age for TS students across the differentstates.

The spread between themost urban area of DFand moat rural

of Morelos in TSwas only .3 of a year (16.2vs. 16.5 years),

while the same spread inED. WAS a fullyear (14.6 in DF vs. 15.6 in Morelos). This seems to indicate thatoutside large urban centers the average age for regular secondarystudents increases. TS students were olderthan ED counterparts,in all geographic regions.

One returns to the questionof whether the age ofstu-

dents was related to theirachievement. Although correla- tins did not reveal any significant relationships,there did seem to bea consistent pattern. When end of semester

achievement scoreswere examined separately fora young group (14 year olds) and an old group (18 year olds),there was a consistent advantage for the younger studentsin both TS and ED. This advantage was reducedin rural states where student age seemed to makeless difference.

The relationship ofage to general ability amongthose students (TS only) who took the test was significant.Younger students did significantly better on the Otis and theanal- ogies tests than didolder students; therewas no difference on the number test.

These findings may besummarized as follows (SeeTable Three, Appendix C):

-68- Result 7: Although sex and age do not haveas strong a re ationship to achievement as otherfactors already examined, some consistencyemerges: younger male students tend to do better in both. EDand TS and within both groups, age and sex differenceson achievement were smaller in the rural areas.

e. Teacher Behavior in the-Cla:,ardam: The study of

classroom behavior of teachers reported elsewhere*gives

a partial answer to the question: does the teacher's way

of conducting his class makea difference in student learn-

ing? The partial answer, for Mathematicsat least, seems

to be that it does. Observations were made of Spanishand

Mathematics classes only (no setenee)for a subsample of

the classes tested in achievement. Since teaching behaviors

did Lot differ significantly inthe TS and ED, results were

analyzed together. From this analysis, onemay summarize as follows:

Result 8: Teacher behaviors that most promptedactive iFENEFParticipation inMathematics showed a significant relationship with higherachievement for both TS and ED.

In Spanish therewere few significant relationships between

teacher behavior and achievement. This may be due to several

factors; the findings hereare not as clear as they are in Mathematics.

* Judith A. Mayo, TheObservation 'of Telesecundaria and Ensenanza Mrecta 'Teachers.in Mexico, Institute for Communication Research., StanfordUniversity, 1973. 69 3. Conclusions on Learning

The learning differences between TS andED, even though

somewhat in favor of Ts students,really indicate more or

less equal learningon the part of both. groups. What makes

this finding so important isthat despite a generallypoor- er's-more rural and disadvantagedbackground, TS students do

as well as their counterparts inregular secondary schools.

Furthermore, the method ofinstruction of TS is not only

less costly but it reachesa predominantly rural audience

that would otherwise not haveaccess to secondary schooling

at all. How does one explain thisfinding?

On the basis of three achievementtests, it is not

possible to conclude that TS issuperior to traditional

teaching methods; in fact,most observers of the television

lessons are skeptical oftheir quality. What some people

forget, however, is thatthe television lessonsare exposed

to public view every dayfor any citizen to observeand

criticize. These lessons are admittedlynot as good as they might be, but are theyany worse than the average classroom

presentation of the regularsecondary school teacher?No

one, can conclusively answer thisquestion at present, but it might be quite revealing if one could observeclassroom teaching on a regular andunobtrusive basis. The limited

teacher observation studycarried out as part of thiseval- uation showed that theofficial secondary teachers ofED were-about the same as the primaryschool classroomcoordin-

-70- ators of TS in terms of their teaching behavior. This does

not argue for thesuperior quality of the latter,only the

relative poor level ofboth samples. Several conditions help the TS coordinator. He or she generally hasa class

about half the size ofED classes (classaverage in TS was 23, in ED, 47). Also, the coordinator remainswith the

same class all day and personallygets to know his students much better.

Another factor whichmay help explain the encouraging

learning performance of TSstudents is that thisgroup has

no other alternative for school. If rural primary gradu-

ates do not get secondaryeducation from televisionthey will probably notget it at all. Thus, the motivation of

individual students in TSschools may play an important part in their achievement. There is no direct evidencefor this, other than impressionistic evidence gatheredfrom a

i.aber of visits to ruralschools in the four statearea. If motivation is a factor, it is but one considerationfor decision-makers to keep in mindas they seek to expand edu-

cational opportunitiesthroughout Mexico. There is another

caution to be made. Even if disadvantaged ruralstudents

can learn from a system of televisedinstruction, schooling may roster aspirations that cannot be fulfilled. If school

engenders desires formore school and better Jobs thatare simply not available, t' high. level of motivationmay wither and be replacedby a frustration that willhinder rather than helplearning

-71- Aspirations: More Schooling, Better Jobs andHigher Salaries

Students in their, final year of secondaryare at a crossroads. They are 15 or 16years old and they must decide whether tolook for a job or to continue theirstudies. This is an important decision for thestudent, but it is also crucial for the educationalplanner who must design programs that will not only serve the individual needsof students but the nationas a whole. In the course of the evaluation,particular attention was paid to what the third year studentsin the two systems wished to do in the future. A studentsurvey administered in June, 1972, contained a number ofmeasures of educational, career and salary aspirations.

The analysis followed here willparallel that of the achievement section. Aspirations will beconsidered as outputs and the TS and ED groups willbe compared. Within each group, the relationship of aspiration tolearning outcomes, state stratification, background and demographicfactors will be examined. A profile of highand low aspirers will summarize these findings. In conclusion; theimplications of these results for educationaldecision - makers will be clarified.

1. Comparison betweenInstructional Groupsof TS and ED: Considering aspirations as outputs of the twoinstruc- tional systems, Table IV-6compares how much educationand what kind of occupations the two,groups aspire to. The results suggestthat:

Result 9: Students of both: TS andED hold high aspirations for more schooling,anTletteF-johs,but the proportions of students cesiring universitylevel training and professionalcareers are much higher in the ED group.

Relatively few students from either group wishedto ter- minate their education at the end ofsecondary (9ch grade). Students from TS were particularly attractedto commercial and normal school courses.While these opportunitieswere also attractive to ED students, themajority aspired to university level schooling. TS students optedmostly for middle level careers (cf. list ofcareers and their levels at end of questionnaire in Appendix A) suchas teachers, secretary or technician of one sortor another, while almost two-thirds of their counterparts inED looked forward to careers in the traditional professionsof medicine, engineering, lawor architecture. The higher aspirations of ED studentswere also demonstrated in response to a questionon the survey that asked students what monthlI salary they considerednecessary to live decently. Dividing responsesinto high and lowcate- gories (with U.S. $160 serving as a dividingline) 44per- cent of ED students were in the high. categoryversus only 28 percent ofTS students.

-73- Table IV-6

Educational and OccupationalAspirations of Students of TS and ED.

Educational Aspiration

(TS) (ED) Level of Schooling Desired TeIeaecundaria Ensinanza Directa

Finish Secondary 13.8% 4.8% Finish Normal or Short Voca tional/Professional Course 50.5% 35.0% Finish Preparatoria (Senior High School) 9.4% 6.0% Finir.h University or Poli- technic Institute 26.3% 53.8%

Occupational Aspirations

(TS) (ED) General Occupational Levels Telesecundaria Ensenanza Directa Lower Level Occupations 9.2% 3.0%

Middle Level Occupations 51.6% 33.1% Higher /Professional Level Occupations 39.2% 63.9%

* For a list ofoccupations by level,see the occupational list at the end of thequestionnaire, Appendix A. 2. Comparisons Within Oroulos:

a. State,' Background, and DedographicFactors: Differ-

ences across states have stronglymarked previous findings.

As illustrated in FigureIV -1, similar finding alsoemerges on aspirations:

Result 10: Students with high aspirations (formore school, better jobs and highersalaries) were in the DF and Valley of Mexico,while those with lower aspirations were more evident in Hidalgoand Morelos. This was true of both TS and ED.

On examination of data in TableIV in Appendix C, onesees that the higher aspiration of EDstudents can only be partly explained by their more urbanenvironment than TS students.

Similar differences inaspiration hold between TS and ED even in the more rural states of Hidalgoand Morelos.

A considerable number ofTS students did not planto go on in school (13.8 percent inTable IV-8), but the pattern was not uniform for eachstate as the Figure One shows. While A percent of TSstudents in Mexico City plannedno further education, 19.1percent of Morelos studentshad come to the same decision. Other levels of educationalaspira- tion followed a similar pattern. One concludes, then, that whether a student wishes togo on in school and how far he or she intends to go depends notonly on the kind of school he or she attends (ED or TS), but also on Whereone is attending that school.

Background variablesare A second area of examination,,

-75- 43

0O 0

0 0

M 606664.60611414.6414.60004141000000 00004,4,00660600416 MO 6000600.000.46000 00000 4.00006000OWO 00660006606600060 600600060606.6641606110066004.0ee66 06041O6O0O0O0V0000066 00004,66000000000600064100060 60, 11000000064,66000600000% rn0.0.0.440660000000000000060, ...... v...... 000000000 000000000000000000 ACD =8=7::=1.4Wikelelie::::::1.1 u4...... 0. . ik.

06 000000604,0604100060414, ao00e60606600,600060000000-006000066000000606660 600000410000000000000006410000004104106,000000006000000000 41660000000004.000041000000 6000066606004100661,600060 ::::: 6641660060000066000066600000006000000006000600 00000066660666600600060.0000060066000

60410010 ...0000 .4..4006 00 60000 A , 1 0 00 pp SR g R O 0

75a The four factors of father's and mother's education,father's occupation and TV ownershipwere all found to be significantly related to aspiration. A glance at Table IV -7con-

firms that as withlearning, so with. aspiration; thernre advancedscore higher. One may summarize as follows:

Result 10: Students with more educatedparents who have better jobs.and havea television set at home aspire to more education,better jobs and higher salaries. This is true for both.groups but the relationship is stronger for EDstuden.s.

Examination of these relationshipsstate by state revealed that education and occupation are better predictorsof student aspiration in theurban more than in the rural

states, while ownership ofa television set was more closely related to aspirations inthe rural areas.

Finally, one must considerwhether boys and girls manifest different aspirations,and whether younger students aspire more than oldercnes. Taking the factor ofage first, one finds that age does notseem to make much difference in occupational or salaryaspirations, but that older students in both TS and ED had distinctly lower educationalaspira- tions. This relationship seemedsomewhat stronger in rural areas of the TS sample, but notin ED. Such a finding might suggest that, although moststudents in rural areas want more education, older studentsin rural areasare more likely to reed*,to find work. immediately after secondaryschool. If there are more studentswho are older in ruralareas, this

-76- Table IV-7

Pearson Correlations' for Student Aspirationsand Background Fact orA forTS and ED

Telesetlihdaria (TS)

Background Factors Edutatidnal Asp. OccUpational Asp. Salary Asp. Father's Education .203 .143 .183 Mother's Education .163 .082 .123 Father's Occupation 2 .07 .05 .04 Television Ownership .213 .163 .173

Ensenallta Directa (ED)

Background Factors Educational Asp. Occupational Asp. Salary Asp.

