Impressions: Stretching the Limits of Representation

Notes

1 . John Elderfield, Manet and the Execution of Maximilian (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2006). 2 . Ibid., p. 133. 3 . Derek Gregory, The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine, Iraq (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), p. 199. 4 . This would not be unusual, as Janina Struk shows in Private Pictures: Soldiers’ Inside View of War (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011). 5 . Elderfield, Manet , p. 82. 6 . Michael J. Shapiro, Cinematic Geopolitics (London and New York: Routledge, 2009), p. 33; Elderfield, Manet , pp. 17, 82. 7 . In addition to these paintings, Manet also produced a lithograph of the scene, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and a small oil painting that can be seen at Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, Denmark. Only parts of the London painting have survived. 8 . Elderfield, Manet , pp. 69, 44, respectively. 9 . See Frank Möller, ‘The Implicated Spectator: From Manet to Botero’, in M. Hyvärinen and L. Muszynski (eds), Terror and the Arts: Artistic, Literary, and Political Interpretations of Violence from Dostoyevsky to Abu Ghraib (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 25–9. 10 . Gregory, The Colonial Present . 11 . David Ebony, ‘Botero Abu Ghraib’, in Fernando Botero, Botero Abu Ghraib (Munich: Prestel, 2006), p. 10 (both quotations). 12 . Mark Danner, Torture and Truth: America, Abu Ghraib, and the War on Terror (New York: New York Review Books, 2004), p. 28 (both quotations). 13 . See Scott Sagan, The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 208. 14 . David Simpson, 9/11: The Culture of Commemoration (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2006), p. 107. 15 . Elizabeth Dauphinée, ‘The Politics of the Body in Pain: Reading the Ethics of Imagery’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 38, No. 2, June 2007, p. 148. 16 . Philip Gourevitch and Errol Morris, Standard Operating Procedure: A War Story (London: Picador, 2008), p. 196. 17 . W.J.T. Mitchell, Cloning Terror: The War of Images, 9/11 to the Present (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011), p. 109 (emphasis mine). 18 . Seymour Hersh, ‘Torture at Abu Ghraib’, The New Yorker, issue of 10 May 2004, posted 30 April 2004, http://www.newyorker.com/printable/?fact/040510fa_ fact (accessed 5 May 2004). 19 . I am not saying here that black-and-white photographs are by definition documentary or that the idea of documentary photography is unproblematic. Indeed, the category ‘documentary’ fails to grasp the ‘logical inconsistencies,

194 Notes 195

amorphousness of definition, and epistemological vagueness’ of this photographic genre. See Abigail Solomon-Godeau, Photography at the Dock: Essays on Photographic History, Institutions, and Practices. Foreword by Linda Nochlin (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991), p. 169. Despite this critique, the label ‘documentary’ is still used in numerous attempts to catego- rize photographic work. 20 . Arthur C. Danto, ‘The Body in Pain’, The Nation , issue of 27 November 2006, at http://www.thenation.com.doc/20061127/danto (accessed 13 November 2006). 21 . Mark Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence: Aesthetics and the Anxiety of Critique’, and Mieke Bal, ‘The Pain of Images’, both in M. Reinhardt, H. Edwards, and E. Duganne (eds), Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/The University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 16, 95, respectively. 22 . Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003), pp. 44–5 (all quotations). 23 . Susie Linfield, The Cruel Radiance: Photography and Political Violence (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2010), pp. 3–31. 24 . Robert Hariman and John Louis Lucaites, ‘Public Identity and Collective Memory in U.S. Iconic Photography: The Image of “Accidental Napalm”’, Critical Studies in Media Communication , Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2003, p. 35. 25 . See Nicholas Mirzoeff, The Right to Look: A Counterhistory of Visuality (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2011), pp. 3–4. 26 . Mirzoeff, The Right to Look , p. 6. 27 . As quoted in the liner notes of Mel Lewis Jazz Orchestra, Make Me Smile (New York: Sony Music, 1993). 28 . See The Library of Congress, American Memory , at http://memory.loc.gov/ ammem/cwphtml/cwbrady.htlm (accessed 12 March 2010). 29 . Siegfried Kracauer, ‘Photography’, trans. T.Y. Levin, Critical Inquiry , Vol. 19, Spring 1993, p. 432 (all quotations). 30 . Susan Sontag, On Photography (London: Penguin, 1979), p. 161. 31 . Struk, Private Pictures , p. 32. 32 . Matthew S. Witkovsky, Foto Modernity in Central Europe, 1918–1945. Introduction by Peter Demetz (London: Thames and Hudson, 2007), p. 143. 33 . See Robert Hariman and John Lewis Lucaites, No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2007); Linfield, The Cruel Radiance . 34 . Fred Ritchin, After Photography (New York: W.W. Norton, 2009), p. 126. Ritchin writes specifically about the ‘growing worldwide reach of the Web’. I have borrowed his terminology in ‘Celebration and Concern: Digitization, Camera Phones and the Citizen-Photographer’, in C. Martin and T. von Pape (eds), Images in Mobile Communication: New Content, New Uses, New Perspectives (Wiesbaden: VS Research, 2012), pp. 57–78. 35 . Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence’, p. 33. 36 . James Elkins, What Photography Is (London and New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 193. 37 . Ibid., p. 173. 38 . Ibid., p. 149. 39 . Ibid., p. 190: ‘Nothing can give me that except photography’. 196 Notes

40 . Bal, ‘Pain of Images’, p. 103. 41 . Elkins, Photography , p. 190. 42 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 98. 43 . See Jacques Rancière’s interrogation of the claim that some things are unrep- resentable, in The Future of the Image , trans. G. Elliott (London and New York: Verso, 2009), pp. 109–38. For reflections on the paintable and the unpaint- able, see Alex Danchev, On Art and War and Terror (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), pp. 8–32. 44 . Elkins, Photography , p. 189. 45 . Ibid. 46 . Ibid., p. 190. 47 . Simon Dell, ‘Mediation and Immediacy: The Press, the Popular Front in France, and the Spanish Civil War’, in C. Young (ed.), The Mexican Suitcase: The Rediscovered Spanish Civil War Negatives of Capa, Chim, and Taro. Volume 1: The History (New York: International Center of Photography/Göttingen: Steidl, 2010), p. 46. 48 . Geoffrey Batchen et al. (eds), Picturing Atrocity: Photography in Crisis (London: Reaktion Books, 2012). 49 . Such photographs are discussed by Sontag but not by Elkins; see Regarding the Pain of Others , pp. 91–2. See also Dora Apel, ‘Torture Culture: Lynching Photographs and the Images of Abu Ghraib’, Art Journal, Vol. 64, No. 2, 2005, pp. 89–100. 50 . Elkins, Photography , p. 116. 51 . Trevor Paglen, Invisible: Covert Operations and Classified Landscapes. With an Essay by Rebecca Solnit (New York: Aperture, 2010), p. 145. 52 . Sandra S. Phillips, ‘Surveillance’, in S.S. Phillips (ed.), Exposed: Voyeurism, Surveillance and the Camera (London: Tate Publishing, 2010), p. 143. 53 . Paglen, Invisible , p. 151. 54 . Elkins, Photography , p. 124. The surround is introduced on pp. 116–7. The surround is one of the things separating photography from painting. In painting, there can be no surround. For example, when Manet painted the execution of emperor Maximilian, he – for whatever reasons but intentionally – decided to include in the painting representations of clusters of people in the background. Had he believed that what happens in front is defined by what happens in the back and vice versa, then his background would be ground (but, due to the intentionality underlying its representation, not surround). Had Maximilian’s court photographer, François Aubert, been allowed to take pictures of the execution, these clusters of people would also have appeared in the photographs (provided that Aubert had chosen a similar angle, and provided that these people did, in fact, watch the execution scene). It is quite likely, however, that neither Aubert nor the people looking subsequently at his photographs would have noticed these people, simply because their attention would have been directed to Maximilian and to what happens in the foreground. 55 . Christine Ross, ‘Introduction: The Precarious Visualities of Contemporary Art and Visual Culture’, in O. Asselin, J. Lamoureux, and C. Ross (eds), Precarious Visualities: New Perspectives on Identification in Contemporary Art and Visual Culture (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008), p. 7. Notes 197

56 . Jae Emerling, Photography: History and Theory (London and New York: Routledge, 2012), p. 9. 57 . Carlos Gamerro, The Islands. Introduction by Jimmy Burns, trans. I. Barnett in collaboration with the author (High Wycombe: And Other Stories, 2012), p. 3. 58 . Simon Norfolk, ‘Ascension Island: The Panopticum (ECHELON for beginners)’, at http:// www.simonnorfolk.com (accessed 16 January 2012). 59 . Trevor Paglen, ‘Images of the Everywhere War’, Aperture , No. 209 (Winter 2012), p. 78. 60 . Phillips, ‘Surveillance’, p. 143. 61 . See Rune S. Andersen and Frank Möller, ‘Engaging the Limits of Visibility: Photography, Security and Surveillance’, Security Dialogue, Vol. 44, No. 3 (June 2013), pp. 203–21. 62 . Norfolk, ‘Ascension Island’ and Carole Cadwalladr, ‘Don McCullin: “Photojournalism has had it. It’s all gone celebrity”’, The Observer, 22 December 2012, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2012/dec/22/ don-mccullin-photojournalism-celebrity-interview (accessed 23 December 2012). 63 . David Levi Strauss, Between the Eyes: Essays on Photography and Politics (New York: Aperture, 2003), p. 81. 64 . David D. Perlmutter, Visions of War: Picturing Warfare from the Stone Age to the Cyber Age (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1999), p. 3. 65 . Mitchell, however, explains that ‘digital photographs unobtrusively and (usually) invisibly carry metadata with them’ with which to identify the date, time, and camera of digitally-produced photographs. See Cloning Terror , p. 124. 66 . Regarding the Abu Ghraib photographs, from 7 November 2003 onwards photography became the occasion for what was occurring, rather than being a response to what was occurring, as Gourevitch and Morris show in Standard Operating Procedure , p. 196. 67 . Patrick Hagopian, ‘Vietnam War Photography as a Locus of Memory’, in A. Kuhn and K.E. McAllister (eds), Locating Memory: Photographic Acts (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2006), p. 208. 68 . See the discussion of the public response to Kevin Carter’s Pulitzer price-win- ning photograph of a vulture seemingly stalking a starving child in Sudan in Greg Marinovich and Joao Silva, The Bang-Bang Club: Snapshots from a Hidden War (London: Arrow Books, 2001), pp. 152–5, 189–94, 235–46. See also Chapter 3. 69 . Roland Bleiker, Aesthetics and World Politics (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 1. 70 . Fred Ritchin, ‘Between a Rock and a Soft Place’, Aperture , No. 209 (Winter 2012), p. 66. Ritchin neither explains why he thinks that photojournalism is ‘better at depicting misery than envisioning happiness’ nor specifies what he means by ‘better’. I think he falls into the trap of conventions. 71 . Cynthia Weber, ‘I am an American’: Filming the Fear of Difference (Bristol: Intellect, 2011), p. 53. 72 . See Bleiker, Aesthetics and World Politics . See also Cerwyn Moore and Laura J. Shepherd (eds), ‘Aesthetics and Global Politics’, Global Society , special issue, Vol. 24, No. 3 (July 2010), pp. 299–445. 198 Notes

73 . Batchen et al., Picturing Atrocity . 74 . See, for example, Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others; Reinhardt, Edwards, and Duganne, Beautiful Suffering ; Asbjørn Grønstad and Henrik Gustafsson (eds), Ethics and Images of Pain (New York: Routledge, 2012). 75 . See, for example, David Campbell and Michael J. Shapiro (eds), ‘Special Issue on Securitization, Militarization and Visual Culture in the Worlds of post-9/11’, Security Dialogue, special issue, Vol. 38, No. 2 (June 2007), pp. 131–288. 76 . See Hyvärinen and Muszynski, Terror and the Arts; Danchev, On Art and War and Terror ; Clément Chéroux, Diplopie. L’image photographique à l’ère des médias globalisés: essai sur le 11 septembre 2001 (Paris: Le Point du Jour), 2009; and Nathan Roger, Image Warfare in the War on Terror (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). See also a special section on art and war edited by Alex Danchev and Debbie Lisle, Review of International Studies , Vol. 35, No. 4 (October 2009), pp. 775–886. 77 . With regard to photography, see Elkins, Photography and Robin Kelsey and Blake Stimson (eds), The Meaning of Photography (Williamstown: Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, 2008). 78 . For example, Sharon Sliwinski has shown the extent to which the discourse of human rights has been shaped by visual representations of distant suffering and spectators’ responses to such representations. See Human Rights in Camera. Foreword by Lynn Hunt (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011). 79 . See Jill Bennett, Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005). 80 . Jacques Rancière, The Emancipated Spectator, trans. G. Elliott (London and New York: Verso, 2009), p. 103 (both quotations). Rancière writes here about ‘images of art’ and argues that such images sketch new configurations ‘on condition that their meaning or effect is not anticipated’. 81 . Emerling, Photography , p. 140. 82 . Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography and Policy Analysis (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 126 (emphasis mine). 83 . See, for example, Hope Kingsley with contributions by Christopher Riopelle, Seduced by Art: Photography Past and Present (London: National Gallery, 2012) for the influence of painting on photography. 84 . Nancy S. Love and Mark Mattern, ‘Introduction’, New Political Science, Vol. 32, No. 4 (December 2010), pp. 464–5, respectively. This article opens an issue ‘Art after Empire: Creating the Political Economy of a New Democracy’. 85 . See, for example, Lina Khatib, Image Politics in the Middle East: The Role of the Visual in Political Struggle (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012). 86 . Emerling, Photography , p. 7.

1 Ambiguities, Approximations, Abstractions

1 . James Elkins, What Photography Is (London and New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 116. Notes 199

2 . Ibid., p. 188. Elkins continues by saying that ‘when those explanations are given, the work can have a hard time appearing as art’. This is not my concern here. 3 . For Walter Benjamin, the family album represents ‘a sharp decline in taste’. Family albums ‘were most at home in the chilliest spots, on occasional tables or little stands in the drawing room – leatherbound tomes with repellent metal hasps and those gilt-edged pages as thick as your finger, where foolishly draped or corseted figures were displayed: Uncle Alex and Aunt Riekchen, little Trudi when she was still a baby, Papa in his first term at university ... and finally, to make our shame complete, we ourselves’. See Benjamin, ‘Little History of Photography’, trans. E. Jephcott and K. Shorter, in M.W. Jennings, B. Doherty, and T.Y. Levin (eds), Walter Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media (Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 281–2. 4 . Jae Emerling, Photography: History and Theory (London and New York: Routledge, 2012), p. 134. 5 . The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles , Volume 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p. 2196. 6 . Janina Struk, Private Pictures: Soldiers’ Inside View of War (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011), pp. 38–9. 7 . Benjamin, ‘The Author as Producer’, trans. E. Jephcott, in Walter Benjamin , pp. 86–7. 8 . Benjamin, ‘Little History of Photography’, in Walter Benjamin , pp. 294–5. 9 . Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility. Second Version’, trans. E. Jephcott and H. Zohn, in Walter Benjamin , pp. 19–55. 10 . Peter Gilgen, ‘History after Film’, in H.U. Gumbrecht and M. Marrinan (eds), Mapping Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Digital Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), p. 56. The quotations within the quotation are from Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art’, p. 27 (in the translation I am using here, ‘process’ appears as ‘trial’). 11 . On the aestheticization of politics in Fascism, see Peter Reichel, Der schöne Schein des Dritten Reichs. Faszination und Gewalt des Faschismus (Munich and Vienna: Hanser, 1991). 12 . Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography and Policy Analysis (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 130. 13 . Emerling, Photography , p. 140. 14 . For example, following a Marxist, materialistic approach Benjamin was interested in the social and economic conditions within which photography operated, including its capability of transcending these conditions. At the same time, he stressed the notion of ‘aura’ – a notion hardly commensurable with Marxist thought. Bertold Brecht, for example, with whom Benjamin shared a critical attitude to Neue Sachlichkeit, criticized the notion of aura as follows: ‘he starts from what he calls AURA which is connected with dreaming (daydreaming). he says: if one feels a gaze fixed on oneself, in one’s back too, then one returns it (!). the expectation that that which one looks at glances at oneself creates the aura. this is said to be disintegrating recently, together with the cultic. b. has discovered this while analyzing the film in 200 Notes

which case aura is disintegrating due to the reproducibility of works of art. the whole of it is mysticism, in the face of an attitude against mysticism. in such a form, the materialistic conception of history is adapted! it is fairly gruesome’. See Brecht, Arbeitsjournal. Erster Band 1938 bis 1942, edited by Werner Hecht (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1974), p. 14 (translation mine). 15 . Martha Rosler, ‘In, Around, and Afterthoughts (On Documentary Photography)’, in 3 Works (Halifax: The Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, 1981, 2006), pp. 61–93. 16 . Rosler is especially critical of Jacob Riis’s Bowery photography ‘in which the victims [ ... ] are often docile, whether through mental confusion or because they are just lying there, unconscious’ (p. 74). 17 . Rosler, 3 Works , pp. 9–57. Interestingly, this work is titled ‘the bowery in two inadequate descriptive systems’. 18 . Emerling, Photography , p. 101. 19 . Elkins, What Photography Is , p. 50. 20 . Emerling, Photography , p. 101. Emerling thinks they failed to provide an account of anything meaningful. 21 . Mark Reinhardt, Holly Edwards, and Erina Duganne (eds), Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/The University of Chicago Press, 2007). 22 . Beautiful Suffering , plates 1, 58, and 59; for the object labels, see pp. i and xi. 23 . Ashley Gilbertson, Whiskey Tango Foxtrot: A Photographer’s Chronicle of the Iraq War. With an introduction by Dexter Filkins (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), p. 235 (for the photograph) and 234 (for the caption). 24 . Roland Bleiker, Aesthetics and World Politics (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 4. 25 . W.J.T. Mitchell, Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 282. 26 . Ibid., p. 24. 27 . David MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema. Edited and with an introduction by Lucien Taylor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 68. 28 . Shapiro, Politics of Representation , p. 135. 29 . Fred Ritchin, In Our Own Image (New York: Aperture, 1999), pp. 99 and 26, respectively. 30 . Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Other s (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2003), p. 38. 31 . Benjamin Cawthra, Blue Notes in Black and White: Photography and Jazz (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011), p. 19. 32 . Photography’s interpretive possibilities can be marginalized and silenced, but they cannot be erased altogether; rather, as Cawthra’s work shows, they can be resuscitated and rehabilitated. 33 . Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Penguin, 1967), p. 134. 34 . In Visual Methodologies, Third Edition: An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage, 2011), Gillian Rose offers many insights into the possibilities that research with visual materials offers. These insights need not be repeated here. Notes 201

35 . Nick Couldry, Inside Culture: Re-imagining the Method of Cultural Studies (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage, 2000), p. 67. 36 . Ibid., p. 4. 37 . Marianne Hirsch, Family Frames: Photography, Narrative and Postmemory (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1997), p. 119. 38 . Shapiro, Politics of Representation , p. 150. 39 . Robert Adams, Why People Photograph: Selected Essays and Reviews (New York: Aperture, 1994), p. 33. 40 . Bill Holman, ‘Notes from Bill Holman’, Bill Holman Band, Hommage (Littleton: Jazzed Media, 2007). 41 . William Eggleston, quoted in Sean O’Hagan, ‘Out of the ordinary’, The Observer , 25 July 2004, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2004/ jul/25/photography1/print (accessed 13 February 2012). 42 . The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary , Volume 1, p. 551. 43 . MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema , p. 68. 44 . Couldry, Inside Culture , pp. 21–2. 45 . MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema , p. 68. 46 . Mitchell, Picture Theory , p. 5. 47 . Joe Sacco and Art Spiegelman, ‘Only Pictures?’ The Nation, issue of 6 March 2006, at http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060306/interview (accessed 17 February 2006). When Yale University Press published Jytte Klausen’s The Cartoons That Shook the World , the director of the Press reportedly defended the exclusion of the cartoons from the book by saying that the ‘cartoons are freely available on the Internet and can be accurately described in words’. See Patricia Cohen, ‘Yale Press Bans Images of Muhammad in New Book’, The New York Times, 12 August 2009, at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/13/ books/13book.html?_r=0 (accessed 24 March 2013). The second part of the statement reveals remarkable lack of knowledge on the operation of images; I assume they were just scared. 48 . MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema , p. 257. 49 . MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema, pp. 246–7. MacDougall writes here mainly about ethnographic descriptions but his observation is relevant beyond the ethnographic discourse and practice. 50 . Ronald Dworkin, ‘The Right to Ridicule’, The New York Review of Books, Vol. LIII, No. 5, 23 March 2006, p. 44. 51 . Emerling, Photography , p. 119. 52 . Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), p. 9. 53 . The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary , Volume 1, p. 95. At the same time, the dictionary’s reference to ‘nearly reaching accuracy’ (entry ‘Approximative’) reflects a commonsense understanding of both the word–image relationship and the image–reality relationship. 54 . Jacques Rancière, The Emancipated Spectator (London and New York: Verso, 2009), pp. 93–4. 55 . Bleiker, Aesthetics and World Politics , p. 19. 202 Notes

2 The Participant Witness

1 . Burke + Norfolk: Photographs from the War in Afghanistan by John Burke and Simon Norfolk , Video, produced by Kate Vogel and directed by Luke Tchalenko, 14:10–15:13 and 15:56–16:23, at http://www.tate.org.uk/context-comment/ video/burke-norfolk-photographs-war-afghanistan (accessed 24 October 2012). Spelling and punctuation follow the video’s subtitles; those parts of the comments excluded from the subtitles are added here in brackets. I am grateful to Rune Saugmann Andersen for directing my attention to this video. 2 . Burke + Norfolk , 1:26–1:32. 3 . There is another danger inherent in a focus on aesthetic beauty, as Roland Bleiker notes: ‘Aesthetic beauty could lead us astray, so to speak, seduc- tively promoting and at the same time disguising a vision of the world that is inherently dangerous, perhaps even evil’ as exemplified in the ‘aesthetic seduction of Nazi Germany’. See Aesthetics and World Politics (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 10. 4 . Ernst van Alphen, Art in Mind: How Contemporary Images Shape Thought (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2005), p. 92. 5 . Mieke Bal, ‘The Pain of Images’, in M. Reinhardt, H. Edwards, and E. Duganne (eds), Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/ Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/The University of Chicago Press, 2007), p. 103 (both quotations). 6 . Ibid., p. 104 (first emphasis mine; second emphasis in original). Bal adds that ‘[a]esthetization or stylization can prettify away the horror, but it can also place it in the foreground in novel ways that do justice to the political content’ (p. 108, note 35). 7 . Bal, ‘The Pain of Images’, p. 104. 8 . Susan Sontag, On Photography (London: Penguin, 1979), p. 109. 9 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2003), p. 81. 10 . Mark Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence: Aesthetics and the Anxiety of Critique’, in Beautiful Suffering , p. 23. 11 . David Levi Strauss, Between the Eyes: Essays on Photography and Politics. Introduction by John Berger (New York: Aperture, 2003), p. 9 (all quotations). 12 . Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence’, p. 14. 13 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 95. 14 . Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence’, p. 21. Reinhardt rightly asks: ‘“What photographs are like that?”’ 15 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , pp. 81–2. In a similar vein, Arthur Danto suspects that the effects of images ‘can be dulling, if not desensitizing’. See ‘The Body in Pain’, The Nation, issue of 27 November 2006, http://www. thenation.com.doc/20061127/danto (accessed 13 November 2006). Carolyn Dean argues that critical writings about what she calls ‘numbness’ often fail to clarify ‘whether critics believe that images and narratives of atrocity and violence are the effect of a real diminution of empathy or its cause’. See The Fragility of Empathy after the Holocaust (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2004), p. 6. Photographs of atrocities can also have a radicalizing Notes 203

effect on the viewer, making the viewer want to copy the acts of violence depicted. 16 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 105. 17 . Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence’, p. 27. See also Sharon Sliwinski, ‘A Painful Labour: Responsibility and Photography’, Visual Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, October 2004, pp. 150–6. 18 . See, for example, Judith Butler, Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? (London and New York: Verso, 2010), pp. 63–100. Since Butler’s discussion of Sontag revolves around such complex concepts as precariousness, apprehension, and recognition, it is not possible to engage with her engagement with Sontag’s engagement with photography here (and I surely do not want to reduce her work to a reference here and a quotation there) – although, admittedly, such engagement would be tempting, given Butler’s interest in ‘the question of what it means to become ethically responsible, to consider and attend to the suffering of others, and, more generally, which frames permit for the repre- sentability of the human and which do not’ (p. 63). 19 . Sontag, On Photography , pp. 19–20. 20 . Ibid., p. 20; Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 105. 21 . Mark Danner, Torture and Truth: America, Abu Ghraib, and the War on Terror (New York: New York Review Books, 2004), p. 28. The images, Danner continues to argue, ‘by virtue of their inherent grotesque power, strongly encourage the view that “acts of brutality and purposeless sadism”, which clearly did occur, lay at the heart of Abu Ghraib’. 22 . James Elkins, What Photography Is (New York and London: Routledge, 2011), p. 185. 23 . Janina Struk, Private Pictures: Soldiers’ Inside View of War (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011), p. 166. 24 . Judith Butler, Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence (London and New York: Verso, 2004), p. 149. 25 . Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence’, p. 17. 26 . Philip Gourevitch and Errol Morris, Standard Operating Procedure: A War Story (London: Picador, 2008), p. 196. 27 . Regarding the ‘documentary’ photography produced in connection with the Farm Security Administration, for example, Jay Prosser argues that it ‘did not portrait victims then; it created them’. And it created them because the aim of this photography ‘was not to record reality but to change it’. See Light in the Dark Room: Photography and Loss (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), p. 90. 28 . Bal, ‘The Pain of Images’, pp. 94–5. 29 . Abigail Solomon-Godeau, Photography at the Dock: Essays on Photographic History, Institutions, and Practices. Foreword by Linda Nochlin (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991), p. 176. 30 . Ibid., p. 183. 31 . Elizabeth Dauphinée, ‘The Politics of the Body in Pain: Reading the Ethics of Imagery’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 38, No. 2, June 2007, p. 140. 32 . Robert Hariman and John Louis Lucaites, No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2007), p. 62. 204 Notes