Father's Education .303 .213 .393 Mother's Education .303 .173 .363 Father's Occupation .313 .203 .353 Television Ownership .293 .183 .313

Note: Numbers above, correlations indicatelevels of significance: imp < .05;24.4p.< .01; 311p.001.

-77- may mean that graduates of TS- schools especiallyare apt to look for employment .sooner than their counterpartsin ED.

The differences in boys'and girls' aspirationsare clearly seen (cf. Tables Five and Six inAppendix C). Many more boys inboth TS and EDare drawn to advanced edu cation and professional careers. Girls may be attractedto middle level careers for predominantlycultural reasons (e.g.,they are not expected to compete on aprofessional level with men) or they may simply envisioncareers as nurses, secretaries and teachers as opposed tolawyers, doctors or architects as inherently more rewarding. The data do not clarify reasons for the differentaspiration levels for boys and girls. Although the pattern holdstrue for both TS and ED, an examination of comparisonsof the two girls groups shows that ED girlshave much higher aspir ations than do girls in TS. (13.5 percent of thelatter want to go on to university, whileover 40 percent of the ED girls desire thismuch advanced education). A state by state analysis shows thatrural girls and boys are somewhat more equal in seekingmore education but that boys are still higher in theiroccupational choices. A summary of thesefindings shows that:

Result 12: Younger students in both for more education, systems aspire but age Is notstrongly related to aspirations. On .the Other hand, much more education, boys aspire for higher status oceupationtand higher salaries than do girlsin both TS and ED; however, girls in ED aspirefor significantly more schooling than do girls in )."1-5.

b. Relationship of Aspirations toLearning: An input-

output model of schoolingsuggests that input factors like

socio-economic background and levelof urbanization are

related to outputs-suchas learning, aspirations and atti-

tudes. How output measures are relatedto one another is

a more difficult problem, but importantto consider, never-

theless. One can establish a relationshipbetween learning

and aspiration without being ableto establish a casual

relationship or a direction ofinfluence. On the one hand,

one could hypothesize that students withhigh aspirations

work harder and therefore achievebetter, but it seems

equally reasonable tosuppose that students who do wellon examinations, and in schoolgenerally,. aspire to continue

their education more thanothers. There is a third possibility that extraneous backgroundor class factors may be

related to and influence bothvariables and that aspiration

and learning are not directlyrelated to one another, fin-

ally, or that they influenceone another mutually.

The relationships betweenachievement learning and educational, career and salaryaspirations can be found in

Table Seven ir Appendix C. It is clear that higherachievers also aspired for moreeducation, better jobs and higher salaries. This pattern held within bothinstructional groups.

-79- State by state analysisof the relationships, however,indi-

cate opposite tendenciesfor TS and ED. (See Table Eight,

Appendix C). In urban areas the relationof achievement and

aspiration was greaterfor ED than TS; in ruralareas the

relation of achievementand aspiration was foundmore in TS than in ED schools.

The relationship betweenaspiration and general ability

is even stronger thanthe relationship between aspirations

and achievement for the TSgroup (ED students did not take

general ability tests). Table Seven in Appendix C suggests that:

Result 13: The higher the students' generalability and achievement, the highertended to be their aspiration for more schooling, betterjobs and higher salary. Although aspiration tended tobe generally higheramong ED students, the strength ofthe relationship between aspiratic./learning was aboutthe same for both groups. This pattern was the strongestfor rural TS students.

3. Con:lusions: The data on aspirations suggeststhat

9th grade students haveformed a fairly coherentpicture of what they want in the future. Many wish to leave thecountry- side to find advancededucational opportunities in thecities, particularly Mexico City. They seem prepared to makethe necessary sacrifices to achieve theirobjectives.

The pattern of aspirationshas a great deal to dowith background, state and demographicfactors. The more advantaged students of the ED systemare repeating the aspirations that have existed in thepast when the traditionalschool

.8o- system served only an elitepopulation. If one were to

project these aspirations ontoall secondary students in

Mexico, and then look at theconsequences for Aexican

higher education, the problem would bemade dramatically

clear. There would be no chance of providingenough uni-

versities for students who wish toenter professional careers.

Will the school system be able to standmounting pres- sures at higher levels?What will be the consequences of an expansion of secondary opportunities through mechanisms such as the TS system?The increasing number of rural graduates of TS will need employment. Will rural graduates find er.idloyment in their own communitiesor will the television schools simply accelerate the ruralexodus and create greater problems than it solves?

The answers to these questionsare not easy to predict.

One can project enrollment figures andestimate how yell future students will be taught, bu'. it isdifficult to say whether or not student aspirations will befulfilled. A follow-up study of a sample of TS graduateswas conducted in the Fall of 1972. Results were scattered, but theyare reported below in order to begin to piecetogether an answer to some of the questions that have beenposed above.

-81- The Follow-up Study of TelesecundariaGraduates

In the fall of 1972,a follow-up study of the previous

June's TS graduates was conducted inthe eight state region.

The purpose of the studywas to determine what recent grad-

uates of the system were doing and tosee to what extent

their aspirations had been fulfilled. Administrators of

the TS system as well as other SEPofficials were anxious

to have a reliable picture of whateducational and career

opportunities were available toyoung people who, had it not been for the extension ofsecondary school through the

TS, would not have been able to continuetheir education beyond the 6th grade.

Because 9th grade TS coordinatorswere in the best position to know the whereabouts of theirformer students, a survey questionnaire was drawnup and distributed to a sample of them throughout the eightstate region. Along- side a full listing of the previousyear's 9th graders, the coordinators were requested to notewhether a particular graduate was 1) enrolled insome educational or training program, 2) employed in some job, 3) unemployed,or 4) if his status could not be determined. In addition, space was provided for the coordinators tospecify where in Mexico their former studentswere studying or working. An effort was made to enhance the coordinators'response rate by asking the state supervisors tooversee the administration of the questionnaires.

-82- Unfortunately, efforts to motivate the coordinators to complete and return the follow-up questionnaires were not very successful. As a result, acceptable response rates were not obtained in most states. .11 told, 39 coordinators returned the questionnaires, thereby accounting

for 777 former TS students or approximately 12 percent of the total number of 1972 graduates. The study did not provide an adequate data base upon which to draw firm con-

clusions, but it did suggest some trends that merit more

detailed investigation in the future.

In the eight state region, 44 percent of the 1972 TS

graduates had continued their education, 29 percent were employed, and 27 percent were either idle or could not be

accounted for by their former teachers.More boys (47 per-

cent)than girls (40 percent) had continued their studies beyond the 9th grade-and the highest proportions of TS

graduates going on in school were found in Mexico City and

in the states of Mexico and Veracruz.

Among TS graduates who were studding, 29 percent were

in programs leading to the university or the advanced Poly-

technic Institute while 26 percent were enrolled in terminal

technical or vocational schools. The remaining 45 percent

of the graduates still in school were divided among teacher

training programs (14 percent), commercial courses (13 per-

cent), and a miscellaneous category (18 percent) incorpora-

ting a wide variety of specialized courses such as nursing computer programming, and militaryscience.

The majority of TS graduatesenrolled in advanced

training courses had remained in theirhome states and

their was some evidence to suggestthat their choice of

school or training program had beendetermined by the prox-

imity of opportunities close to home. On the other hand,

approximately 20 percent of the TS graduateshad migrated

to Mexico City in order to continuetheir education.

Information about the 29 percent of TSgraduates who

were employed at the time of the follow-up studywas not

so complete. The proportion of boys entering directlyin-

to the work force after secondaryschool was higher than

the proportion of girls in all regions. Most of the toys

were employed as agricultural or construction laborers

and, although a few were workingas apprentice tradesmenor salesmen,menial jobs were the rule for thisgroup. Only 22 percent of the girlswere known to be working outside

their homes and most of thisgroup were employed as sales

clerks in their home towns. It was evident even from the

incomplete data availableon employment that TS graduates who chose togo to work were not finding jobs commensurate

with the aspirations they hadexpressed the previous spring.

Relatively little is knownabout the career patterns

of Mexico's TS graduates yetthere have been some 18,000 graduates to date. Without more detailed study ofthe edu-

cational and occupationalopportunities open to theseyouLg people, a much needed cost-benefit'study of the current system cannot be undertaken.As part of the current evaluation of TS' cost-effectiveness, thefollow-up study was attempted. The fact that this undertakingwas not wholly adequate should not deter future investigationsof this kind. Only with more detailed informationon job opportunities within the different regions will administratorsand planners be able to determine if the TSsystem is really providing better trained people for:;he rural areas through the extension of secondary school.

-85- Attitudes: Affective Response to Change in Society

In the past, educational research andevaluation have

stressed the cognitive side of schoolingeffects. Accord-

ingly, a great deal of emphasis has beenplaced on the

development of objective measures of learning andcognitive

abilities to the detriment or neglect ofmeasures of the

affective development of students. It is clear that school

alone does not account for all affective developmentin

children. The family and community remaina strong force

in the student's formation. Yet school systems frequently

outline general goals such as the training of well rounded

persons, good citizens, or socially responsible individuals.

These are largely affective goals thatconcern values, atti-

tudes, and character and go well beyond the cognitivegrowth or achievement learning so often stressed in student evalu-

ation.

The present evaluation has recognized the importance

of this other aspect of students' development,but it has not been able to do more than measure student attitudes toward their society and, in thecase of TS students, toward the television instruction system in which theystudy. It is possible to measure affective growth inmany other areas of a student's life and with other methodsthan the paper and pencil attitude scales used in tile presentresearch.

However, once again, limitations of time andresources per- mitted only limited efforts in thisarea. Both TS and ED

-86- students responded toquestions seeking informationabout openness to change and attitudestoward a modern, changing

society. These topics are mostrelevant for students who live in a society which is changing rapidly and forwhich even greater change, especiallyin rural areas, is acutely needed.

1. Comparison between InstructionalGroups of TS and ED: Attitudes may be consideredboth as outputs of theedu-

cational system andas inputs to learning. As outputs, one wants to compare attitudes of the two instructionalgroups to see if there are large differences between them. When

this comparison wasmade for the nine attitudeitems for TS and ED (seen graphicallyin Figure IV-2):

Result 14: Students of both systemsresponded in a very similar way in the attitudescales although TS students manifested a slightbut consistent tendencyto be less change oriented. Such a result may beexplained by the generally lowersocio-economic level fromwhich they come.

As Figure Two illustrates, there is an almost identicalpat- tern of attitudes for bothgroups indicating that on this measure the affective developmentof both groups isvery similar. However, if one examineseach item of the scale, it appears that the TS students are always slightlymore con- servative or less change-oriented in their responses. For example, the first item askshow much a well payingjob is valued, if it has priority over everything else. The more Figure IV-2

Capparison of Attitudes of Telesecundaria and Direct Teaching Students. Percentage Agreement with Statements

0 80 1n 4 1. When a person finds rinmrmil...... m...... 100.5- a well-paying job, he shouldn't change 54.0 it for anything.