33 . Gutete Emerita’s eyes are the eyes of someone who witnessed the killing of her husband and her sons during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda; see Chapter 4. 34 . Struk, Private Pictures , p. 150. 35 . Geoff Dyer, The Ongoing Moment (London: Abacus, 2007), p. 103. 36 . Sontag, On Photography , p. 12. 37 . John Berger, ‘Photographs of Agony’, in L. Wells (ed.), The Photography Reader (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 290. 38 . David Campbell, ‘Cultural Governance and Pictorial Resistance: Reflections on the Imaging of War’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 29, Special Issue, December 2003, p. 67. 39 . Dauphinée, ‘The Politics of the Body in Pain’, pp. 141–2; Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985). Contrary to Scarry, Dauphinée does not believe that there is a ‘necessary insurmountable gulf between the one who experiences pain and the one who witnesses it’. For Dauphinée, this gulf results from ‘our increasingly sole reliance on imagery’ (p. 150). 40 . See Frank Möller and Rafiki Ubaldo, ‘Imaging Life after Death: Photography and the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda’, in L. Bisschoff and S. van de Peer (eds), Art and Trauma in Africa: Representations of Reconciliation in Film, Art, Music and Literature (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2013), pp. 131–51. See also Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence’, p. 31. Sontag argues that ‘victims are interested in the representation of their own sufferings. But they want the suffering to be seen as unique’. See Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 112. She does not explain why she thinks that victims (all victims or only some victims?) are interested in representations of their own suffering, and she provides only anecdotal evidence for the assessment that victims want their suffering to be seen as unique. 41 . Jenny Edkins, ‘Exposed Singularity’, Journal for Cultural Research, Vol. 9, No. 4, October 2005, p. 363. 42 . Alfredo Jaar, A Hundred Times Nguyen (Stockholm: Moderna Museet, 1994). 43 . Edkins, ‘Exposed Singularity’, p. 359. 44 . Nick Couldry, Inside Culture: Re-imagining the Method of Cultural Studies (London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi: Sage, 2000), pp. 57–8. 45 . Van Alphen, Art in Mind , p. 92. 46 . Manuel Botelho’s work ‘Desculpa as Cartas Brutais Que por Vezes te Mando’ (‘Forgive the Brutal Letters I Often Sent you’), reprinted in portfolio 2, can be seen as a quintessential obstacle. 47 . Van Alphen, Art in Mind , p. 73. 48 . See Alex Danchev, On Art and War and Terror (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), p. 42. 49 . W.J.T. Mitchell, Cloning Terror: The War of Images, 9/11 to the Present (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011), p. 84. 50 . Geoff Dyer, But Beautiful: A Book About Jazz (London: Abacus, 1998), p. xii. 51 . Dyer, But Beautiful , p. xi. 52 . Sontag, On Photography , pp. 19–20. 53 . Strauss, Between the Eyes , p. 9. 54 . David Simpson, 9/11: The Culture of Commemoration (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2006), p. 3. I would argue, however, that the role of the perpetrator is the most intolerable one. Dean discusses the Notes 205

bystander in The Fragility of Empathy, pp. 76–105. Colin Westerbeck and Joel Meyerowitz have published A History of Street Photography curiously titled Bystander (London: Thames and Hudson, 1994). 55 . Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence’, p. 16. 56 . Horst Bredekamp, ‘Wir sind befremdete Komplizen’, Süddeutsche Zeitung , 28 May 2004, p. 17. 57 . Simpson, 9/11 , p. 105. 58 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 59. 59 . Hariman and Lucaites argue that ‘public engagement [with] and traumatic memory’ of this photograph resulted from the ‘performative framing of morally disturbing yet routine behavior’ on the part of the general; see No Caption Needed, p. 368, note 73. According to Susie Linfield, this photograph ‘mobilized political opposition to the war’, while David Perlmutter argues that at the time, ‘there was no evidence of any public fury in reaction to the Saigon shooting image. Support for the war effort actually temporarily increased during [the Tet Offensive]’. See Susie Linfield, The Cruel Radiance: Photography and Political Violence (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2010), p. 7; David D. Perlmutter, Visions of War: Picturing Warfare from the Stone Age to the Cyber Age (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1999), p. 206. The photograph’s character as an anti -war photograph is also disputed. Hariman and Lucaites refer to the photographer, Eddie Adams, as ‘a vocal critic of those who read his photo to criticize the Vietnam War’. See No Caption Needed, p. 368, note 73. This shows primarily that photographers have very little control over the designations and evolutions of meaning assigned to a given photograph. 60 . Perlmutter, Visions of War , p. 3. 61 . Stephen F. Eisenman, The Abu Ghraib Effect (London: Reaktion Books, 2007), p. 99. 62 . W.J.T. Mitchell, Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 2. 63 . Hariman and Lucaites, No Caption Needed , p. 42. 64 . Nicholas Mirzoeff, The Right to Look: A Counterhistory of Visuality (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2011). 65 . Hariman and Lucaites, No Caption Needed . 66 . Jacques Rancière, The Emancipated Spectator (London and New York: Verso, 2009), p. 42. 67 . Rancière, The Emancipated Spectator , p. 49. 68 . Quoted in Jean Hatzfeld, The Strategy of Antelopes: Living in Rwanda after the Genocide , trans. L. Coverdale (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2009), p. 99. 69 . Frank Möller, ‘The Looking/Not Looking Dilemma’, Review of International Studies , Vol. 35, No. 4, October 2009, pp. 781–94. 70 . Mark Reinhardt, ‘Painful Photographs: From the Ethics of Spectatorship to Visual Politics’, in A. Grønstad and H. Gustafsson (eds), Ethics and Images of Pain (New York: Routledge, 2012), p. 39. 71 . Simon Dell, ‘Mediation and Immediacy: The Press, the Popular Front in France, and the Spanish Civil War’, in C. Young (ed.), The Mexican Suitcase: The Rediscovered Spanish Civil War Negatives of Capa, Chim, and Taro. Volume 1: The History (New York: International Center of Photography/Göttingen: Steidl, 2010), p. 39. 206 Notes

72 . Dell, ‘Mediation and Immediacy’, p. 46. 73 . Fred Ritchin, In Our Own Image (New York: Aperture, 1999), p. 72. 74 . Ritchin, In Our Own Image , pp. 26, 101. 75 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 95. 76 . Seymour Hersh, ‘The General’s Report: How Antonio Taguba, who investigated the Abu Ghraib scandal, became one of its casualties’, The New Yorker , 25 June 2007, http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/06/25/070625fa_ fact_hersh?printable=true (accessed 3 June 2009). 77 . See Frank Möller, ‘Associates in Crime and Guilt’, in Ethics and Images of Pain , pp. 16–19. 78 . Struk, Private Pictures , p. 150; Sliwinski, ‘A Painful Labour’, p. 154; Edkins, ‘Exposed Singularity’, p. 372. 79 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 42; ‘suffering of this extreme order’ refers to ‘close-up[s] of a real horror’. For a defense of the voyeur, see Mark Ledbetter, ‘Do Not Look at Y/Our Own Peril: Voyeurism as Ethical Necessity, or To See as a Child Again’, in Ethics and Images of Pain , pp. 3–14. 80 . Lina Fruzzetti and Ákos Östör, Singing Pictures: Art and Performance of Naya’s Women (Lisbon: Museu Nacional de Etnologia, 2007), pp. 88–95. Local events thus may become global ones by means of images; images, condensing space, may prevent local events from remaining at the local level. However, graphic novelist Art Spiegelman reports that only when he left New York to travel to a university in the Midwest did he realize ‘that all New Yorkers were out of their minds compared to those for whom the attack [of 11 September 2001] was an abstraction. ... [I]n Indiana, everything east of the Alleghenies was very, very far away’. See Spiegelman, In the Shadow of No Towers (New York: Pantheon, 2004), preface. 81 . See the liner notes to The Vanguard Jazz Orchestra, Up from the Skies – Music of Jim McNeely (Catskill: Planet Arts Recordings, undated). 82 . For Richter, see Robert Storr, SEPTEMBER: A History Painting by Gerhard Richter (London: Tate Publishing, 2010); Fernando Botero, Botero Abu Ghraib (Munich: Prestel, 2006). 83 . Matti Hyvärinen and Lisa Muszynski, ‘The Arts Investigating Terror’, in M. Hyvärinen and L. Muszynski (eds), Terror and the Arts: Artistic, Literary, and Political Interpretations of Violence from Dostoyevsky to Abu Ghraib (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), p. 1. 84 . Jill Bennett, Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005). 85 . The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles, Vol. II, p. 2562 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973). 86 . Berger, ‘Photographs of Agony’, pp. 289–90. In many cases, even small donations may make a large difference on location. And does it, from the point of view of those who benefit from donations, really matter why people made a donation, as long as the money is used to improve their living conditions? 87 . Debbie Lisle, ‘The Surprising Detritus of Leisure: Encountering the Late Photography of War’, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space , Vol. 29, 2011, p. 882. 88 . Elizabeth Rubin, ‘Lynsey Addario at War’, Aperture , No. 201, Winter 2010, p. 31. 89 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , p. 115: ‘Let the atrocious images haunt us!’ See also Jennifer Blessing and Nat Trotman, Haunted: Contemporary Photography |Video| Performance (New York: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2010). Notes 207

90 . Elkins, What Photography Is, pp. 114–5. Roland Barthes, while browsing through photographs after his mother’s death, thus asked ‘the essential question ... : did I recognize her?’ See Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography , trans. R. Howard (London: Vintage Books, 2000), p. 65. 91 . Sontag notes that ‘the photograph provides a quick way of apprehending something and a compact form for memorizing it’. See Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others, p. 22. Memorizing, however, changes this ‘something’ which is why Sontag (p. 89) is correct when she writes that the ‘problem is not that people remember through photographs, but that they remember only the photographs’. 92 . Paul Connerton explains that ‘our experience of the present very largely depends upon our knowledge of the past’. See Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 2. What we believe to know of the past is increasingly derived from images. 93 . See Simpson, 9/11 , p. 5. 94 . Terry Nardin and Daniel J. Sherman note that ‘[w]hat we see in the movies and on television provides a context and prior set of meanings within and with which we interpret events like the 9/11 attacks’. See ‘Introduction’, in D.J. Sherman and T. Nardin (eds), Terror, Culture, Politics: Rethinking 9/11 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2006), p. 3. 95 . Solomon-Godeau, Photography at the Dock , p. 172. 96 . Bleiker, Aesthetics and World Politics , pp. 23–5. 97 . Colin Wright, ‘Media Representations of 9/11: Constructing the Different Difference’, in C. Demaria and C. Wright (eds), Post-Conflict Cultures: Rituals of Representation (London: Zoilus Press, 2006), p. 15. 98 . Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2003), p. 275. 99 . Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others , pp. 102–3. 100 . The ‘only’, I want to suggest, is indicative of Sontag’s disappointment with photography, a medium that seemed to promise to achieve so much and that appears to have achieved so little. This frustration follows from exaggerated hopes reflecting, not what photography is capable of doing but, rather, what photography critics think it should be capable of doing. Ultimately, it reflects disappointment, not with photography but with her fellow human beings who do not respond to images as they should, according to Sontag. 101 . Taylor, Archive and Repertoire , p. 243. 102 . Diane Arbus, Diane Arbus (New York: Aperture, 1972), p. 2. 103 . See Edkins, ‘Exposed Singularity’. 104 . Writing about ‘The Eyes of Gutete Emerita’, a part of Alfredo Jaar’s Rwanda Project (see Chapter 4), Strauss writes that the ‘first time I saw this piece, I became physically ill at the sight of Gutete Emerita’s eyes. I felt dizzy and almost retched. I don’t know why this happened, but it did. ... The truth is that I feel ill now, remembering it’. See Between the Eyes , p. 97. 105 . Elkins, What Photography Is, p. 38. Barthes defines the punctum in Camera Lucida as ‘a detail ... which attracts or distresses me’ (p. 40). The punctum can wound and disturb (p. 41). There is no direct or necessary connection between the punctum and intentionality on the part of the photographer: the punctum says only that the photographer ‘could not not photograph the partial object at the same time as the total object’ (p. 47). As such, it seems 208 Notes

to be close to Elkins’s surround discussed in the introductory chapter but different from the spark which the photographer may use intentionally in order to seduce the viewer into engagement.