2. In general, life is better in towns 51.7 where everyone knows 44.4 one another.

3. There are so many things that I don't esueeeiVesues'esseesnies OWVOINeinee 80.7 have but would like 82.9 to.

4. Only those people who can change their ideas with the times can succeed in modern life.

5. Once someone has found a steady job, egg. 10.9 he doesn't have to 5.1 worry about learning new things.

6. There are so, many I 6.00.6. . .1: . things to see in the ses-urs-eso circa 45.3 world that it would be bad to live in 54.8 one place all one's life. 7. I would prefer a llommessesse well-paid job to one 58.6 that satisfies my 47.4 interests.

8. It really isn't very inrcatant fbr a person to listen to international news since it doesn't Telesecundaria affect his life any- (N = 1232) way. Ensganza Directs (Nr= 886) , 9. People out to be B-rdb%%%%%P." % 29.8 satisfied with whatever they have. .9

87a mobile person might be willing to riska well paying job,

one less oriented to change might not. TS students were

60.5 percent in agreement ri.th thenotion that one should not risk such a job of avcount, as against only 54.0 percent of the ED students.

Though consistent, such differences betweenthe two samples are slight (never more than 11 percentagepoints apart). Desire for job security or willingness to stay in a small town may be more reflective of TS students who tend to be from smaller towns and frompoorer families than their

ED counterparts. These results might also mean that TS students realize they have littleor no economic cushion to fall back on and they are thus less willingto take risks.

2. Relationshi of 'Attitudes to Learnin : Learning or failure to learn is not just related to a particular method of instruction, but also to the kinds ofstudentS that are recruited to go to school, the socialstructure in which they live, and the individual attitudesthat are a product of their backgrounds. In the present case, a more change-oriented response pattern to the nine attitudeitems in the scale relates positively toachievement learning and, for TS students, to general ability levels. An examination of the data (cf. TableNine in Appendix C) indicates that there was a consistent and strong relationshipbetween attitudes and learning. The relationships may bebum arized as

- 3- follows:

Result 15: Students who respond inmore "modern" or change-oriented ways weremore likely to score higher on achievement and (for TS only) generalability tests. The relationship between learningand attitudes was stronger among ED students. For TS students, the relationship between "modern"attitudes and general ability was stronger than that betweenattitudes and achievement, although bothwere statistically significant.

In sum, a pattern ofassociation, as opposed toa clear casual relationship, existsbetween student attitudes and

learning. The matter needs furtherinvestigation to deter-

mine whether learning performanceproduces certain attitudes

or vice versa, or whether thevariables could be influencing

each other mutually,or whether some third factor like back-

ground or state residence couldbe causing both.

3. Relationship of Attitudes with otherFactors: What

factors are related to studentattitudes?Do boys and girls

tend to differ in theirattitudes about change? Do attitudes vary according to state,family background, or age?

A brief examinationof these questions completes thestudy of attitudes as outputs ofschooling and gives a morecom- plete picture of the graduatesof the two instructionalsystems.

An examination of the evidencecurrently available

(before a complete analysishas been done) may beseen in

Table.Ten in Appendix C. Several tentative conclusionscan be drawn. First, the state of residenceand the characteristics associated with ithave a strong relationshipwith

-89- attitudes in both groups. Second, boys and girls did not

by and large have different attitudesand age did not seem

to make any difference at all in theirresponses. Third, father's and mother's educationdid have a significant and

positive relationship with studentattitudes. Finally,

with regard to aspirations, attitudeswere strongly related

to educational aspiration for bothgroups and to occupational choice for ED alone.

4. Conclusions on Attitudes: The attitudes that stu-

dents manifest adds one more piece to thepicture that has

emerged from the evaluation study. There are a number of

input factors that are consistently relatedto the outputs

and these outputs, in turn, have showna consistent relation-

ship among themselves. What is clear is that studentper-

formance on learning and general abilitytestsaas well as

their responses on attitude scales andto questions about

their future study and workare neither independent nor ran-

dom. The more change-oriented, risk-taking,or "modern" the

response to attitude items, the better the achievement,the

higher the general ability, the greaterthe level of aspira-

tion, and the more apt the student isto be from amore educated

family and an urban state. Obviously, no one individualor

group of individuals are exactly matchedon these traits, but the analysis has indicated thatthese factors do relate to one another in a significant way among thestudents in the sample. This is the central result that educationaldecision-

makers must keep inmind when they seek toextend educational

opportunities to largenumbers of primary graduatesin Mexi- co's rural areas.

One might summarize the attitudesection with a profile

of the more change-orientedstudent. He is a higher achiever

and aspirer thanaverage who comes from a bettereducated family and a more urban state. His attitudes reflecta willingness to change even a good job to satisfy hisinterests.

He prefers not to live ina small town. He wants many things

in life and does not thinkpeople should be satisfiedwith

what they have. He believes one may haveto be willing to

charge his ideas and hisplace of residence to succeed.

One is struck by the factthat these attitudesmay not be

wholly appropriate to therural student or to thedevelopment of Mexico's ruralareas. It is this kind of evidence that the decision-maker must- consider in spreadingeducational opportunity. Will more school formattitudes that will help develop rural Mexico or will they simply draw off themost promising human resourcesto the urban areas?

Opinions about the TelesecundariaSystem

Although there have beensome attempts to get systematic feedback on the TS in thepast, the opportunity to findout on a broad scale what students think about their schoolswas seen as an important input to decidinghow TS could be

-91- improved and/or expanded. The following section isa sum-

mary of what students, the chiefclients of the system,

think about TS. ED students did notanswer this part of the survey qlestionnaire.

The first part of the inquiryconsisted of a set of

seven general statements about televisionteaching. Re-

sponses to these items can beseen in Table IV-8. An exam- iration of results shows that:

Result 16: Student attitudes toward TSare generally favorable, but it remainsup to decision-makers to decide what is an acceptable levelof response before taking remedial action.

The problem with this kind offeedback is illustratedin the first item. Seventy-five percent of thestudents say that they can see the televisionlessons clearly, 19 percent disagree and 6 percentare uncertain. Those who agree constitute a majority to besure, but when almost 25 percent cannot see the lessonsclearly, then a decison-maker must ask whether this is nota major problem. The decision- maker in Mexico City mightexamine whether unfavorablere- sponses are from a single schoolor several clusters of schools in well definedareas. If so, there may bea signal problem that has to do withthe power of the transmitter signal. If the responses are sdattered,it may more likely be local reception problemsof antenna or set. However, in either case he cannot do muchdirectly about it as matters Table IV-8

Reactions of TelesecundariaStudents to Statements about the Television System

Response % Attitude/Statements Agree Disagree Not Sure

1. TV classes can be clearly seen. 75.2% 18.9% 5.9%

2. TV classes are difficult. 13.9 68.1 18.0

3. After the TV classes, there is not enough opportunity to ask questions or give opinions. 37.3 57.1 5.6

4. My parentsare happy that I have my classes by TV. 79.9 3.7 16.5

5. It seems that classroom teachers like to teach by using TV classes. 74.6 6.3 19.1

6. If I do notunderstand some thing during the TVprograms I can easily clarifymy doubts about it. 81.4 7.8 10.9

7. I would prefer to stay in Telesecundaria even if I had a chance to go toa regular secondary school. 60.8 15.8 23.5

-93- now stand. The transmitter usedto broadcast TS lessons is operated at low power because it is donated byChannel 5 and an increase inpower is not available at present.

Likewise, DGEAD does notprovide maintenance forsets or

antennas. Given these facts, feedbackmay not be useful

for direct action. This situation illustratesboth the

dirficulty of interpretingfeedback of this kind andthe

structural problems facingthe TS system that will bedis- cussed in a later chapter.

The remainder of theitems on the scale showrather

encouraging results. Only 14 percent of studentsthink

classes are difficult. Still, more than a thirdthink

that there may not be enoughopportunity to ask questions

after the TV lesson. This is a curious finding-inthe

light of the teacher observationstudy that found fewques-

tions being asked at all. The TS leaders may wantto look further into this anomaly: are few questions asked because

there is no time (observationrefutes this); is it because

the television teacher'sapproach does notencourage questions; or is it the passive atmosphere in theclassroom that sti- fles curiosity? The decision-maker mustprovide some an- sers to these questions before he can try to correctthe problem.

Three-fourths ormore of the students agree thattheir parents and teachers are happy with the televisionsystem.

-94- Although more thana third said that there was not enough

opportunity to ask questions,over 80 percent agreed that

they could clarify doubtsthat had come up in the TV les-

son. Again, the teacher observationstudy indicates that

students rarely try to clarifydoubts in class. The problem with even the most carefullyworded feedback questionnaire

is illustrated here. Without other kinds of evidencefrom

student learning and classroomobservation, decision-makers

have a difficult time translatingthe information intorea- listic actions.

Finally, 60 percent of thestudents were loyal to their TS schools when asked whether they would leave if givenan

opportunity to go toa regular secondary. In visits to

classes throughout the fourstates, researchers foundthis

loyalty corroborated by teachers'testimony. Although many observers outside the TS systemconsider the TS "second

class", students in thesystem defend the quality of their

instruction and do not oftentransfer to regular school.

The difference in theresponse to this question across states was illuminating, however. Students in the Federal District were more inclinedto change (21 percent) than the most rural studentsin Morelos (10 percent).

Another form of feedbackwas provided by asking students to rate the lesson seriesthey receive via television.

Results are presentedin Table IV-9. Again, such information

-95- Table IV -9

Student Preferences towardSpecific Television Lessons (T8 only)

Response % Television Class I like it I am indifferent I don't like it

Civics 86.5% 10.5% 3.0% Chemistry 81.7 12.8 5.5 Mathematics 80.5 14.3 4.6 Music 77.4 17.1 5.4 Physical Education 75.5 18.2 6.3 Physics 74.8 16.4 8.8 English 71.2 18.3 10.5 Spanish 63.0 23.4 13.6 History 60.7 28.5 10.8

Technological Activities 53.1 32.2 14.7

96 needs to be checked againstclassroom visits and student

learning results to be clearlyunderstood and to be use-

ful for corrective actions. The decision-maker might

focus his concern on theprograms that fell in the lower

third of the list andsee if there is any other indication

of quality problems. Then he can determine what should be done to improve these programs.

This section has illustrated thatan evaluation is not simply the gathering ofa large amount of information on a given school system oreven comparative data from several systems. Once assembled and examined, the basicpurpose of an evaluation is still unfulfilled.Decision-makers must see how the conclusions of the studypoint to realis- tic actions that can be taken to changeand improve the system of instruction. Chapter V

The Future of Telesecundaria

The TS system, using television in combination withmore

familiar educational resources suchas classroom teachers

and textbooks, has enabled Mexico to extendsecondary school-

ing to rural communities whose size andisolation have here-

tofore prevented the construction of regular schools. At the

same time, the TS has provided a second chance formany urban

students who, for a variety of scholastic and economicreasons,

have not been able to gain admission to regularsecondary schools.