3 Reflections on Photojournalism

1 . Robert Storr, SEPTEMBER: A History Painting by Gerhard Richter (London: Tate Publishing, 2010), p. 10. 2 . Fred Ritchin, After Photography (London: W.W. Norton, 2009) writes that in 2007, ‘some 250 billion digital photos were made ... and nearly a billion camera phones were said to be in use’ (p. 11). 3 . In January 2013, Toshifumi Fujimoto acquired fame as a non-professional war photographer and ‘war tourist’ in Syria. See Dashiell Bennett, ‘Bored, Lonely Japanese Man Becomes a “War Tourist” in Syria’, The Atlantic Wire , 3 January 2013, at http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2013/01/bored- lonely-japanese-man-becomes-war-tourist-syria/60531 (accessed 16 January 2013). Many thanks to Armenak Tokmajyan for directing my attention to Mr. Fujimoto’s unusual holidays. 4 . The Committee to Protect Journalists: Defending Journalists Worldwide reports that 70 journalists were killed in 2012, 965 since 1992. See https:// cpj.org/killed/2012 (accessed 10 January 2013). 5 . Fred Ritchin, ‘Between a Rock and a Soft Place’, Aperture , No. 209, Winter 2012, p. 65 (both quotations). 6 . Don McCullin, in Kontaktabzüge: Die Grosse Tradition der Fotoreportage – Don McCullin , Video, directed by Sylvain Roumette, 4:43–4:45, ARTE Développement (2008). 7 . See Jill Bennett, Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), p. 9. 8 . E. Ann Kaplan notes that ‘journalists, therapists, and film viewers may be vicariously traumatized’ when ‘translating trauma’ but does not elaborate on the traumatization of journalists. See Trauma Culture: The Politics of Terror and Loss in Media and Literature (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 2005), p. 21. See also Susie Linfield, The Cruel Radiance: Photography and Political Violence (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2010), p. 219, and Griselda Pollock, ‘Photographing Atrocity: Becoming Iconic?’ In G. Batchen, M. Gidley, N.K. Miller, and J. Prosser (eds), Picturing Atrocity: Photography in Crisis (London: Reaktion Books, 2012), pp. 72–8. 9 . The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p. 2235. 10 . This is especially true of analogue photography (with the exception of Polaroid photography), while digital photography gives photographers the possibility to share their pictures immediately with their subjects. 11 . McCullin, in Kontaktabzüge , 3:21–3:23. The emphasis should be on crime only if a crime was committed for the purpose of the production of images. As regards photographers’ ruthlessness, see Greg Marinovich and Joao Silva, The Bang-Bang Club: Snapshots from a Hidden War (London: Arrow Books, 2001) and the essays in Sandra S. Phillips (ed.), Exposed: Voyeurism, Surveillance and the Camera (London: Tate Publishing, 2010). Notes 209

12 . Linfield, The Cruel Radiance , p. 219. 13 . See, for example, Euan Ferguson, ‘The Truth is Rarely So Black and White’, The Observer , 26 July 2009, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/ jul/26/robert-capa-photography-the-falling-soldier-spanish-civil-war (accessed 5 August 2009), commenting on recent controversies regarding the authenticity of Robert Capa’s most famous photograph from the Spanish Civil War. 14 . See Rune S. Andersen and Frank Möller, ‘Engaging the Limits of Visibility: Photography, Security and Surveillance’, Security Dialogue, Vol. 44, No. 3, June 2013, pp. 203–21. 15 . Marinovich and Silva, The Bang-Bang Club , p. 193. 16 . Marinovich admits, ‘I am not sure what I would have done in the same circumstances’ (p. 193) and I prefer his honest acknowledgement of the ambiguity of a photographer’s subject position in situations of extremity to easy and moralistic long-distance criticism disregarding this very ambiguity. 17 . Okwui Enwezor, Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (New York: International Center of Photography/Göttingen: Steidl, 2006), p. 15 (all quotations). 18 . David MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema. Edited and with an introduction by Lucien Taylor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 68. 19 . ‘“I Was Gutted That I’d Been Such a Coward”: Photographers Who Didn’t Step in to Help’, the Guardian , 28 July 2012, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/ media/2012/jul/28/gutted-photographers-who-didnt-help (accessed 1 August 2012). References in the remainder of this section are to this special report (except as noted). 20 . Susan Sontag, On Photography (London: Penguin, 1979), p. 10. 21 . McCullin also admits ‘an adrenaline rush when you did it’, that is, when taking pictures in extremely dangerous situations. See Carole Cadwalladr, ‘Don McCullin: “Photojournalism Has Had It. It’s All Gone Celebrity”’, The Observer , 22 December 2012, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/ artanddesign/2012/dec/22/don-mccullin-photojournalism-celebrity-interview (accessed 23 December 2012). 22 . ‘The Shot That Nearly Killed Me: War Photographers – A Special Report’, The Guardian , 18 June 2011, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2011/jun/18/ war-photographers-special-report (accessed 19 June 2011). The report is linked to a picture gallery. The quotations in this section are taken from this report (except as noted). 23 . See also Giles Duley, ‘Giles Duley: “I Lost Three Limbs in Afghanistan, But I Had to Go Back ... ”’, The Observer , 10 February 2013, at http://www.guardian. co.uk/artanddesign/2013/feb/10/giles-duley-photography-amputee-afghanistan (accessed 10 February 2013). 24 . ‘Project: The Anxiety of Images’, Aperture , No. 204, Fall 2011, pp. 50–73 (page references in the text are to this project). In her contribution to the project, Rasha Salti notes that ‘[p]art of the danger in writing the “history” of September 11, 2001, and charting a worldview that begins there, is eliding the chronological cartography of days in September that are equally sinister’ (p. 72). Elsewhere, Robert Storr notes that it is important to avoid codes like 9/11 because terminological precision ‘locates the event in history rather than isolating it in its own ambiguous yet “branded,” moment’. He also 210 Notes

refers to other 9/11s, such as 11 September 1973, when the democratically elected president of Chile was overthrown in a military coup opening years of military dictatorship. See Storr, SEPTEMBER , p. 11 note 1. In addition to 11 September 1973, ‘9/11’ also refers to ‘the British Mandate in Palestine on September 11, 1922; the U.S. invasion of Honduras on September 11, 1919; and the defeat of the Ottoman armies before the gates of Vienna on September 11, 1683’. See David Simpson, 9/11: The Culture of Commemoration (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2006), p. 14. 25 . ‘Have reporting and bearing witness changed since 9/11 – both in photo- reportage and written journalism? What is the role of citizen journalism? In the last decade, to what new ends has photography been used by the U.S. government, Al Qaeda, and other political and social institutions – however extreme? Is there a time when images should be censored? What is the relationship between photography and national security? How does one “cover” war? What role, if any, does photography play in revolution, whether political or other? Do photographs still have evidentiary value? How would you define the concepts of “difference” and “other” now? Have those concepts changed since 9/11? What are the current culture wars – why do they exist? Whose wars are they?’ 26 . Professional photographers may also use both camera phones and more sophisticated cameras, depending on the circumstances, or produce by means of sophisticated cameras images that look like camera phone images, thus responding to a ‘paradigm change’ in image production, from Capa’s ‘if your pictures aren’t good enough that’s because you aren’t close enough’ to ‘if they aren’t bad enough, you aren’t close enough’, both paradigms reflecting photojournalism’s dependence on proximity and action. See the contributions of Geoff Dyer and Susie Linfield (pp. 72–3; the quotations are from Dyer, p. 72). 27 . Frank Möller, ‘Photography after Empire: Citizen-photographers or Snappers on Autopilot’, New Political Science , Vol. 32, No. 4, December 2010, p. 513. 28 . Clément Chéroux, Diplopie. L’image photographique à l’ère des médias globalisés: essai sur le 11 septembre 2001 (Paris: Le Point du Jour, 2009). 29 . As noted above, this visual saturation may also have had a traumatizing effect on both viewers and photographers. 30 . For a different approach, see Here Is New York: a Democracy of Photographs , conceived and organized by Alice Rose George, Gilles Peress, Michael Shulan, and Charles Traub (Zurich, Berlin, New York: Scalo, 2002) and my discussion in ‘Photographic Interventions in Post-9/11 Security Policy’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 38, No. 2, June 2007, pp. 189–91. Joel Meyerowitz’s photography of the rescue effort is briefly discussed in the following chapter. 31 . This particular image is Robert Drew’s photograph ‘A man jumps from the North Tower of New York’s World Trade Center, Tuesday, September 11, 2001, after terrorists crashed two hijacked airliners into the buildings’. It is reproduced on page 55. See also Susan Lurie, ‘Falling Persons and National Embodiment: The Reconstruction of Safe Spectatorship in the Photographic Record of 9/11’, in D.J. Sherman and T. Nardin (eds), Terror, Culture, Politics: Rethinking 9/11 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2006), pp. 44–68. 32 . Geoffrey Batchen, Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1999). Notes 211

4 The Aftermath: Visions of Rwanda

1 . An earlier version of this chapter titled ‘Rwanda Revisualized: Genocide, Photography, and the Era of the Witness’ was published in Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, Vol. 35, No. 2, April–June 2010, pp. 113–36. Copyright © 2010 by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. Used here with kind permission of the publisher, updated and adapted to the purpose of the book. 2 . Kofi Annan, ‘Message to Symposium on the Media and the Rwanda Genocide, Carleton University School of Journalism and Communication, Ottawa, 13 March 2004’, in A. Thompson (ed.), The Media and the Rwanda Genocide. With a Statement by Kofi Annan (New York: Pluto Press/Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2007), p. ix. 3 . Annette Wieviorka, The Era of the Witness, trans. J. Stark (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2006), p. 138. 4 . Ibid., pp. 101, 139–40. 5 . See Karen Brounéus, ‘Truth-Telling as Talking Cure? Insecurity and Retraumatization in the Rwandan Gacaca Courts’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 39, No. 1, March 2008, pp. 55–76. The gacaca (literally ‘soft grass’) courts repre- sented a form of traditional, community-based justice under the chairman- ship of persons of integrity. The courts were re-established in order to cope with the huge number of suspects. Reportedly, this system has led to ‘vicious attacks against survivors, witnesses and judges’. See Ros Wynne-Jones, ‘A Rwandan Genocide Survivor Speaks Out: “Now, I Must Be the Narrator”’, The Guardian , 8 April 2009, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/april/08/ rwanda-experience (accessed 8 April 2009). On 18 June 2012, the gacaca courts stopped operating. See Global Center for the Responsibility to Protect, R2P Monitor, Issue 4, 15 July 2012, at http://www.globalr2p.org (accessed 31 July 2012). 6 . José Eduardo Agualusa, The Book of Chameleons, trans. D. Hahn (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008), p. 17. 7 . Linda Melvern, A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide (London and New York: Zed Books, 2000), pp. 178, 163. 8 . Anne Chaon, ‘Who Failed in Rwanda, Journalists or the Media?’ In The Media and the Rwanda Genocide , p. 163. 9 . Within Rwanda, the radio (especially the infamous Radio-Télévision Libre des Milles Collines) was a much more important tool with which to instigate the killings of both Tutsi and Belgian peace-keepers than television. 10 . ISETA: Behind the Roadblock , directed by Eric Kabela (2008). 11 . Shake Hands with the Devil: The Journey of Roméo Dallaire , directed by Peter Raymont (2004), 31:08–31:28, 47:33–47:42 and 53:53–54:04. 12 . Shake Hands with the Devil , commentary track Raymont (31:25–31:42). 13 . Cited in Jean Hatzfeld, Into the Quick of Life – The Rwandan Genocide: The Survivors Speak, trans. G. Feehily (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2008), p. 122. 14 . Fergal Keane, Season of Blood: A Rwandan Journey (London: Penguin, 1996), p. 7. 15 . Philip Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will be Killed with Our Families: Stories from Rwanda (New York: Picador, 1998), p. 202. 16 . ‘From April to December 1994, $1.4 billion ... was donated for refugees; two-thirds of that assistance was provided to refugees outside Rwanda 212 Notes