On the basis of available evidence, the TSappears to be

accomplishing its basic pedogogical objectives. Test results

in three subject areas indicate thatstudents taught by tele-

vision are learning with thesame degree of success as their

counterparts in the regular secondary schools. While, students in the regular schools havea head start--they come

from more privileged backgrounds andare better prepared -- the achievement levels of students in thetwo systems are quite similar.

When one considers the lower cost of teachersand facilities in the TS (approximately 25 percentlower than regular secondary schooling on a per student basis),the appeal of the

TS to cost-conscious educationalplanners is evident. Cost

-98- projections reveal that at higherenrollment levels the

TS system would offereven greater savings over the regular

secondary school system; thedifferential in favor of the

TS rises with each increasein enrollment. Indeed, on vir-

tually all dimensions of cost thatwere measured as part

of the current evaluation, the TSwas found to be more eco-

nomical than the regular secondaryschool system.

Two of the most importantfactors responsible for keeping

TS's costs below those of theregular secondary schoolsare

the local initiative and voluntaryeffort found in the rural

communities themselves. To provide schooling for their

children, rural parents have formedassociations to furnish

and maintain practically all of thenecessary TS classrooms.

Money to purchase the televisionsets and other materials is customarily raised through charitableefforts or through the organization of community fairs. Such activities encourage local participation and build communityspirit which, in turn, nourish the television schoolsand the community as a whole. The qualities of individual sacrificeand community self-reliance that areso necessary to the operation of the

TS system may be, in themselves,the most lasting rewards of the system.

Evidence of the TS's growingpopularity is found in the increasing number of communitieswhich have expressedan interest in joining the system. Most have been turned down because the Federal governmentwas not able to provide

-99- enough primary teachers to serve as televisioncoordinators. TS's problemsgo beyond an inability to havemore pri-

mary school teachers assignedas coordinators, however. With- in the SEP, there is an ambivalent attitudetoward the system and its contribution to secondary education. On the one hand, TS is viewed as a useful mechanism for extendingeducational opportunity. Under current budget restrictions,planners realize that regular secondaryschools cannot be constructed

in the rural communitiestypically served by a TS school.

On the other hand, there isa deep concern within the SEP

and elsewhere aboutthe quality of instructioncurrently offered by the TS. Critics cite TS's lower admissionstan- dards, its less specializedclassroom teachers, its irregular and cumbersome administrativeprocedures, and particularly its televised lessons,as evidence that the system isa poor sub- stitute for regular teachingand therefore not worthyof continued support. While many of the specificcriticisms are justified, theyare also based as muchon the origins of the TS and the system's relationship to the educationalbureau- cracy as upon some objectiveevaluation.

The founders of the TSwere anxious to establishan independent identity forthe system. Although they hadre- ceived the tacit approval of top SEP officials,many other levels of the education bureaucracy were bypassed inthe effort to set up what amounted to asemi-autonoumous

100 administrative apparatuswithin DGEAD. Such separatism

bred resentment towardthe TS and eventually ledto much tighter control of it by SEP authorities. In recent years, the TS has paid the price for its earlyautonomy and asser-

tiveness. Strict administrativecontrols have been placed on the system and all procedures concerning studentpromo-

tion are ...eviewed closelyby SEP officials. The time con- suming review of all students' grades by thedivision of secondary education withinthe SEP coupled with DGEAD's inability to process student exams on schedulehave prevented many TS students from receiving their diplomason time, thereby delaying for months their registrationin advanced academicprograms.

The new director ofDGEAD has taken stockof the numerous

administrative tasks currentlydraining the energies ofTS

personnel and has soughtto transfer many of themback to appropriate offices withinthe SEP. It is her belief that DGEAD should function solely as a productionfacility with

responsibility for only thetelevision lesions and theprinted materials that accompany them. Under her plan,responsibility for assigning teachers and supervising theactivities of local teleaulas would be returned to other officesin the SEP. It remains to be seen whether authority formany aspects of the system can be successfully transferred back to officialswho, up until now, have had misgivings about TS's rolein Mexican education.

-101- Whether or not DGEAD is successfulin its effort to

relinquish control over some importantaspects of the TS,

a reassessment of the system's strengthsand weaknesses

is needed !ri order to pinpointareas for corrective action.

The present evaluation was onlya first step in that direction. More research is needed to guidedecision-making. To help determine the direction offuture research, this study will conclude by outliningsome of the more promising short

and long range alternativesopen to TS's lcaders.

Short Range Alternatives forthe Development of TS

Televison Production. Many of the SEP's misgivingsabout the TS stem from unfavorable reactionsto the televised lessons. Observers from the SEP and DGEADar well as many private viewers have expressed displeasureat what they see as an unprofessional and unimaginativeuse of television. Much of the criticism has been fueledby periodic attacks in the

Mexican press. Measures to reviewprogram quality and production procedures have been takenin recent months and much needed technical assistancehas recently been obtained from within Mexico and abroad.

Better 1.13e needs t..) be made ofDGEAD's large stock of video-tape. The vast majority of telelessonsare currently produced and transmitted live. This custom strains studio facilities and does not permit thetelevision teachers sufficient time to rehearse theirprograms or to enrich them with

102 appropriate visual aids. With video-tape to prerecordles-

sons and to permit their rebroadcastin subsequent years,

the teleteachers wouldbe able to spendmore time upgrading

the quality of each individuallesson. Additional care in

preparation would thus upgradethe quality of theprograms and, ultimately, improve TS'stature in the eyes of the public.

Two methods for estimatingthe costs of video-tapepro-

duction for the TS are presentedin Appendix D. Both methods assume that three years would beneeded for the intitial taping of all subjects in the three secondary grades andthat 20 percent of programming would be retapedevery year. The

primary aim of MethoC, I wouldbe to reduce the costsof pro-

duction. Video-taping would addapproximately $5,600 to

the production budget inthe first year, but totalproduction costs would be expected to decline by 70 percent withinfour years. Under this method, the qualityof programming would

also be expected to improveas the lessons would be retaped gradually over a fiveyear period.

Under Method II, the costof technical assistanceis added to the component costs outlined in Method I (seeAppen- dix D). It is assumed that theannual cost for technical assistance would be equal tothe present teleteachercosts in the first three years and 20 percent of thatamount in subsequent years. The additionalmoney could be used to hire

2.03 skilled teaching and productionadvisors who would concen-

trate on one grade at a timeover the initial three year period.

Production costs would also decreasesubstantially after

a few years under Method II. Although video-tapilg would

add approximately $109,600 to the productionbudget in the

first year, by the fourth year when less studiospace and

equipment would be needed, productioncosts would be expected to decline by 60 percent. Thus, while taped production would

add the relatively high. cost of video-tape to the TS system, such an expenditure would bemore than offset by lower annual production costs after the first fewyears.

Transmission. In the short run, it is reasonable for

TS to continue using the donated transmissionfacilities of

Channel 5. However, it appears that Channel 5uses reduced transmission power for its TS broadcasts, resultingin a somewhat smaller broadcast area than is potentiallypossible and a lower quality signal at the fringes of the receptionarea.

Although no precise information is availableon the potential coverage area lost due to the reduced power operation, it would not be difficult to determine by comparingthe reception of TS and commercial programs in outlyingareas. If this problem warrants correction, it would notbe very expensive to pay Channel 5 the extramoney necessary to operate at full power.

-104- Enrollment. If TS continues to operate only in the eight

state region, there are two strategiesit might consider to

increase enrollment and thereby reduce theunfulfilled demand for secondary schooling. The first strategy would be to increase

enrollment within existing teleaulas, whilethe second strategy

would involve the formation ofnew teleaulas.

Increased enrollments within existing teleaulascould be

accomplished by simply encouragingmore students to enter the

system. The marginal cost of adding a student toan existing

class is very low - - approximately $26. Furthermore, with

larger classes,TS's unit costs (average costper student) would

decrease substantially as teacher, facility,and television

costs are spread among more students. For example, if TS's

present enrollmentof 30,000 were to double to 60,000, the

average annual cost per student would drop from its present

level of $151 to $84. Of course, the pedagogical effects of

increasing class sizes would have to becarefully evaluated, but starting with the presentaverage class size of 23 students,

it is likely that large increases couldbe made with little, if any, effect on learning.*

There would, however, be some difficultlyin increasing class sizes within the TS system, partlybecause many of the communities are quite small and partlybecause of the expense involved in attending secondary school. The average annual

* In a multitude of studiescarried out in many differentcoun- tries over the past 50years, differences in class size have had no significant effecton student learning. family cost of $20per student for TS is a deterrent topoor

families, particularly thosewith many children. It has been

noted in Chapter II thatthe TS system costs familiesand

localities more, both in absoluteand relative terms, than

does the ED. This situation plus the factthat TS students

come from poorer rural families suggeststhat a strong case

could be made for subsidizing TSstudents in the future. At

a minimum, this might include havingSEP pay for the students'

books, supplies and uniforms.Such a policy wouldspur higher enrollments and contribute toa more efficient utilization of TS resources. Remembering the Mexican government'scommitment to rural education and the relativelylow cost of the TS in

comparison to the ED, a subsidyof TS students isan alternative worth serious consideration.

A second method for increasingTS enrollment in the short run would be to encourage the formationof new teleaulas. Each year, requests by communities to begina teleaula are turned down because of a shortage ofprimary school teachers. The shortage does not seem to stemfrom a lack of qualified teaching personnel, but rather froma shortage of funds allocated by SEP to hire additional TScoordinators. Again, considering the commitment of the Mexicangovernment to rural education, this situation wouldappear to merit review.

Classroom Teaching. The study of classroom teaching behavior in the TS and ED revealedthat instructors in both systems used quite similar techniques. The typical teacher in

106 both systems dominated hisor her classroom, leaving little

time for student participation. At the same time, an anal-

ysis of learning results showed thatwhen teachers lectured

less and used more "modern" teachingtechniques such as

group work and supervised student projects, theirstudents

achieved more. Above all, the study showed that therewas

considerable room for improvement inthe coordinators' teaching styles. How might this be achieved?

The fact that the teacher observationstudy discovered

a positive relationship between student learningand the

amount of general education obtained bythe TS coordinator

suggests that the scholastic attainmentsof prospective coor-

dinators should be weighted heavily in theirselection.

Furthermore, coord'natorsnow in service should be encouraged

to continue their education. This process might be facilita-

ted were DGEAD to offer scholarshipsfor coordinators to continue their studies ona part-time basis.

The teacher observation study alsopointed out the need

for more in-service training of theTS coordinators. Taking into account that certain teacheractivities were related to higher student learning, the In-servicetraining might include practical instruction in:

(1) the organization andsupervision of individual work;

(2) the organization andsupervision of group work; (3) the better use of textbooks, visualaids, and reference materials; and

(4) the encouragement of student participation in the form of exposition, questions,and discussion.

In-service *;raining should be considereda permanent, on-going activity. Instead of trying to prepare teachers

in all the above pedagogical fields simultaneously,it might

be more effective to treatone at a time. For example, one

subject area could be selected in which thecoordinators

would try to perfect their skills in using visualaids or

reference materials more effectively. In this fashion, the

in-service training of TS coordinators mightbest be con-

ceived of as a series of mini-courses punctuatedby practice in the classroom.

Television could serve as a convenientmeans for. present-

ing many of these mini-courses, providedcoordinators could

be organized in small groups to receiveand practice a given

teaching technique. Experience from other countriessug-

gests that such courses have much greater impact (1)when teachers can be organized in groups and directedby persons with some previous experience (suchas state supervisors) and

(2) when the broadcasts are followed by periodsof discussion and practice.

SuperviSion. No position is more important to theday-today operation of the TS than that ofstate supervisor. State

108 supervisors not only forge andmaintain links with the local

communities served by the TS, theyalso oversee the work of

the classroom coordinators andprovide feedback to the tele-

teachers as well as DGEAD administrators. The successful state supervisor must bea jack of all trades and a talented

politician. The TS has been fortunate inits recruitment of

such people and these individualshave, in turn, helped keep the system going, often undervery trying circumstances.

Despite the talents of the presentcorps of state supervisors, much more supervisory. effort willbe needed if the

TS is to implement the kinds ofpolicies suggested above.

The role of the supervisor willalso have to change markedly to incorporate many new responsibilitiessuch as evaluation, the organization of regional in-servicetraining courses, and the monitoring of classroom teachingpractices throughout the system. Furthermore, current problems of television reception as well as the delays andshortages in the distribution of guides and other learningmaterials must be corrected by the supervisors and theirsuperiors in DGEAD if the TS is to function effectively.

Feedback and Evaluation. The reforms and shortrange policy options suggested in thepreceding sections of this chapter would best be implemented with the help of continuing feedback and evaluation. Only with a steady flow of information on costs, learning, and opinionwill decision-makers be

109 able to determine whetheror not their policies are success-

ful. A competent evaluation unitnow exists within DGEAD

for this purpose and it shouldbe encouraged to develop

research priorities and then tocarry out the appropriate studies.

Steps should also be taken to insurethat the results

of all evaluation activitiesget as wide a circulationas possible, both within the TSsysteir and elsewhere. Dissem- ination of research resultsalong with their interpretation should help to correct the impressionthat evaluation studies have no practical value and belongonly on decision-makers' bookshelves. It is particularly importantthat results be made available to TS coordinatorsand state supervisors to guide their actions and tocounter the widespread fear that evaluations serve only a punitivepurpose. A full airing of research procedures and findings wouldultimately strengthen the view that evaluation isa vital tool with which to improve all aspects of an instructionalsystem. -.4

Long Range Alternatives for theDevelopment of TS

Transmission and 'Coverage.There are a number of long range cost alternatives for the transmissionof TS programs depending on whether or not the systemcontinues to be confined to tts present eight stateregion. If the present broadcast area is maintained,there are three main possibili- ties; transmission facilities couldcontinue to be donated,

-110- they could be leased,or they could be constructed bythe government.

If transmission timecontinues to be donated byChannel

5, the costs would equalthose calculated inChapter II.

If transmission timewere leased from Channel 5 at 75

percent of its minimum rate of $424per hour,* the total

cost (for 33 hours of programmingper week, 40 weeks per

year) would be approximately$424,000 annually. Although such a sum would add substantially to the fixed costsof

the system, with more than 14,000students in the system,

TS's average costper student would still be lessthan that for ED.

Channel 5 estimates that itwould cost approximately

$2,112,000 to constructnew transmission facilities capable

of serving TS's eight stateregion. Looking at the cost in another way, TS would haveto spend approximately $248,000

per year to have itsown transmission facilitiest* If 10

percent of the annual costis added for operatingexpenses,

the total annual cost ofconstruction comes quiteclose to the rental costs citedabove. Furthermore, the government would be getting more for its money by building itsown

facilities since otherprograms could be broadcast in addition to TS.

* Given that no commercial programming isbroadcast during daytime hours and thatthe Mexican government wouldbe the purchaser, a 25 percentdiscount does notseem unreasonable. ** This estimate reflects a 10.percent socialrate of discount and a 20 year life (cf.Appendix B). If the decision is made to extend TScoverage to the

entire country, the same three alternatives exist- trans- mission facilities could either be donated, leased,

constructed. The only national network, Channel 2,*has

excess capacity during the daytime and thus might be amenable

to donating the needed transmission time to TS.

If transmission time were leased from Channel 2 at 75

percent of its minimum rate of $2,592per hour, -total

annual cost for national coverage would be api3 ate y

$2,568,000. Assuming higher component costs for an expanded

TS system operating in a national environment and assuming

the addition of such a large leasing fee, theaverage student cost (as well as the total system cost) of TS would

still be below that of ED, provided that TS enrolled at

least 50,000 students.

Butman (1972) estimates the cost of constructinga

transmission network to be approximately $35per square mile

under optimal conditions. Considering this estimate and the

fact that Mexico's area is about 767,000square miles, the

total transmission facility coat fora system covering the whole country would be approximately $26,848,0001." In annual

* Channel 2 personnel estimate that 80 percentof the Mexican population lives within the geographicalarea covered by their signal.

** The cost of satellite transmissionwas not considered in this analysis due to the present low feasibility of sucha project in Mexico. Work is already underway to expand thecoverage of the government's ground transmission network.However, in the not too distant future, a satellite system mightbecome more desirable as total coverage and/or multi-channelcapability are required. terms, this would amount to $3,152,000.Without adding the

annual cost of operating the system,this amount would still

be greater than the rental charge forChannel 2 estimated

above. Given the fact that some governmenttransmission

facilities already exist, the cost mightbe lowered somewhat.

Government ownership would also permitthe broadcasting of other programming besides TS.

It is difficult to predict what TS'sfuture will be. At

issue is whether or not to continue TSand, if the system is

continued, whether to conceive of it onlyas a means for

extending secondary schooling toareas not served by the

regular school system or to let itserve urban areas as well.

The latter policy would put TS intomore direct competition with ED.

If TS were ever to be seriously consideredas a complete

replacement for ED, a large cost savingscould ensue. Given

an enrollment of a million students and nationwidecoverage,

TSs highest probable cost per studentwould be $143, a 30

percent saving over ED. Of course, in addition to cost,

there are many other considerationsthat would enter into

such a decision. One crucial consideration is that if the

TS system is to remain less expensivethan ED, instructors

at the secondary level would have toreceive the lower sala-

ries currently paid to primaryschool teachers. Some adjust-

ment could probably be madeover time, but such a policy would be strongly resisted by the teachers'union and would inevitably

113 engender harsh political opposition.

Nonformal Education. An alternative way to use tele-

vision to extend secondary education inMexico might be to

reduce TS's ties to the formal schoolsystem and to adopt

a less restrictive policy with regard to admissionand accre-

ditation. With a modified secondary curriculumemphasizing

basic subjects such as mathematics andSpanish and with an

effective means for supplying studentswith the necessary

textbooks, televised lessons could bebroadcast directly to

students in their homes or communitycenters. Students'

progress in such a system could be monitored bymeans of

regional consulting centers manned byqualified teachers or

by having students periodically mailin samples of their

work for correction and evaluation. Such an open instruc-

tional system could be tied toa much less formal promotion

procedure wherein students would simplypresent themselves

at the appropriate time for examinationsthat would be the basis for awarding secondary diplomas.

In other countries, television and radiosystems exhibi- ting many of the characteristics outlined have beensuccess- ful because (1) theyhave proven to bemore flexible than

traditional schools, (2)they have been ableto increase educational opportunity for adults who cannotattend school but who are able to follow televisedcourses in their homes, and (3) they are far less costly than alternativemethods for -extending the school. For these reasons and because the

demand for secondary schooling inMexico is now increasing

faster than the government's abilityto provide either reg-

ular schools or teleaulas,a nonformal approach would seem to merit serious consideration.

Although such a nonformal approachto TS could serve a

much larger audience, a cautionarynote must be added. A

great deal of money could be saved inany educational budget

by reaucing the number of classroomteachers, but without

some structure in the learning environment,a majorit; of

students will probably not finishtheir studies. A number

of countries have developedopen educational systems at the

secondary level, but only the Japanesecorrespondence high

schools have managed to graduatemore than 30 percent of

their original entrants. Other systems have had muchpoorer

results. Decision-makers will have to decidewhat is the

purpose of increasing educational opportunityin the first

place. If it is to insure thatas many interested people as

possible finish secondary school,some form of organized

learning will have to be added tothe television system.

Without some teachers to guide andmotivate students, an open

TS system could not be expected toprovide a full secondary education for more than 20 to 25percent of its original students.

As DGEADts leaders have discovered,many obstacles must be overcome in settingup au instructional television project

-115- such as TS. The problems of developingan out-of-school

system would probably begreater still. New administrative

arrangements might have to becreated to insure thatstudents studying on their own with television would reallylearn and

the financial aspects ofsuch an undertaking wouldhave to be carefully analyzed. Above all, educationalplanners would have to decide whether the broad extension ofeducational opportunity at the secondary level could be accomplishedout-

side of schools andwhether or not such policy would really be in the best interestsof Mexico's development.

Many countries arediscovering that theextension of

educational opportunity, withor without television, willnot insure the kind of balanced development they seek. The analysis of student aspirations in the TS studyrevealed that young people are anxious to obtain secondary degreesso that they can leave the countryside. There is also a dearthof good job opportunities in the ruralareas, while the cities offer the possibility of more education anddiverse professional careers. These facts encouragethe exodus of many talented people from Mexico's small towns and ejidos,leaving rural areas relatively worse off vis-a-visthe country's metropolitan centers. As long as the Mexican school system stimulatesurban migration and fails to replenish the ruralareas with well- trained graduates committed to change and innovation,its impact on the nation's development is likely toremain one-sided. Mexico'S Mims proven to be a highly cost-effectivesystem

-116 for extending educational opportunity; however, it does not seem to be closing the economic or socialgaps between urban and rural students. Rural studentscontinue to perform less well in learning, reflecting theirpoorer backgrounds and lack of adequate preparation. This pattern islikely to continue unless a new approach to ruraleducation can be developed.

117

19,

Appendix A

STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE

Student: Paternal Name Maternal Name First Name

School: School Name School Number (Key)

Home Address: Street Number Postal Zone

Town Municipality State

INSTRUCTIONS: THIS IS NOT A TEST, IT IS A QUESTIONNAIRE. THERE ARE NO CORRECT OR INCORRECT ANSWERS;WHAT MATTERS IS YOUR OPINION, SO ANSWER SINCERELY.

Each of the follm.ing questionshas one or more answers. Make an "X" on the black spaces that correspond tothe answers you select. When you have to complete informationthat is requested write on the space provided. Answer ALL questions. There is no time limit, but don't spend toomuch time on any one question.