(among whom were a considerable number of génocidaires , who controlled the camps)’. See Karen E. Smith, Genocide and the Europeans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 153. The cover design of Smith’s book reproduces a photograph taken in a refugee camp near Goma in what was then Zaire. 17 . Lindsey Hilsum, ‘Reporting Rwanda: The Media and the Aid Agencies’, in The Media and the Rwanda Genocide , p. 173. 18 . The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles. Volume 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p. 2562. Autobiographical writings and volumes based on interviews are exceptions. 19 . Lisa Saltzman, ‘What Remains: Photography and Landscape, Memory and Oblivion’, in Jennifer Blessing and Nat Trotman, Haunted: Contemporary Photography | Video | Performance (New York: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2010), p. 129. 20 . Charlotte Cotton, The Photograph as Contemporary Art. New Edition (London: Thames and Hudson, 2009), p. 167. 21 . Joel Meyerowitz, Aftermath (London: Phaidon, 2006). 22 . Questions and Answers with Joel Meyerowitz at http://www.phaidon.com/ aftermath/qanda.html (accessed 6 March 2009). 23 . Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), p. 193. 24 . Jill Bennett, Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), p. 2. 25 . See Scott Straus, The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2006), pp. 18–9. 26 . Quoted in Hatzfeld, Into the Quick of Life , p. 146. 27 . Keane, Season of Blood , p. 6. 28 . Melvern, A People Betrayed , p. 5. 29 . See Roméo Dallaire with Brad Beardsley, Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda (London: Arrow Books, 2004) for what the West could have done in order to stop the genocide. 30 . For example, Melvern, A People Betrayed; Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002), pp. 185–233; Johan Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late 20th Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Gérard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (London: Hurst and Co., 2005); Straus, The Order of Genocide ; Bruno Charbonneau, France and the New Imperialism: Security Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa (Aldershot and Burlington: Ashgate, 2008), pp. 121–48; Gérard Prunier, Africa’s World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Lee Ann Fujii, Killing Neighbors: Webs of Violence in Rwanda (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2009); Smith, Genocide and the Europeans , pp. 142–78. 31 . For example, Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil ; Paul Rusesabagina with Tom Zoellner, An Ordinary Man: An Autobiography (London: Penguin, 2007); Illuminée Nganemariya with Paul Dickson, Miracle in Kigali – A Survivor’s Journey (St Ives: Tagman Press, 2008); Révérien Rurangwa, Genocide: My Stolen Rwanda, trans. A. Brown (London: Reportage Press, 2009). Notes 213

32 . See, for example, three volumes published by Jean Hatzfeld, Into the Quick of Life ; A Time for Machetes – The Rwandan Genocide: The Killers Speak. Preface by Susan Sontag (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2005) and The Strategy of Antelopes: Living in Rwanda after the Genocide (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2009), and Samuel Totten and Rafiki Ubaldo (eds), We Cannot Forget: Interviews with Survivors of the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 2011). See also Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You . 33 . For example, Gil Courtemanche, A Sunday at the Pool in Kigali, trans. P. Claxton (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2004). 34 . For example, Crime Scene Investigation, Season 10, Episode 19, ‘World’s End’, directed by Alec Smight (2010). 35 . J.P. Stassen, Deogratias: A Tale of Rwanda, trans. A. Siegel (New York and London: First Second, 2006). 36 . See, for example, ISETA ; Shake Hands with the Devil ; Hotel Rwanda , directed by Terry George (2005); Shooting Dogs , directed by Michael Caton-Jones (2005); Shake Hands with the Devil , directed by Roger Spottiswoode (2007); Triage: Dr. James Orbinski’s Humanitarian Dilemma, directed by Pat Reed (2007). See also Terry George (ed.), Hotel Rwanda: Bringing the True Story of an African Hero to Film (New York: Newmarket Press, 2005) and, critically, Mohamed Adhikari, ‘Hotel Rwanda – The Challenges of Historicising and Commercialising Genocide’, Development Dialogue, No. 50, December 2008, pp. 173–95. 37 . Gilles Peress, The Silence (Zurich: Scalo, 1995); Alfredo Jaar, Let There Be Light: The Rwanda Project 1994–1998 (Barcelona: ACTAR, 1998); Robert Lyons and Scott Straus, Intimate Enemy: Images and Voices of the Rwandan Genocide (New York: Zone Books, 2006); Jonathan Torgovnik, Intended Consequences: Rwandan Children Born of Rape. Introduction by Marie Consolée Mukagendo (New York: Aperture, 2009); Sebastião Salgado, Africa (Cologne: Taschen, 2010), pp. 158–95; Pieter Hugo and Linda Melvern, Rwanda 2004: Vestiges of a Genocide (London: Oodee, 2011). Erin Haney’s Photography and Africa (London: Reaktion Books, 2010) does not include photography on Rwanda. 38 . See Nicole Schweizer, ‘An Open Work – A Non-Stop Record: Selected Works 1985–2007’, in Alfredo Jaar, It Is Difficult, Vol. 2 , G. Scardi and B. Pietromarchi (eds) (Mantova: Edizioni Corraini, 2008), pp. 152–3. Jaar shows these place names in his installation Let There Be Light (1996). 39 . Susan Rubin Suleiman, Crises of Memory and the Second World War (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2006), p. 4. 40 . Eva Hoffman, After Such Knowledge: A Meditation on the Aftermath of the Holocaust (New York: Vintage, 2005), p. 54. 41 . Shake Hands with the Devil (5:09–5:21). 42 . See Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers , pp. 103–31. 43 . Marcel Kabanda, ‘Kangura: The Triumph of Propaganda Refined’, in The Media and the Rwandan Genocide , p. 63. ‘1957 values’ refers to those articu- lated in the 1957 Bahutu Manifesto . 44 . Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda , p. 50. 45 . See Martin Hollis and Steve Smith, Explaining and Understanding International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). 46 . David MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema. Edited and with an introduction by Lucien Taylor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 246. 214 Notes

47 . Quoted in Into the Quick of Life , pp. 158–9. 48 . Dominick LaCapra, History in Transit: Experience, Identity, Critical Theory (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2004), p. 43. 49 . Jaar, Let There Be Light. See also the Rwanda Project at http:///www. alfredojaar.net. The secondary literature is substantial. See, for example, David Levi Strauss, Between the Eyes: Essays on Photography and Politics . Introduction by John Berger (New York: Aperture, 2003), pp. 79–105; Mark Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence: Aesthetics and the Anxiety of Critique’, and Mieke Bal, ‘The Pain of Images’, in M. Reinhardt, H. Edwards, and E. Duganne (eds), Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/ Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/The University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 33–5,114–5, respectively; Schweizer, ‘An Open Work’, pp. 149–58; Jacques Rancière, The Emancipated Spectator (London and New York: Verso, 2009), pp. 95–100; Jane Blocker, Seeing Witness: Visuality and the Ethics of Testimony (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), pp. 51–60; Jae Emerling, Photography: History and Theory (London and New York: Routledge, 2012), pp. 106–9. 50 . See Jaar, ‘Muxima’, in S. Metsola, P. Siitari, and J.-P. Vanhala (eds), ARS 11 (Helsinki: Museum of Contemporary Art Kiasma, 2011), p. 143. The former Canadian ambassador to the United Nations, UN Envoy for HIV/AIDS in Africa and member of an ‘International Panel of Eminent Personalities to Investigate the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and the Surrounding Events’ appointed by the Organization of African Unity, Stephen Lewis, forcefully articulates the same criticism in Raymont’s film Shake Hands with the Devil (1:15:14–1:15:30), commenting on US President Clinton’s visit to Rwanda in 1998. Dallaire sent numerous dispatches to New York informing the United Nations on the facts on location before and during the genocide. 51 . Paul Gillroy, ‘Reintroducing Humanity to the World: Alfredo Jaar’s Cosmopolitan Challenge to Institutionalized Indifference’, in It Is Difficult , pp. 116–28. 52 . These quotations are from an ART:21 interview with Alfredo Jaar, available at http://www.pbs.org/art21/artists/jaar/clip1.html (accessed 14 April 2009). 53 . Bal, ‘The Pain of Images’, p. 97. 54 . Frank Möller, ‘The Looking/Not Looking Dilemma’, Review of International Studies , Vol. 36, No. 4, October 2009, p. 793. 55 . The Internet Version is available at http:///www.alfredojaar.net. The reproduction of the final panel on the cover or back cover of books (see Chapter 2) reduces the installation to a single photograph and does not do justice to the complexity of the work. 56 . Michel Foucault, This Is Not a Pipe , with Illustrations and Letters by René Magritte. Translated and edited by James Harkness (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1983), p. 28. 57 . Alejandro Zambra, Ways of Going Home, trans. M. McDowell (London: Granta Books, 2013), p. 85. 58 . Wieviorka, The Era of the Witness , p. 140 asks: ‘In certain refusals to testify, might there not be something other than the fear of awakening memories that are too painful, namely, the fear of being trapped in an image in which one does not quite recognize oneself?’ 59 . Reinhardt, ‘Picturing Violence’, p. 33. Notes 215

60 . Lyons and Straus, Intimate Enemy , p. 32. 61 . Ibid., p. 16. 62 . Diary entry Lyons; Lyons and Straus, Intimate Enemy , p. 32. 63 . Prunier, Africa’s World War , p. 353. 64 . Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers , p. 35. 65 . Fujii, Killing Neighbors , pp. 115–8. 66 . Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda , p. 114. 67 . Fujii, Killing Neighbors , p. 8. 68 . Ibid. 69 . Lyons and Straus, Intimate Enemy , p. 15. 70 . Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography and Policy Analysis (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 150. Shapiro continues by arguing that images ‘which challenge the existing set of codes rather than recycle and reinforce them, are impertinent or politicizing inasmuch as they pose questions to what is regarded as appro- priate and authoritative’. 71 . Madelaine Hron, ‘Review of Intimate Enemy’, African Studies Quarterly: The Online Journal for African Studies , Vol. 10, No. 2, 3, Fall 2008, at http://www. africa.ufl.edu/asq/v10/v10i2a-16.htm (accessed 7 April 2009). 72 . Lyons and Straus, Intimate Enemy , p. 14. 73 . MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema , p. 246. 74 . W.J.T. Mitchell, Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 297. 75 . Prunier, Africa’s World War , p. 354. 76 . See Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda . 77 . Fujii, Killing Neighbors , p. 37. A conseiller is the administrative leader of a secteur , which is the administrative level below préfecture and commune . 78 . See Hatzfeld, Into the Quick of Life; Rurangwa, Genocide ; and Totten and Ubaldo, We Cannot Forget . 79 . Torgovnik, Intended Consequences . 80 . Quoted in Hatzfeld, A Time for Machetes , pp. 42, 124. 81 . Marie Consolée Mukagendo, ‘The Struggles of Rwandan Women Raising Children Born of Rape’, in J. Torgovnik, Intended Consequences: Rwandan Children Born of Rape. Introduction by Marie Consolée Mukagendo (New York: Aperture, 2009), p. 7. 82 . Ibid., p. 8. The survivor Bernadette (name changed) disagrees: ‘In Rwandese, a child is an angel, is innocent. You can’t take the sins of the father and blame them on the child’ (portrait 04, p. 29). 83 . Strauss, Between the Eyes , p. 10. 84 . See, however, Strauss, Between the Eyes, p. 100; Schweizer, ‘An Open Work’, pp. 155–6. 85 . Frank Möller and Rafiki Ubaldo, ‘Imaging Life after Death: Photography and the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda’, in L. Bisschoff and S. van de Peer (eds), Art and Trauma in Africa: Representations of Reconciliation in Film, Art, Music and Literature (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2013), pp. 131–51. 86 . Ibid., p. 137. 87 . Personal communication, 26 March 2013. See also http://www.temples ofmemory.org. 88 . Möller and Ubaldo, ‘Imaging Life after Death’, pp. 137–40. 216 Notes

89 . Ernst van Alphen, Art in Mind: How Contemporary Images Shape Thought (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2005), pp. 8–9. 90 . Van Alphen, Art in Mind, p. 8. According to van Alphen (p. 5), ‘Damisch puts the signifier /cloud/ between slashes to indicate that he deals with clouds as signs that have different meanings in different pictorial contexts rather than clouds as realistic elements’. 91 . In 2006, Jaar produced a work titled An Atlas of Clouds – photographs of six clouds taken in South Africa, Namibia, Nigeria, Zaire, Rwanda, and Angola – ‘stripped of all words’. See Schweizer, ‘An Open Work’, p. 156.

5 Visual Interventions in Rio de Janeiro’s Culture of Violence

1 . I use the term ‘popular community’ because the more widely used term ‘favela’ has contributed, and continues to contribute, to the stigmatization, marginalization, and criminalization of the residents of these communities. The term is said to be increasingly rejected by the residents, who prefer instead such terms as morro (hill) or communidade (community). See Janice Perlman, Favela: Four Decades of Living on the Edge in Rio de Janeiro (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 29. (It is ironic, then, that Perlman sticks to the term ‘favela’ as title of her book.) 2 . Paulo Lins, City of God, trans. A. Entrekin (New York: Black Cat, 2006), pp. 1–177. 3 . Ibid., p. 177. 4 . There are more than 1,000 popular communities in Rio de Janeiro. It is important to note that ‘no two communities are the same’, because ‘the character of each favela is rooted in its racial makeup, social history, and physical location’. Patrick Neate and Damian Platt, Culture Is Our Weapon: Making Music and Changing Lives in Rio de Janeiro. Foreword by Caeteno Veloso (London: Penguin, 2010), p. 76. It is also important to note that there are big differences within single popular communities, as Bianca Freire-Medeiros shows with regard to Rocinha. See Touring Poverty (London and New York: Routledge, 2013). 5 . Residents of Gávea and Lagoa enjoy Scandinavian living standards, while Complexo do Alemão (a huge complex of popular communities in the Zona Norte) scores on the United Nations Human Development Index lower than Gabon and Cabo Verde. See Perlman, Favela , p. 176. 6 . This list was topped by San Pedro Sula in Honduras, followed by Juárez in Mexico and Macéio in Brazil. The other Brazilian cities on this list were Belém (10), Vitoria (17), Salvador (22), Manaus (26), São Luís (27), João Pessoa (29), Cuiabá (31), Recife (32), Macapá (36), Fortaleza (37), Curitiba (39), Goiânia (40), and Belo Horizonte (45). See http://www.seguridadyjusticiaypaz.org.mx (accessed 15 September 2012). 7 . Tom Phillips, ‘Brazil Crime Wars: Spiderman’s Story of Drugs and Jesus in Rio’s Slums’, The Guardian , 5 November 2009, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/ world/2009/nov/05/brazil-drugs-rio-de-janeiro (accessed 1 September 2012). Neate and Platt note that ‘resistance followed by death’, while ‘ha[ving] no recognized status in Brazilian law, automatically transforms the victim of a Notes 217

fatal shooting into an aggressor and ensures that very few fatal incidents are ever independently investigated’. See Culture , p. 123. 8 . Julio Jacobo Waiselfisz, Mapa da Violência 2012: Os Novos Padrões da Violência Homicida no Brasil (São Paulo: Instituto Sangari, 2011), pp. 28–30. 9 . Ibid., p. 183. 10 . Enrique Desmond Arias, Drugs and Democracy in Rio de Janeiro: Trafficking, Social Networks, and Public Security (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006), p. 31. Many homicides of poor people remain unre- ported, not least because no-one expects the police to investigate such cases thoroughly. 11 . Tropa de Elite , directed by José Padilha (2007), 44:20–45:08, 45:09–45:22. 12 . Perlman, Favela , p. 172. 13 . Silvia Ramos, ‘Unique look at the lives of combatants in Brazil crime wars’, The Guardian , 5 November 2009, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/ nov/05/brazil-rio-dance-with-devil (accessed 4 June 2010). 14 . Perlman, Favela , pp. 189–92. In many popular communities, there is a real estate market despite informality and unclear ownership: residents do not own the land on which they built their houses, but they own the houses. Especially in the Zona Sul, prices can be very high indeed. 15 . Parts of this chapter are derived from my ‘Photo-activism in the Digital Age: Visions from Rio de Janeiro’, in N.S. Love and M. Mattern (eds), Doing Democracy: Activist Art and Cultural Politics (New York: SUNY Press, forthcoming) and are reproduced here with kind permission of SUNY Press. 16 . Teresa A. Meade, ‘Civilizing’ Rio: Reform and Resistance in a Brazilian City, 1889–1930 (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997). 17 . Runaway slaves had established so-called quilombos – communities of refugees – in Rio and elsewhere already in the early nineteenth century. As Peter Robb reports, fugitives had established a republic of Palmares – a ‘network of nine quilombos’ – as early as 1612. Palmares was destroyed in 1695 by European bandeirantes – private armed parties – commissioned by the governor, and later settlements ‘never again grew as big as Palmares’. See Robb, A Death in Brazil: A Book of Omissions (London: Bloomsbury, 2005), pp. 115–20. (For the quotations, see pp. 115, 120.) 18 . Euclides da Cunha, Rebellion in the Backland (Os Sertões) , trans. S. Putnam (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1944), pp. 161–2, 383; originally published in 1902. 19 . Robb, Death , p. 179. 20 . Meade, ‘Civilizing’ Rio , pp. 24–5. 21 . Robb, Death , p. 204. 22 . Ibid., p. 207. The body of Antônio Conselheiro was disinterred in order to photograph it, aiming at ‘certifying its identity’. It was then returned to its grave. Later, however, ‘the corpse was decapitated’, and the head was taken ‘to the seaboard, where it was greeted by delirious multitudes with carnival joy’. See da Cunha, Rebellion , p. 476. 23 . Robb, Death , p. 206. Some of the photographs can be seen on a website maintained by Fondacão Joaquim Nabuco at http://www.fundaj.gov.br/docs/ canud/fotos.htm. 24 . Robb, Death , p. 8. Perlman notes that the popular community of Santo Antonio ‘emerged around the same time and in the same manner’, and three 218 Notes

settlements, established by workers from Portugal, Spain, and Italy, date back to 1881. See Favela , p. 363, note 1. Etymologically, the term favela originates either from the favela bush or from Monte Favel(l)a, a rocky peak close to Canudos where the troops fighting Antônio Conselheiro camped and from which they fired on the settlement. 25 . Arias, Drugs and Democracy , p. 22. 26 . Meade, ‘Civilizing’ Rio. (The following page references in brackets are to this book.) 27 . Neate and Platt, Culture , p. 149. 28 . Perlman, Favela , p. 28. Perlman reports that before the 2004 Pan American Games, ‘the government proposed building a high, impenetrable wall around all the favelas – literally creating a walled fortress within the city, to “protect” the city’. Favela, p. 171. There are plans to fence in 80 popular communities, thus turning Rio de Janeiro into another ‘city of walls’ (material walls, symbolic walls, mental walls) – a term used by Teresa Pires do Rio Caldeira with regard to urban development and patterns of segregation in São Paulo. See Caldeira, City of Walls: Crime, Segregation, and Citizenship in São Paulo (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2000). 29 . Ruy Castro, Rio de Janeiro: Carnival under Fire , trans. J. Gledson (New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2004), p. 102. Other subjects include ‘shoot-outs with the police’ (p. 1); ‘honest, poor people’ (p. 15); tourists in Rocinha (p. 18); capoeira (p. 57); samba schools (p. 100); and even cats (p. 83). 30 . By jeito , Rio de Janeiro’s ‘indefinable spirit’, Castro means ‘an almost maso- chistic refusal to take oneself very seriously, a combination of boredom and mockery in the face of any kind of power, and, not least, a joie de vivre which defies any kind of rational argument’. Ibid., p. 43. Gente refers to a person’s humanity, a prime concern in the popular communities (see below) where ‘boredom and mockery in the face of any kind of power’ might be suicidal. 31 . Mario Testino, Mario de Janeiro Testino (Cologne: Taschen, 2009). Caetano Veloso’s ‘Foreword’ according to which the book ‘captures the city’s essential inner being’ is embarrassing (unpaginated). 32 . Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2001), pp. 53–4. The quotations refer to discovery scenarios in general. 33 . Perlman, Favela , pp. 327–8. 34 . Freire-Medeiros, Touring Poverty . 35 . Perlman, Favela , p. 36. 36 . Ibid., p. 158. 37 . Nick Couldry, Inside Culture: Re-Imagining The Method of Cultural Studies (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage, 2000), p. 106. 38 . The police try to reclaim urban space in popular communities by means of ‘pacifying’ strategies. These strategies include the installation of Unidades de Policia Pacificadora (UPP) in selected communities, thus replacing the traditional attack-and-withdraw style with permanent police presence in the communities, including the installation of 24/7 surveillance devices monitoring the residents’ mobility. An undesired side-effect of UPPs is ‘sending rents through the roof’ thus dislocating local residents, as Tom Phillips reports. See Tom Phillips, ‘As Rio Builds Hotels for World Cup, Countless Families are Trapped in Squads’, The Guardian, 14 March 2012, at Notes 219

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/mar/14/rio-brazil-homeless-families- squats (accessed 23 March 2012). The communities may become more peaceful, but local residents are forced to move to other, less expensive, but also less peaceful areas. For the official view on UPP, see http://www.upprj.com. 39 . For a long time, the popular communities were excluded from official city maps. Today, the biggest ones (for example, Rocinha), the most famous or notorious ones (for example, Cidade de Deus), huge conglomerates of several communities (for example, Complexo do Alemão), and communities targeted by the tourist industry (for example, Santa Marta and Rocinha in the Zona Sul) are normally included. 40 . Freire-Medeiros, Touring Poverty , p. 99. 41 . Livio Sansone, ‘The Localization of Global Funk in Bahia and in Rio’, in C.A. Perrone and C. Dunn (eds), Brazilian Popular Music & Globalization (New York: Routledge, 2002), p. 151; Antonio Carlos Jobim, as quoted in Kenneth Maxwell, Naked Tropics: Essays on Empire and Other Rogues . With a Foreword by Fouad Ajami (New York and London: Routledge, 2003), p. 244. 42 . The film Cidade de Deus (see below) was actually filmed in another conjunto, Cidade Alta, as Perlman, Favela , p. 34, notes. 43 . See Freire-Medeiros, Touring Poverty , p. 85. 44 . Meade, ‘Civilizing’ Rio , p. 182. 45 . Perlman, Favela , p. 148. 46 . Ibid., p. 32. For – failed – attempts to equip the popular community of Jacarezinho with surveillance devices typical of the condominiums of the rich, thus transforming a popular community into a popular condominium, see João H. Costa Vargas, ‘When a Favela Dared to Become a Gated Condominium: The Politics of Race and Urban Space in Rio de Janeiro’, Latin American Perspectives , Vol. 33, No. 4, July 2006, pp. 49–81. 47 . In the early 2000s, meeting residents of other communities at the funk parties was said to be more difficult than before, owing to the accentuation of differences between the drug factions limiting both freedom of movement and participation in funk parties organized by a rivalling faction. See Neate and Platt, Culture , p. 61. 48 . Perlman, Favela , p. 180. 49 . Sansone, ‘Global Funk’, pp. 140–1. 50 . Neate and Platt, Culture , p. 31. 51 . Perlman, Favela , p. 198. See also Tropa de Elite for a dramatization of this connection. 52 . Perlman, Favela , p. 258. 53 . Ibid., p. 161. 54 . For an unparalleled description of droughts in the Sertão, see da Cunha, Rebellion , pp. 25–33, 104–6. 55 . A local guide quoted in Freire-Medeiros, Touring Poverty , p. 82. 56 . Perlman, Favela , p. 235. 57 . André Diniz, Picture A Favela. Photos: Maurício Hora, trans. J. Soutar (London: SelfMadeHero, 2012), unpaginated. 58 . Cidade de Deus, directed by Fernando Meirelles (2002); Tropa de Elite; Tropa de Elite 2 , directed by José Padilha (2011). 59 . Andrew Purcell, ‘This is how the system works’, The Guardian , 18 July 2008, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2008/jul/18/1 (accessed 15 October 2012). 220 Notes

60 . Neate and Platt, Culture, p. 81. However, ‘every resident knows somebody who’s directly involved in the traffic’ (p. 145). 61 . Cidade dos Homens , directed by Paulo Morelli (2007) gives a much more nuanced and comprehensive account of life in popular communities without ignoring the murderous activities of the drug traffickers and the extent to which local residents are terrorized by these activities. 62 . Purcell, ‘This is how the system works’. Polls quoted in this article indicate that a majority of viewers (53%) see Nascimento as a hero; a vast majority (82%) supports torture of drug dealers by police. See Caldeira, City of Walls , chapter 9, for a discussion of disrespect among Brazilian citizens for the civil rights of criminals and people considered criminals. 63 . Remember Greg Marinovich’s story told in Chapter 3. In his case, too, criminals, rather than seeing the photographer as a danger, wanted to have their picture taken. 64 . Phil Hoad, ‘Why Brazil’s favela films remain flavor of the noughties’, The Guardian , 18 August 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/filmblog/2011/ aug/18/brazil-elite-squad-2 (accessed 16 October 2012). 65 . Dancing with the Devil , directed by Jon Blair (2009). 66 . Ramos, ‘Unique Look’. 67 . Women Are Heroes, Video, produced by JR, 00’12–01’30, at http://jr-art.net (accessed 8 October 2012); after 2012). 68 . Neate and Platt, Culture , p. 195. For recent police attempts to ‘pacify’ the community, see Tom Phillips, ‘Rio de Janeiro Police Occupy Slums as City Fights Back Against Drug Gangs’, The Guardian , 12 April 2010, at http:// www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/apr/12/rio-de-janeiro-police-occupy-slums (accessed 12 May 2011). 69 . Diniz, Picture a Favela , unpaginated. However, as Diniz admits, ‘there are places I’m not allowed to go with my camera’ without permission from the local gang leader. 70 . Neate and Platt, Culture , p. 194. 71 . Freire-Medeiros, Touring Poverty , pp. 76–8. Currently, Rio’s docklands are massively reconstructed in light of the forthcoming sports events. See http:// portomaravilha.com.br. Whether or not this reconstruction will have an effect on Morro da Providência remains to be seen. 72. JR, Women Are Heroes: A Global Project by JR. Text by Marco Berrebi (New York: Abrams, 2012), pp. 144–221. See also http://www.jr-art.net/projects/ women-are-heroes-brazil. The author regrets that it was not possible to obtain permission for the reproduction of JR’s photography in this book on conditions acceptable to the publisher. For the background of JR’s project in Rio de Janeiro, see Neate and Platt, Culture , pp. 193–7. 73 . Raffi Khatchadourian, ‘Onward and Upward with the Arts: In the Picture – An Artist’s Global Experiment to Help People be Seen’, The New Yorker, 28 November 2011, p. 56. Thanks to Mark Mattern for directing my attention to this article. 74 . Perlman, Favela , p. 191. 75 . Neate and Platt, Culture , p. 146; Arias, Drugs and Democracy , p. 32. 76 . Perlman, Favela , p. 7 (first emphasis in original; second emphasis mine). Perlman, Favela , p. 318, notes that the ‘meaning of “gente” is fluid’. Caldeira explains that ‘gente’ refers to the residents’ humanity while ‘a gente’ is Notes 221