GENERAL INFORMATION SECTION

1. Age:

2. Sex: Female

Male

3. Date of Birth: Day Month Year

4. Of the following people, whichlive in your house? mother

father

-119- 4. (continued)

brothers or sisters

grandparents

other relatives

others who are not relatives

5. Write the total number of people that livein your house (including yourself):

total number of people

6. What kind of work does your father do?

7. What kind of work does your motherdo?

8. Indicate the highest level of schoolingattained by your parents:

A. Your Father B. Your Mother

Never went to schlol Never went to school

Studied part of primary Studied part of primary

Completed primary school Completed primary school Junior high school Junior high school

Commercial school Commercial school

Academic high school Academic high school

University University

Don't know Don't know

9. How much time does it takeyou to get to school each day? less than 15 minutes

between 15 and 30 minutes

between 30 minutes andone hour more than one hour

-120- 10. Do you work as well as attendschool? (Mark only one answer: the one that matches the activitythat occupies most of your time after school.)

work for pay outside my household

work with my parents or otherrelatives and am paid

work only on household chores

I don't work

11. If you work for pay, about howmuch do you earn each month? pesos

111110MNIN

SECTION II

12. Which of the following media doyou have at home? (Make an "X" alongside those whichyou have at home). newspapers

magazines

radio

television

books

13. About how much time doyou listen to the radio each day? never

less thanone hour each day 1 or 2 hours each day

3 or 4 hours each day

more than 4 hours each day

-121 14. How often didyou read newspapers last week? never

1 or 2 times

3 or 4 times

5 or 6 times

every day

15. How many books did you read last year? (Do NOTinclude comic books and schooltextbooks). none

one book

about 2 or 3

between 4 and 10

more than 10

16. How often did yougo to the movies last month? never

once or twice

3 or 4 times

more than 4 times

17. Outside of school, howmany times did you watch last week? television

never

once or twice

3 or 4 times

5 or 6 times

every day

122 SECTION III

18. What is your favorite subject in school?

19. What is your LEAST favorite subject in school?

20. How far do you want to go in school?

Finish only Secondary School

Finish Teachers College or a Commercial Course after Secondary

Finish Academic High School (Preparatory Scbcol)

Finish the University or Polytechnical Sarni

Specialize as a graduate student of the University or the Polytechnical School

21. How sure are you that you will finish the studiesyou hope to complete?

I am certain I will not finish

I believe I will not finish

I may finish

I believe I will finish

I am certain I will finish

22. Would you be willing to move away fromyour family in order to continue your education in the future?

yes

23. What career would you like to enter whenyou finish your studies?

-123-- 24. What is your mainreason for selecting this career?

25. If for some reasonyou are unable to have thecareer you selected in Question 23,what kind of work willyou probably do?

26. What do your parents thinkabout your plans for the future?

they are in complete agreementwith me

they are more or less inagreement with me

they are more or less indisagreement with me

they are in completedisagreement with me

I don't know whatmy parents think

27. In general, what kindof job would you preferin the future?

a secure job, but one withoutthe opportunity to advance

a job with a good opportunity foradvancement, but secure

28. If at the end of PlanBasico you were to beoffered a good paying job butone that would not permityou to continue your studies,would you take the job?

Yes

Don't know

124 29. What monthly salary do you believe isnecessary to live decently?

from 500 to 1000 pesos (1 peso equals $.08 U.S)

from 1,000 to 1,500 pesos

from 1,500 to 2,000 pesos

from 2,000 to 2,500 pesos

more than 2,500 pesos

30. When you finish your studies, wouldyou be willing to live and work in a small town?

completely willing

more or leas willing

more or less unwilling

completely unwilling

31. When you finish your studies and beginto work, where would you like to live?

in the countryside

,in a small town

in a city other than the capital

Mexico City

32. When you finish your studies, with whomwould you like to work?

the government

a large company

a small company

on my own

with someone in my family SECTION IV

In this section you will finda series of statements. There are five possible responses to each statement, whichrun from "Completely Agree" to "Completely Disagree." You should choose the response closest toyour personal opinion and make an "X" above the corresponding line. Example:

PLAYING WITH A BALL IS LOTS OF FUN. X Completely Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Completely Disagree

33. WHEN A PERSON FINDS A WELL-PAYING JOB, HE SHOULDN'TCHANGE FOR ANY REASON.

Completely Agree Agree tr67717Fie Disagree Completely Disagree

34. IN GENERAL, LIFE IS BEST IN SMALL TOWNS WHEREA PERSON KNOWS EVERYONE.

CompletelyXEFFig Agree Not Sure Disagree Completely Disagree

35. THERE ARE SO MANY THINGS I DON'T HAVE THAT I WOULDLIKE TO HAVE.

Completely Agree Agree FIFF-8171F sue` Completely Disagree

36. ONLY THOSE PEOPLE WHO CAN CHANGE THEIR IDEASAS THE TIMES CHANGE CAN BE SUCCESSFUL IN THE MODERNWORLD.

Completely Agree 'VW RTV'EFF Disagree Completely Disagree

37. WHEN A PERSON HAS FOUND A SECURE JOB, HE NO LONGERHAS TO WORRY ABOUT LEARNING NEW THINGS.

Completely Agree Agree 7AT-7me Disagree Completely Divagree

126 38. THERE IS SO MUCH TO DO IN THE WORLD THAT IT WOULD BE BAD TO LIVE ONLY IN ONE PLACE THROUGHOUT ONE'S LIFETIME.

Completely Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Completely DisagPee

39. I PREFER TO HAVE A WELL,PAYING JOB TO ONE THAT FULFILLS MY PERSONAL INTERESTS.

Complet6ly Agree AFFIF ofrma-e Disagree completely Disagree

40. IT REALLY ISN'T IMPORTANT FOR A PERSON TO KNOW INTERNATIONAL NEWS, SINCE IT DOESN'T AFFECT ONE'S LIFE.

Completely Agree Agree gFrEiq Disagree Completely Disagree

41. PEOPLE SHOULD BE SATISFIED WITH WHAT THEY HAVE compietely Agree Agree Not ure Disagree Completely Disagree

SECTION V: TRLESECUNDARIA(Answer these statements in the same way you did the previous section).

42. THE PICTUREQUALITY ON TELEVISION IS GOOD.

Completely Agree Agree W61-77ire 157iliiiee Completely Disagree

43. CLASSES WITH TELEVISION ARE DIFFICULT. bompletely Agree KERF MUre Disagree Completely Disagree

44. THERE IS NOT SUFFICIENT TIME TO ASK QUESTIONS OR OFFER OPINIONS AFTER THE TELEVISION CLASSES.

Completely Agree IEFFF Not Sure Disagree Completely Disagree

127 45. MY PARENTS LIKE THE FACT THAT I RECEIVETELEVISION IN MY SCHOOL.

Completely Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Completely Disagree

46. IT SEEMS THAT CLASSROOM COORDINATORS PREFER TOTEACH WITH TELEVISION.

Completelf7Agree Agree Nom t Sure Disagree Completely Disagree

47. IT IS EASY TO CLARIFY DOUBTS IF I DON'T UNDERSTANDSOME- THING ON TELEVISION.

Completely Agree Agree WEE-NEFF Disagree Completely Disagree

48. I WOULD PREFER TO STAY IN TELESECUNDARIA EVENIF I HAD THE CHANCE TO GO TO A REGULAR SECONDARY SCHOOL.

Comp etely Agree Agree Not Disagree Completely Disagree

SECTION VI: THE TELELESSONS

Instructions: Answer the following questions by markingan "X" next to the statement that isclosest to your own opinion.

49. What do you think about the telelessons inMathematics? I like them

I neither like nor dislike them

I do not like them

50. What do you think about the telelessons inSpanish? I like them

I neither like nor dislike them

I do not like them

-128- 51. What do you think about the telelessons in Physics?

I like them

I neither like nor dislike them

I do not like them

52. What do you think about the telelessons in English?

I like them

I neither like nor dislike them

I do not like them

53. What do you think about the telelessons in Chemistry?

I like them

I neither like nor dislike them

I do not like them

54. What do you think about the telelessons in CurrentEvents? I like them

I neither like nor dislike them I do not like them

55. What do you think about the telelessons in Vocational Activities?

I like them

I neither like nor dislike them

I do not like them

56. What do you think about the telelessons in Civics?

I like them

I neither like nor dislike them I do not like them

-129- 57. What do you think about the telelessons in Physical Education?

I like them

I neither like nor dislike them

I do not like thPm

58. What do you think about the telelessons in Music Education?

I like them

I neither like nor dislike them

I do not like them

List of Occupations

01 unemployed 02 retired 03 self-employed

Level 1 10 bricklayer 19 mechanic 11 farmer 20 tradesman 12 driver 21 machinist 13 merchant 22 tailor 14 beautician 23 serNant 1 industrial worker 24 telephone operator 16 photographer 25 waiter 17 day laborer 26 other occupations 18 policeman or soldier

Leve1.2 31 salesman 40 pilot 32 accountant 41 radio technician 33 graphic artist 42 secretary 34 practical nurse 43 technician 35 social worker 44 extension agent :o keypuncher 45 medical technician 37 teacner 46 master mechanic 38 Military officer 47 other occupations 39 newspaperman

-130- Levell

71 lawyer 83 72 musician or artist agronomist 84 oceanographer 73 architect 85 74 psychologist biologist 86 chemist 75 dentist 87 76 sociologist diplomat 88 veterinarian 77 economist 89 78 engineer civil engineer 90 professor or secondary 79 professional nurse 80 school teacher pharmacologist 91 doctor 81 physicist, mathematician 92 82 high-ranking military business manager or police officer 93 other professions

-130a- Appendix B

Notes on Cost Estimates and Comparisons

SECTION A: BASIS FOR COST CALCULATIONS FOR ENSEaANZADIRECTA-1972

Cost Components Basis

Administration The administration cystsper student of the

ED system are assumed to be 54% ofteacher

costs as was the case for the last fiveyear period on which such data is available, 1961-

).955. The source is the report by the Mexi-

can Comision Nacional de Planeamiento Integral de la Educacio 1CNPIE).

Classroom Teachers A full-time teacher equivalent(there are

few full-time teachers) is assumed towork

39 hours per week for anaverage monthly

salary of $390. With anaverage class size of

50, an annual teacher costper student of $94 can be computed.

Facilities An untitled Federal District reportthat esti-

mates public expenditures for September 1968

to August 1969 showeda cost per equipped

secondary school classroom of $18,880.This was annualized over a 20 year period and

spread over an average class sizeand average

-131- Cost Components (continued) Basis

classroom utilization rate of 1.5 (i.e.,

half the schools were on double session).

Student Costs The costs of books and notebooks were

estimated at $24 per year, and the cost

per uniform at $4 per year.

SECTION B:BASIS FOR COST CALCULATIONS FOR TELESECUNDARIA-1972

Traditional Components Basis

Administration The total administrative cost of TS for 1972

was $168,000. Administrative costs are as,-

sumed to vary with the number of students in

the system. Given there were approximately

29,000 students in the system in 1972, an

annual administrative cost per student of

$5.60 can be computed.

Classroom Assuming a full-time teacher earns $168 per Teachers* month and have an average class size of 23,

an annual teacher cost per student of $88 can

be computed.

* In 1972 there was a raise of primary school teacher salaries of $16 per month which caused TS unit costs to increase by about 10 percent. However, secondary school teacher salaries are expected to be raised soon and this action will maintain the cost per student advantage of TS.

-132- Traditional Components (continued) Basis

Facilities Survey data showed an average construction

cost of $4,160 per classroom and annual rental

of $192 per classroom per year, assuming a

twenty year life and that half the classrooms

are constructed and half are rented (actually

this overstates the cost because less than

half are constructed and many are donated).

Average class size is again 23 students from

which an annualized cost of $11.92 per student

per year can be computed. Because of the

aforementioned overstatement, it is assumed

that this figure includes maintenance.

Student Costs The average cost of books is less for the TS

system ($16) than for ED. Adding a $4 coat

per uniform per year yields an estimate of $20

per student per year for this category.

ETV Component Basis Production FETSMITI-And The cost for 1972 as estimated by DGEADper- Administration sonnel was $220,000.

Teleteachers Teachers are paid on an hourly basis at $10.40

per week -hour per month and receive 7 hours

teaching credit for each program they teach.

-133- ETV Component(continued) Basis

Given that about 100 programs are produced

each week over a 38 week school year and that

DGEAD adds about $16,000 annually in bonus

pay, a yearly cost of $104,000 can be calcu-

lated for the teleteacher.

Studios There are four studios build at a cost of

about $32,000 per studio, and their cost is

annualized over a twenty year life to arrive

at. an estimate of $15,200 per year.

Studio Equipment The total cost of existing studio equipment

was computed at $304,000 and was annualized

over a 10 year life to arrive at a yearly

cost of $49,600.

Video Tapes The present stock of about 1,500 hour length

tapes, costing $240 per time, was allocated

over a 12h year period, which assumes a utili-

zation rate of about 120 tapes peryear. (i.e. 10 percent of programming is taped).

Maintenance This cost was estimated in 1972 by DGEAD

personnel at $120,000.

-134- ETV Component (continued) Basis

Transmission

Operations Estimates are based on the operation costs

of a system of the same size andpower as Channel 5. The cost of transmission equip-

ment is estimated at $2,112,000. Forty per-

cent of operations costs are allocatedto

TS, with operations costs estimatedas fol-

lows: 5 percent of facility costper year

for maintenance = $105,600 forpower and utilities. To this 40 percent allocation is

added the cost of two full-timepersonnel at

$4,000, yieldinga total annual cost of $52,000.

Reception

Receiver The price of the television setis assumed to

be $280 (somewhat highso that it includes the

cost of the antenna) annualizedover a five

year life. A yearly maintenance cost of 10

percent of purchase price is added. With an average class size of 23, an annual receiver

cost per student of $4.80 is obtained.

-135- SECTION C: BASIS FOR ANNUALIZING CAPITAL COSTS

Annualized cost is computed from the following equation:

n n A = a(r,n) P where a (r,n) = r (l+r) / (l+r) - 1

and A is the annual cost

P is the cost of the capital investment

r is the social cost of capital

n is the lifetime in years of the capital

Throughout this paper r is used at 10 percent. The

formula above is used as a standard amortization procedure

to make allowance for the fact that due to the ability of

capital to earn interest, money today is not worth the same

as money in the future. Thus, it is incorrect to simply

divide the capital investment by the lifetime in years of the

capital to determine an equivalent annual expenditure. Actually,

$8 today is worth more than $.80a year over the next ten years.

The rate of return of 10 percent was chosenas a reasonable rep-

resentative of the worth of capital investment to Mexico. For more discussion of the above amortization formula, see Kemeny, et.al. (1962) Appendix C

Additional Tables for Chapter IV

Achievement/General Ability Learning:

Table One: Pearson Correlations of Achievementand General Ability Learning with BackgroundFactors of Father's and Mother's Education, Father'sOccupation and TV Ownership.

Telesecundaria(TS) Enserianza Directa(ED) Learning Test FE ICE 70 TY PE NE F0 TV

Math 1 .071 -.01 -.00 .03 ..143 .133 .163 .04

Math 2 .113 .04 .061.113 .243 .253 .243 .103

Spanish 1 .03 .00 .04 .01 .193 .163 .183 .163

3 Spanish 2 .11 .05 .02 .072 .143 .153 .153 .143

Chemistry 1 .061 .061-.03 .051 .113 .173 .173 .03

3 Chemistry 2 .04 .051-.01 .02 .21 .213 .243 .01

Otis 3 3 3 3 .15 .10 .15 .15 IM MD MO gINI =11P.M

Note: Numbers above the correlationindicate the levels of significance: 1= p<.05; 2= p4(.ol; 3- p<:.001.

FE= Father's Education; ME= Mother's Education; FO= Father's Occupation;TV= TV Ownership.

-137- Table Two: Pearson Correlations of Achievement and General Ability with Background Factors Stratified by State.

Father's Ed. for TS Father's Ed. for ED Learning Test DF VM HD MR DF VM HD MR

Math 1 .111 .08 .00 .05 .153 .06 .173 .03

Math 2 .193-.06 -.11 -.06 .193 .233 .04 .10

Spanish 1 .06 -.02 -.02 .03 .121 .181 .14 .05 1 1 Spanish 2 .12 .11 -.07 .02 .152-.06 .05 .141 1 Chemistry 1 .12 .04 .00 -.07 .202 .11 .241-.01

Chemistry 2 .07 .05 -.04 -.141 .343 .04 .21 .141 3 1 2 Otis .23 .11 -.19 .10

Mother's Ed. for TS Mother's Ed. for ED Learning Test DF VM HD MR UP VM HD MR

Math 1 .02 .0!.; -.07 -.111 .111 .181 .16 -.02

Math 2 .121-.04-.172-.11 .162 .303 .211 .11

Spanish 1 .00 .01 -.10 -.01 .152 .11 .261-.141

Spanish 2 .121 .02 -.151-.10 .193-.14 .17 .08

Chemistry 1 .132 .161-.141-.09 .252 .151 .483-.05

Chemistry 2 .05 .111-.03 -.111 .413 .05 .322-.08

Otis .141 .09 -.11 .09

(continued on following page) Note: Numbers above correlation indicatelevels of significance: 1 p < . 05 ; 2,4 p.01; 3111p.001

State Code: DF- Federal District; Vt4 Valley ofMexico; HD Hidalgo;, PIMA Morelos.

-138- Table Two: (continued fromprevious page)

Father's Occupat. for TS Father's Oocupat.for ED Learning Test DF inf HD MR DF VM HD MR

Math 1 .08 .111 .00 .04 .203 .06 .06 .12 Math 2 .101-.07 .141-.05 .233 .283-.14 .03 Spanish 1 -.01 .03 .11 .131 .131 .12 .13 -.03 Spanish 2 .02 .01 .06 .00 .182-.02 .08 -.04 Chemistry 1 .03 .01 -.08 .03 .273 .202 .312-.04 Chemistry 2 -.00 .03 -.01 -.05 .433 .12 .10 .08 1 n 1 Otis .12 .182-.13 .172

TV Ownership for TS TV Ownership for ED Learning Test DF VM -HD MR DF VM HD MR

Math 1 .00 .142 -.141-.02 -.03 -.01 -.09 .06 Math 2 .08 -.07 -.121 .111 .01 .03 -.09 -.C3 Spanish 1 .04 -.132-.05 .152 .02 .02 .14 .10 Spanish 2 1 1 .10 -.12 -.06 .06 .07 -.09 .241 .08 Chemistry 1 .111 .111 -.182 .01 -.01 -.06 .363 .09 Chemistry 2 .06 -.08 -.ill -.04 .111 -.05 .12 .01 Otis -.01 .07 .10 .233 mo.

Note: Numbers above correlationindicate levels of significance: 1= p 1C.05; 2= p4(.01; 3= p4C.001.

State Code: DF=Federal District; VM=Valleyof Mexico; HD- Hidalgo; MR=Morelos.

-139- Table Three: Pearson Correlations of Achivement and General Ability Learning with Sex of Studentin TS and ED by Global and Stateresponses.

Global Results for Total Samples Learning Test Sex:*Telesecundaria(TS) Sex: Enserlanza Directa(ED)

Math 1 .091 .061

Math 2 .102 .123

Spanish 1 -.03 .061

Spanish 2 .01 .02

Chemistry 1 .112 -.01

Chemistry 2 .051 .06

Otis .051 11.11.111

Learning and Sex by State Learning Test DF VM HD MR DF VM HD MR

Math 1 .02 .03 .09 .163 .07 .02. .192 -.05

Math 2 -.07 .121 .1)4 .121 .142 .192 .161 -.02

Spanish 1 -.173 .07 -.01 -.142 -.01 .202 .07 .182

Spanish 2 -.122 -.04 .04 -.101 -.00 .10 .02 .05

Chemistry 1 .101 .091 .08 .07 -.121 .10 .03 .08

Chemistry 2 -.08 -.01 -.01 .121 .00 .192 -.02 .141

Otis -.01 .05 -.02 .06 1611

Note: Numbers above the correlations indicatethe levels of significance: 1 p4:.05; 2 p<.01; 31m p4.001. * Positive correlations favor boys;negative, girls.

-140- Student Aspirations

Table Four: Distributions of four Aspiration Measuresfor TS and ED Groups, Stratified byState.

Educational aspirations (percent) Telesecundaria(TS) EnseRanza Directa(ED) Educational Level DF VM HD MR DF VNI RD MR Finish Secondary 8.4% 12.5%17.9%19.1% 2.7% 6.7% 7.0% 6.5%

Voc./Normal Sch. 34.5 55.3 57.0 58.7 26.4 39.4 32.6 50.0 Higher Studies 56.4 32.0 24.4 22.3 .60.5 53.4 60.4 43.6

Occupational Aspiration (percent)

Telesecundaria(TS) EnseEanza Directa(ED) Occupational Level DF VM HD MR DF VM HD MR Lower 8.6% 17.6% 6.2% 3.7% 2.6% 4.1% 3.6% 2.4% Middle 33.7 49.5 63.1 66.3 27.0 32.3 32.5 47.5 Higher 58.0 32.3 30.3 30.3 69.6 63.2 63.7 50.6

Salary Aspirations (percent)

Telesecundaria(TSI EnseRanza Directa(ED) Salary Level DF VM HD MR DF VM HD MR

Low (under U.S. 60.4%75.0%74.9%82.7% 38.7%59.0%72.0% $200/month) 81.9%

High (over U.S. 39.6 25.0 25.1 17.3 61.3 41.0 28.0 $200/month) 18.1

Certainty of Reaching EducationalGoals (percentl Telesecundaria(TS), Degree of Certainty DP Eristrianza Directat) VM ED MR DP VM HD Sure/very sure 76.9% 63.8% 61.8% 61.1% 87.6% 71.0% 76.2% 69.4% Not sure 23.1 35.538.3 39.0 12.2 28.7 23.8 30.6

-141- 7.