used as a stand-in for ‘nós’ (we) including ‘the person who is speaking’. See Caldeira, City of Walls , p. 389 note 20. 77 . See Donna M. Goldstein, Laughter Out of Place: Race, Class, Violence, and Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2003), pp. 174–225. 78 . Favela Rising: A Musica é uma Arma , directed by Jeff Zimbalist and Matt Mochary (2005). Blair’s Dancing with the Devil also focuses on male individ- uals (see above). For an exception, see Complexo: Universo Paralelo (Complexo: Parallel Universe ), directed by Mário Patrocínio (2011). See also Ricardo Martins Pereira, Complexo: Universo Paralelo – a História de Mário e Pedro Patrocínio (Lisbon: Editorial Presença, 2011). 79 . JR, Women Are Heroes , pp. 110, 130, 134, 126, respectively. 80 . JR, Women Are Heroes, p. 23. This excitement is similar to attitudes to touristic images explored below. 81 . Mark Reinhardt, Holly Edwards, and Erina Duganne (eds), Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/The University of Chicago Press, 2007). 82 . Frank Möller, ‘Associates in Crime and Guilt’, in A. Grønstad and H. Gustafsson (eds), Ethics and Images of Pain (New York: Routledge, 2012), p. 25. 83 . Khatchadourian, ‘Onward and Upward’, p. 58. 84 . Ibid. 85 . Adalton Pereira, as quoted in Tom Phillips, ‘Number One with A Bullet’, The Observer, 27 July 2008, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2008/jul/27/ worldcinema?INTCMP=SRCH (accessed 16 October 2012). 86 . Video, embedded in Tom Phillips, ‘City of guns’, The Guardian , 15 February 2008, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/ world/2008/feb/15/brazil. internationalcrime?INTCMP=SRCH (accessed 7 October 2012). 87 . Freire-Medeiros, Touring Poverty , p. 128. 88 . Khatchadourian, ‘Onward and Upward’, pp. 56–8. 89 . See Perlman, Favela , pp. 316–39. My own impression based on participatory observation in Rio de Janeiro is that residents of the Zona Sul have developed numerous ways with which to ignore residents of popular communities entirely, even if they are physically located just in front of them. 90 . Caldeira, City of Walls , p. 74. 91 . http://jr-art.net (accessed 3 June 2011). 92 . Reportedly, 82 per cent of Brazil’s recycling is done by catadores . See Marilia Brocchetto and Azadeh Ansari, ‘Landfill’s Closure Changing Lives in Rio’, CNN.com , 5 June 2012, at http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/05/world/americas-brazil-landfill-closure/index.html (accessed 8 October 2012). 93 . Leonel Kaz and Nigge Loddi (eds), Vik (Rio de Janeiro: Aprazível Edições, 2009), p. 26. The author regrets that it was not possible to obtain permission for the reproduction of Vik Muniz’s work in this book on conditions acceptable to the publisher. 94 . Lixo Extraordinário ( Waste Land ), directed by Lucy Walker, co-directed by João Jardim and Karen Harley (2010). 95 . Paul Moakley reports that one portrait was sold for more than $64,000. See Paul Moaley, ‘Portraits with Purpose: Vik Muniz in Waste Land’, Time Light 222 Notes

Box , 22 March 2011, at http://lightbox.time.com/2011/03/22/portraits-with- purpose-vik-muniz-in-waste-land/#1 (accessed 11 October 2012). 96 . Peter Bradshaw, ‘Waste Land – Review’, The Guardian , 24 February 2011, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/feb/24/waste-land-review (accessed 28 July 2011). 97 . My first encounter with Muniz’s work was at the occasion of the exhibition ViK , 21 September – 31 December 2011, Museu Coleção Berardo, Lisbon. The entrance was free, and the exhibition was a stunning success . 98 . Carol Kino, ‘Where Art Meets Trash and Transforms Life’, The New York Times, 21 October 2010, at http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/24/arts/ design/24Muniz.html (accessed 21 October 2011). Kino also writes that Muniz seems to be interested in transforming ‘people’s lives’. 99 . Ibid. 100 . Mary Fitzgerald, ‘Women are Heroes by JR and Marc Berrebi – Review’, The Observer , 22 April 2012, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2012/ apr/22/women-are-heroes-jr-photography-review (accessed 23 April 2012). 101 . Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire , p. 177. 102 . Ibid., p. 20. Most basically, the archive refers to ‘supposedly enduring materials (i.e., texts, documents, buildings, bones)’ and the repertoire refers to ‘embodied practice/knowledge (i.e., spoken language, dance, sports, ritual)’ (p. 19). 103 . That is why The Mexican Suitcase is so important, showing that photography cannot be adequately understood by looking solely at the published photographs. Rather, photography is a process, a sequence, and often a performance. Cynthia Young (ed.), The Mexican Suitcase: The Rediscovered Spanish Civil War Negatives of Capa, Chim, and Taro (New York/Göttingen: International Center of Photography/Steidl, 2010). 104 . The participatory element seems to be more developed in Muniz’s work than in Pieter Hugo’s equally stunning and equally important, yet more traditional (used value-neutrally), portrait photography of garbage pickers in Agbogbloshie, Ghana. See Hugo, Permanent Error (Munich, London, New York: Prestel, 2011). 105 . The art auction in London where one of the portraits is sold for £28,000 and the exhibition of Pictures of Garbage in Rio de Janeiro’s Museo de Arte Moderna belong to the most embarrassing moments in Walker’s film. It is here that Bradshaw’s critique almost sounds convincing. 106 . Kaz and Loddi, Vik , p. 26. Pictures of Garbage is only a part of the book (and the exhibition). Thus, the focus on Vik is, to some extent, justified. 107 . JR, Women Are Heroes , p. 145. 108 . Jorge Amado, The War of the Saints, trans. G. Rabassa (New York: Dial Press, 2005), p. 37. 109 . See Phillips, ‘Rio de Janeiro police’, and Brocchetto and Ansari, ‘Landfill’s closure’.

6 On Combatants and (Other) Victims

1 . Walter Benjamin, ‘The Author as Producer’, in M.W. Jennings, B. Doherty, and T.Y. Levin (eds), Walter Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Age of Its Notes 223

Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media (Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), p. 87. 2 . Frank Möller, ‘Photographic Interventions in Post-9/11 Security Policy’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 38, No. 2, June 2007, p. 192. 3 . I gratefully acknowledge generous grants for research abroad from the Finnish Center of Excellence in Political Thought and Conceptual Change, Research team Politics and the Arts, in 2010 and 2011. My focus on (the memory of) the combatants is not meant to indicate that there are no other people equally worthy of remembering. It is not meant to indicate that the subject positions the combatants carried with them can be reduced to that of a victim, either. The photography in this chapter is mine, except where noted. 4 . Jim Crace, Being Dead (London: Penguin, 2000), p. 192. 5 . David Campbell, ‘Cultural Governance and Pictorial Resistance: Reflections on the Imaging of War’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 29, Special Issue, December 2003, p. 57. 6 . David Simpson, 9/11: The Culture of Commemoration (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2006), p. 31. 7 . Ibid., p. 47. 8 . Ekkehard Krippendorff, Die Kunst, nicht regiert zu werden. Ethische Politik von Sokrates bis Mozart (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1999), pp. 223–4. 9 . Roland Bleiker, Aesthetics and World Politics (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 98. 10 . David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 210. 11 . Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003), pp. 85–6. 12 . Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory. Edited, Translated, and with an Introduction by Lewis A. Coser (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 38. 13 . Eviatar Zerubavel, Time Maps: Collective Memory and the Social Shape of the Past (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2003), p. 13. 14 . Harald Welzer, Das kommunikative Gedächtnis. Eine Theorie der Erinnerung (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2002), p. 192. 15 . Zerubavel, Time Maps , p. 13 (first quotation) and p. 40 (other quotations). 16 . Jenny Edkins, Trauma and the Memory of Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 73. 17 . Ibid., pp. 74–5. 18 . For a meticulous chronology of the wars, see Aniceto Afonso and Carlos de Matos Gomes, Os Anos da Guerra Colonial – 1961.1975 (Lisbon and Matosinhos: QuidNovi, 2010). For a rather sympathetic analysis of the Portuguese strategy, based on Portuguese sources, see John P. Cann, Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War 1961–1974 (Sulihull: Helion, 2012). 19 . Altino Magalhães, Monumento aos Combatentes do Ultramar ( 1961–1974) (Lisbon: Estúdios Europress, 2007), p. 17. 20 . Cann, Counterinsurgency , pp. 22–31, 60–5 (for the quotation, see p. 62). 21 . Ibid., p. 28. 22 . Ibid., p. 71. 224 Notes

23 . Patrick Chabal, ‘Lusophone Africa in Historical and Comparative Perspective’, in Patrick Chabal with David Birmingham, Joshua Forrest, Malyn Newitt, Gerhard Seibert, and Elisa Silva Andrade, A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 14–15. Ill-advised promotion plans ‘enabl[ing] non-professional (conscripted) officers to enter the ranks of the professional officers by attending the Military Academy for just over a year’ instead of the four-year course for professional officers let, in September 1973, to the foundation of the Movimento das Forças Armadas, which would play a crucial role in the coup d’état and the following revolution in April 1974. See Hugo Gil Ferreira and Michael W. Marshall, Portugal’s Revolution: Ten Years On (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 29. 24 . Cann, Counterinsurgency , p. 46. 25 . http://www.un.org/en/decolonization/declaration.shtml. 26 . Gil Ferreira and Marshall, Portugal’s Revolution , p. 9. 27 . Chabal, ‘Lusophone Africa’, p. 4. 28 . Amilcar Cabral, Revolution in Guinea: An African People’s Struggle (London: Stage 1, 1969), p. 110. 29 . Cann, Counterinsurgency , p. 45. 30 . Fernando Pessoa, The Book of Disquietude by Bernardo Soares, Assistant Bookkeeper in the City of Lisbon, trans. R. Zenith (Manchester: Carcanet, 1991), p. 292. 31 . This logic is sadly familiar to students of politics, of course. For a trenchant criticism, see Ekkehard Krippendorff, Staat und Krieg. Die historische Logik politischer Unvernunft (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1985). In the context of German colonial policies, Krippendorff calls into question the sense of erecting an empire, the mere sustenance of which subsequently consumes all resources (p. 24). 32 . Cann, Counterinsurgency , p. 47. 33 . For example, insurgency was basically seen as communist, that is, Soviet- inspired conspiracy, not as expression of a genuine desire for independence. The communist threat may have been exaggerated, but it was not entirely unfounded. Ibid., pp. 54–5. 34 . The Atlantic expansion was a ‘logical continuation’ of the slave trade, which ‘started in the eastern Mediterranean in the twelfth century and then moved westwards’. See Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (Orlando: Academic Press, 1974), pp. 43–4. 35 . Cann, Counterinsurgency , p. 100 (figures refer only to the army and have to be augmented by self-defence and other paramilitary forces). Recruitment in Africa and in metropolitan Portugal was based on the same laws requiring ‘all able-bodied men (efectivos ) between the age of twenty and forty-five to serve two years’ and, from 1968, four years, ‘two of which had to be served in Africa’ (ibid.). For the tradition of recruiting African troops and the development during the colonial wars, see pp. 105–14. 36 . Ibid., p. 114. 37 . Ibid., p. 43. 38 . Ibid., p. 115. Notes 225