Table Five: Educational Aspiration of TS and ED Students by Sex.

Ed. Aspiration/Sex: Global Results (percent)

Boys Girls TS ED TS ED Level of School Desired

Finish Secondary 16.0% 5.3% 10.1% 4.2%

Finish Vocational 38.6 24.0 70.1 49.7 /113rmal

Finish Sen. High 11.5 5.9 5.6 6.1 School

Finish University 33.5 64.8 13.5 39.2 of Politechnic

Educational Aspirations/Sex/State (percent)

Enseilama Directa Level of School DF VM HD MR Desired 1292 Girl El/ Girl Ely Girl Bob Girl

Finish Secondary 2:7 3.7 6.1 8.6 8.3 3.9 7.0 7.6

Finish Vocational 13.1 42.2 18.2 48.6 42.2 61.0 28.7 57.0 /Normal

Higher Education 84.2 54.0 74.8 42.9 49.5 35.1 64.3 35.4

Tele tee tuidaria

Level of School DF VM HD MR Desired poi-Girl pof-Girl EsaGirl

Finish Secondary 7.9 10.1 24.5 9.8 26.6 11.8 14.3 7.8

Finish Vocational 25.4 60.6 42.4 75.0 46.0 70.8 48.0 73.3 /Normal

Higher Education66.3 ,27.3 32.4 14.3 27.4 17.4 37.4 19.0

-142- Table Six: Pearson Correlations for Student Aspirations by Sex and Age for TS and ED.

Telesecundaria(TS) EnseVanza Directa(ED) Aspiration Sex* AU Sex Afit

Educational Asp. .213 -.082 .233 -.092

Occupational Asp. .203 -.04 .293 -.03

Salary Asp. .113 -.00 -.02 -.05

Note: Numbers above correlations indicate the levelof significance: 1= p4C.05; 2- p.01; 3= p(.001.

* Positive correlationson sex factor favors boys. Table Seven: Pearson Correlations for Aspirationsby Achievement and General Ability Learning forTS and ED.

Telesecundaria(TS) Enserianza Directa(ED) Achievement Learning TestEdAsp OccupAspSalAsp EdAsOcctpiplaSal

Math 1 .093 .093 .00 .173 .081 .153 Math 2 .173 .143 .143 .253 .153 .233 Spanish 1 .143 .051 .081 .213 .163 .223 Spanish 2 .153 .061 .103 .183 .143 .163 Chemistry 1 .092 .173 .082 .112 .04 .102 Chemistry 2 .183 .071 .092 .183 .112 .102

General Ability Telesecundaria(TS) Learning Test EdAsp OccupAsp SalAsp

Otis .243 .163 .123

Analogies .153 .133 .173

Number Skill .203 .123 .113

Note: Numbers above cov.relationsindicate the level of significance: p (.05; 2- p<.01; 3-p (.001. Table Eight: Pearson Correlations for Aspiration byAfter Scores of Achievement and General AbilityLearning by Two States for TS and ED.

Telesecundaria Achievement Urban State(DF) Rural State(MR) Learning Test EdAsp OccupAsp SalAsp EdAspOccupAsp SalAsp

Math 2 (June) .06 -.02 .111 .152 .213 .08

Spanish 2 (June) .04 -.09 .07 .203 .05 .05

2 2 2 Chemistry 2(June) .193 -.01 .13 .17 .17 .05

Otis 1 3 2 1 .203 .11 .09 .23 .15 .13

Ensenanza Directa Achievement Urban State(DF) Rural State(MR) Learning Test EdAsp OccupAsp, *SalAs:p EdAspOccupAsp SalAsp

Math 2 (June) .253 .193 .253 .06 .03 -.11

1 Spanish 2 (June) .142 .12 .203 .313 .12 -.00

Chemistry 2(June) .253 .141 .293 .141 .151 -.09

Note: Numbers above correlations indicatethe level of significance: ls pIC.05; 2 p4C.01;3m p<.001,

-145- Table Nine: Pearson Correlations for General Attitudes and Achievement and General Ability Learning for TS and ED.

Telesecundaria (TS)

Attitude Item Mtl Mt2 E22 Chl Ch2 Otis AnalNum

* 1.Good job/change -.04 -.143-.103-.103-.092-.061-.173-.153-.143

5.Good job/learning -.113-.193-.173-.213-.153-.133-.263-.233-.203

7.Good pay/interests -.051-.103-.133 .113-.072-.082-.193-.143-.071

_.051_.051 2.Small town better -.02 -.04 .01 -.02 -.143-.103-.082

2 6.Stability bad .051-.07 .02 .082 .051 .03 .113 .13? .061

3.Want many things .051 .082 .04 .03 .051 .04 .082 .072 .123

9.Fatalism -.093-.143-.153-.123-.072-.061-.173-.123-.153

4.Mpdern/change ideas .03 -.02 .00 -.04 .04 -.03 -.02 -.03 -.00

8.International news -.133-.203-.193-.173-.133-.143-.203-.183-.163 not important

(continued following page)

Note: Numbers above correlations indicate the levels of significance: p<.05; 2 p<.01;3. p<.001. *Numbers refer to the attitude statements listed in Figure IV -2, pg. 87a.

-146- Table Nine: (Continued from previous page)

Enseganza Directa (ED)

Attitude Item Mtl Mt2 22.1 222 ar. Ch2

1.Good job/change -.213-.283 -.173 -.203 -.133 -.143

5.Good job/learning -.153-.213 -.173 -.163 -.133 -.213

7.Good pay/interests -.173-.283 -.102 -.112 -.123 -.163

1 2 2.Small Town better -.09 -.11 -.05 -.05 -.091 -.06

2 3 2 6.Stability bad .05 .11 .15 .10 .06 .071

2 3.Want many things -.11 -.05 -.01 .02 .05 -.00

2 3 9.Fatalism -.09 -.15. -.112 -.112 -.02 -.153

1 4.ModL,,n/chaage ideas .071 .081 .04 .07 .071 .122

8.International news -.153-.243 -.133 _.112 -.102 -.223 not important

Note: Numbers above correlations indicate levels of significance:

110 p I.05; 2 p J; .01; 3. p .001.

-147- Table Ten: Pearson Correlations for General Attitudes and State, Demographic and Background and Aspiration Measures for TS and ED.

Telesecundaria (TS)

Attitude Items State Sex hat FE ME IVEdAsp OcuAsp SalAsp

*1.Good job/change -.143-.04 .082-.113-.082-.082-.163 .01 .01

5.Good job /learning -.163 .02 .04 -.051-.03 -.153-.163 .01 -.00

7.Good pay/interests -.051 .051 .01 -.153-.123-.03 -.173-.03 .051

3 1 1 1 2.Small Town better -.12 .05 -.00 -.05-.06-.03-.082 .01 -.03

6.Stability bad .061 .04 .02 .04 .00 .03 .061-.00 .03

3.Want many things .03 .02 .05 -.04 -Al .03 .00 .03 .00

9.Fatalism -.051-.061-.02 -.03 -.133 .02 .01

4.Modern/change ideas -.02 .05 .01 .01 .01 -.04 .02 -.01 .04

8.International news -.123 .00 .01 -.082-.061-.061-.143-.01 .02 not important

(continued on following page)

Note: Numbers above the correlations indicate the level of significance:

1= p(.05; 2= p4;.01; 3= p<.001.

*Numbers refer to the attitude statements listed in Figure IV -2, pg. 87a.

-148- Table Ten: (continuedfrom previouspage)

EnseRanza Directa(ED)

Attitude Item StateSexAge FE ME TV AdAsp OcuAsp SalAsp

1.Good job/change -.143 .00 .04 -.223-.183-.143-.213 -.133 .02

5.Good job/learning -.183-.03 .04 -.173-.133-.143-.183 -.102-.01

7.Good pay/interests -.143 .071.05 -.143-.143-.071-.082 -.06 -.05

2.Small Town better -.123 .183.05 -.143-.173-.123-.061 .01 -.01

6.Stability bad .133 .071-.00 .113 .092 .05 .082 .122 .02

3.Want many things -.05 .03 .082-.133-.173-.03-.05 -.05 -.03

9.Fatalism -.01 -.03-.04 -.04 .02 -.071-.081-.071-.01

4.Modern/change ideas .02 .03 .03 .01 -.00 .04 .04 .071-.01

8.International news _.133 .061.04 -.173-.133-.03 -.123-.061-.01 not important

Note: Numbers above the correlations indicate the levels of significance:

1. p (.05; 2- p < .01; 3- p(.001.

-149- Appendix D

TeleseOundaria Programming: Costs of Video-Taping Production* (thousands of 1972 U.S. Dollars)

Cost Component Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Each. Year After

Method I: Cost Reducing

1) Video-Tape** $ 58 $ 58 $ 58 $ 58

2) Tele-Teachers 104 75 47 21 3) Production Personnel & Administration 220 162 102 44

4) Equipment Maintenance 120 89 56 24

5) Studios 15 15 15 15

6) Studio Equipment 50 50 50 50

7) TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS $567 $449 $328 $212

Method II: Quality Improvement

8) Added Technical*** Assistance $104 $104 $104 $ 21

9) TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS $671 $553 $432 $233

* The analysis assumes the taping proceedsone grade at a time for the- first three years and that 20 percent of theprograms are re-taped each year. Beginning in the first year of taping,the costs of teleteachers, production personnel and equipmentmaintenance are assumed to decrease from their present levelsin (see Table 11-3) proportion to the decreased production load. Studioand studio equipment costs are assumed to remain at their present level, althoughless of each should actually be needed in the future.

-150- ** PrOgramming for the three grades consists of 1200 hours per year, and the tapes have a five-year life. The simplifying assumption is made that onthe average 240 tapes are acquired annually. Actually, this expense for video-tapes probably will not begin until year 6, given the size of the present stock of tapes.

*** To improve quality, it is assumed that teaching and/or technical assistance is purchased for the first three years at a cost equal to the amount presently spent on the tele-teachers and at 20 percent that amount thereafter.

-151- References

Butman, R.C. Satellite t'el'evision for India: Techno-economic Factors. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technolgy, 1972.

Jamison, Dean. "Notes on Cost-effectiveness Evaluation of Schooling in Developing Countries." Stanford: Institute for Communication Research, 1972.

Jamison, Dean with Klees, Steven J. "The Cost of Instructional Radio and Television for Developing Countries." Stanford: Institute for Communication Research, 1973.

Kemeny, J.G., Schleifer, A., Snell, J.L., and Thompson, G.L. Finite Mathematics w'it.kEus1-ne.ss A ill-cations. Englewood

CUT En,--1 etti-Tmentide Ha 1, Ti.10111".2.

Schramm, Wilbur. Bif Media, Little Media. Stanford: Institute for Communication Research, 1973.