39 . Sociedade Histórica da Independência de Portugal, Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, Associação dos Deficientes das Forças Armadas, Associação de Comandos, Associação dos Especialistas da Força Aérea Portuguesa, Associação dos Combatentes do Ultramar, and Associação da Força Aérea Portuguesa. 40 . Magalhães, Monumento , p. 22. 41 . For the historical context, see Francisco Bethencourt and Diogo Ramada Curto (eds), Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 42 . Novo troço ciclável em construção (Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, Porto de Lisboa, edp). 43 . For example, ‘Piratas: Os Ladrões do Mar – Pirates: The Thieves of the Sea’, 7 November 2008 – 17 November 2009. 44 . Zerubavel, Time Maps , pp. 37–54. 45 . Interview with lieutenant general Joaquim Chito Rodrigues, president of the Direcção Central of the Liga dos Combatentes, Headquarters Liga dos Combatentes, Lisbon, 1 July 2010. 46 . According to Simpson, 9/11 , p. 2, the Vietnam War ‘proved too divisive and unresolved to allow for ready representation’. The same can be said of the Portuguese colonial wars. Negotiations, initiated by the Associação de Comandos, concerning the construction of a Monumento aos mortos da Guerra do Ultramar de 1961/75 started only in February 1985; see Magalhães, Monumento , p. 19. Note the planned dedication ‘aos mortos’ rather than ‘aos combatentes’ which is in accordance with the French tradition of monuments aux morts. See Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 78. 47 . When invited to join the honorary commission (Comissão de Honra) established by the Comissão Executiva do Monumento aos Combatentes do Ultramar, the president of the republic declined, arguing that such participation would, tacitly, give the public image of political agreement with the wars. See Magalhães, Monumento , p. 24. 48 . Edkins, Trauma , p. 79. 49 . Simpson, 9/11 , p. 41. 50 . Simpson, 9/11 , p. 76; Edkins, Trauma , p. 75. 51 . António Lobo Antunes, Knowledge of Hell, trans. C.E. Landers (Champaign, London, and Dublin: Dalkey Archive Press, 2008), p. 205. 52 . For an exception, see the Monument gegen Faschismus, Krieg und Gewalt – für Frieden und Menschenrechte in Hamburg-Harburg (Germany) by Jochen Gerz and Esther Shalev-Gerz. This monument was designed to disappear in the ground after the transfer of the responsibility to remember, from the monument to the visitors, who, by adding their names to the monument, acknowledged such responsibility. See James E. Young, At Memory’s Edge: After-Images of the Holocaust in Contemporary Art and Architecture (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000). 53 . Simpson, 9/11 , p. 70. 54 . Magalhães, Monumento , pp. 63–4. Earlier plans to compile the names of the dead in a Livro de Honra (Book of Honor) permanently to be exhibited in the Museu do Combatente could not be realized. 55 . Simpson, 9/11 , p. 76. 56 . Ibid., p. 107. 226 Notes

57 . At the end of the war, in Guinea, Mozambique, and Angola, the Portuguese armed forces (approximately 93,000 troops) were augmented with approximately 95,000 African troops facing approximately 22,000 guerrillas. See Chabal, ‘Lusophone Africa’, p. 14 note 38. 58 . Lieutenant general Joaquim Chito Rodrigues, interview, 1 July 2010. 59 . See Winter, Sites of Memory , p. 94. 60 . José Luís Porfírio, ‘Manuel Botelho – Aerogramas para 2010’, in Isabel Carlos (concepção), Professores, trans. J. Elliott (Lisbon: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2010), p. 72. This seems to be changing, given the number of recent publications on the wars, including memoirs and collections of photographs. 61 . Jacques Rancière, The Emancipated Spectator (London and New York: Verso, 2009), p. 103. 62 . Jenny Edkins, ‘Exposed Singularity’, Journal for Cultural Research, Vol. 9, No. 4, October 2005, p. 372. 63 . Philip Graham writes beautifully about this Lisbon trademark in The Moon, Come to Earth: Dispatches from Lisbon (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2009), pp. 34–8. 64 . Shake Hands with the Devil: The Journey of Roméo Dallaire , directed by Peter Raymont (2004), 1:10:14–1:10:20. 65 . Quoted in Porfírio, pp. 73–4. 66 . Ibid., p. 74. 67 . Professores , 14 October 2010–2 January 2011, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon. See also http://www.manuelbotelho.com. 68 . Porfírio, ‘Manuel Botelho’, p. 73. 69 . Antunes, Knowledge of Hell , p. 241. 70 . Fred Ritchin, In Our Own Image (New York: Aperture, 1999), p. 101. 71 . Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, Gabinete dos Vereadores de PCP, Proposta no 222/2010, ‘Memorial de Homenagem às Vítimas das Guerras Coloniais’, 28 April 2010. 72 . Lieutenant general Joaquim Chito Rodrigues, interview, 1 July 2010; Ruben de Carvalho, Member of both the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Portugal and the Lisbon City Council, author of the proposal, interview, Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, 6 December 2010. 73 . António Barreto: Fotografias, 1967/2010, 12 November–30 December 2010, Galeria Corrente d’Arte, Lisbon. These photographs are excluded from a recent collection of photographs of the city-river-interface from the Municipal Archive. See José Sarmento de Matos (organization and coordination), Lisboa à beira Tejo (Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, Arquivo Municipal de Lisboa, Padrão dos Descobrimentos and EGEAC, 2010). Instead, a Garcia Nunes photograph of the embarkation of the Head of State, Américo Tómas, to Mozambique in 1966 is included in this collection (p. 172, plate 136).

7 WHY – ARE – WE – SO – INVOLVED?

1 . Roland Bleiker, Aesthetics and World Politics (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 1. Notes 227

2 . International Studies Association, 49th Convention, San Francisco, 26–29 March 2008, Innovative Panel Frivolous Entertainment or Potent Tool of Communication? The Role of Cartoons and Graphic Novels in a Global Age. I was invited to this panel to present a paper titled ‘Comix Narratives of Peace, War, and Terrorism’. 3 . Joe Sacco and Art Spiegelman, ‘Only Pictures?’ The Nation, issue of 6 March 2006, at http://www.thenation.com/doc/20063006/interview (accessed 17 February 2006). 4 . ‘Laws and policies are not legitimate unless they have been adopted through a democratic process, and a process is not democratic if government has prevented anyone from expressing his convictions about what those laws and policies should be’. Ronald Dworkin, ‘The Right to Ridicule’, The New York Review of Books , Vol. LIII, No. 5, 23 March 2006, p. 44. 5 . Jytte Klausen, The Cartoons That Shook the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010); Lene Hansen, ‘The Politics of Securitization and the Muhammad Cartoon Crisis: A Post-Structuralist Perspective’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 42, No. 4–5, August–October 2011, pp. 357–69. 6 . I presented earlier versions of this chapter at the ECPR General Conference, Pisa, 6–8 September 2007; at the 2nd conference of the Nordic Network for Visual Social Science, Stockholm, 24–26 October 2007; at the International Studies Association’s 49th Annual Convention, San Francisco, 26–29 March 2008; and at the International Political Science Association’s 21st World Congress of Political Science, Santiago de Chile, 12–16 July 2009. Many people have commented on earlier versions of this chapter. I am grateful to all of them but especially to Maureen Whitebrook, Lisbet Holtedahl, Alina Curticapean, and Keith Knight. A very different version of this chapter titled ‘The Humble Doodle: Graphic Novels and the Question of Urgency’ can be found in Dana Arieli-Horowitz and Dafna Sering (eds), Scared to Death: Terror and Its Manifestations in the Spheres of Art and Popular Culture (Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2010), pp. 129–49 (translated into Hebrew). 7 . Henry Jenkins, ‘Captain America Sheds His Mighty Tears: Comics and September 11’, in D.J. Sherman and T. Nardin (eds), Terror, Culture, Politics: Rethinking 9/11 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2006), p. 95. 8 . For historical war comics, see David Kendall (ed.), The Mammoth Book of War Comics (New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2007). 9 . Joe Sacco, Journalism (London: Jonathan Cape, 2012), p. xi. Sacco also discusses what he calls ‘trap[s] in American journalism schools’, namely, emphasizing ‘objectivity’ and ‘balance’. 10 . Alina Curticapean, Liminality Matters: Balkanism and Its Edges in Bulgarian Political Cartoons 2004–2009 (Tampere: Tampere University Press, 2011), p. 45. Counter-cultural potential can also be found in citizen photography deviating from the myth of objectivity and balance prevalent in professional photojournalism. See Fred Ritchin, ‘Between a Rock and a Soft Place’, Aperture , No. 209 (Winter 2012), p. 65. 11 . Dworkin, ‘The Right to Ridicule’. 12 . Scott McCloud, Reinventing Comics: How Imagination and Technology Are Revolutionizing an Art Form (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), p. 19 (except 228 Notes

as noted, capitalizations, italicizations, and emphases are omitted from all references to McCloud’s work in this chapter; this is not a comic). 13 . Sam Leith, ‘When it comes to comics, you just can’t beat a drunken, violent aardvark’, The Guardian , 18 July 2010, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/ books/2010/jul/18/comics-grow-up-graphic-novels-harvey-pekar (accessed 18 July 2010). 14 . The title of this chapter is from Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (New York: Harper Perennial, 1994), p. 30. 15 . Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences , trans. A.M.S. Smith (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), p. ix. 16 . Charles M. Schulz, Security Is a Thumb and a Blanket (Kennebunkport: Cider Mill Press, 1963). 17 . Jenkins, ‘Captain America’, p. 72. Owing to lack of space, I have to ignore the rich comics tradition in France and Japan. 18 . Ibid. 19 . Bradford W. Wright, Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p. 176. 20 . I am not interested in one-panel cartoons here. 21 . For example, Safe Area Goražde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 1992–1995. Foreword by Christopher Hitchens (Seattle: Fantagraphics Books, 2000); Palestine (London: Jonathan Cape, 2003); War’s End: Profiles from Bosnia 1995–1996 (Montreal: drawn + quarterly, 2005); Footnotes in Gaza (London: Jonathan Cape, 2009); Journalism . 22 . Ari Folman and David Polonsky, Waltz with Bashir: A Lebanon War Story (London: Atlantic Books, 2009); Harvey Pekar, Heather Roberson, and Ed Piskor, Macedonia: What Does It Take to Stop a War? (New York: Villard Books, 2007); Emmanuel Guibert, Didier Lefèvre, and Frédéric Lemercier, The Photographer: Into War-Torn Afghanistan with Doctors without Borders, trans. A. Siegel (New York and London: First Second, 2009); Marjane Satrapi, The Complete Persepolis (New York: Pantheon, 2007); Rutu Modan, Exit Wounds (Montreal: drawn + quarterly, 2007). 23 . The Complete Maus: A Survivor’s Tale (London: Penguin, 2003). The academic literature on Maus is considerable. See, for example, Michael Rothberg, ‘“We Are Talking Jewish”: Art Spiegelman’s Maus as “Holocaust” Production’, Contemporary Literature, Vol. XXXV, No. 4, 1994, pp. 661–87; Michael E. Staub, ‘The Shoah Goes On and On: Remembrance and Representation in Art Spiegelman’s Maus’, MELUS , Vol. 20, No. 3, Fall 1995, pp. 33–46; Marianne Hirsch, Family Frames: Photography, Narrative and Postmemory (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 17–40; Dominick LaCapra, History and Memory after Auschwitz (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998), pp. 139–79; Ole Frahm, Genealogie des Holocaust. Art Spiegelmans MAUS – A Survivor’s Tale (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 2006). See also Art Spiegelman, Conversations. Edited by Joseph Witek (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007). Spiegelman has engaged with three questions permanently asked in connection with Maus : Why the Holocaust? Why comics? Why mice? – in Metamaus (London: Viking, 2011). 24 . David Elliott, ‘Guerrillas and Partisans: Art, Power and Freedom in Europe and Beyond 1940–2012’, Framework , No. 10, July 2009, p. 25. Notes 229

25 . Jenkins, ‘Captain America’, p. 73. He continues by arguing that ‘because [comics] are a feeder system for the rest of the entertainment world, those experiments are closely monitored and may have enormous influence’. 26 . Robert Adams, Why People Photograph: Selected Essays and Reviews (New York: Aperture, 1994), p. 23. 27 . Frederic J. Schwartz, ‘The Eye of the Expert: Walter Benjamin and the Avant Garde’, Art History, Vol. 24, No. 3 (June 2001), p. 421. According to Schwartz (p. 423), ‘Benjamin makes the involuntary attention that is the assumed state of the consumer ... decisive as a model for voluntary action, thinking revolution on the model of leisure activity’. 28 . Walter Benjamin, ‘Theory of Distraction’, trans. H. Eiland, in M.W. Jennings, B. Doherty, and T.Y. Levin (eds), Walter Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media (Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), p. 57. The relationship between reproducibility, distraction, and politicization remains unclear. I prefer to think about it in terms suggested by the use of hyphens (in German: ‘Gedankenstriche’): dashes of thought (that make you think). 29 . Schwartz, ‘The Eye of the Expert’, p. 401. 30 . Ibid., p. 420. 31 . David Simpson, 9/11: The Culture of Commemoration (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2006), p. 69. 32 . Walter Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility. Second Version’, trans. E. Jephcott and H. Zohn, in Walter Benjamin , p. 36. 33 . ‘Im Kino fallen kritische und genießende Haltung des Publikums zusammen’. Walter Benjamin, ‘Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit’, in W. Benjamin, Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit. Drei Studien zur Kunstsoziologie (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1963), p. 33 (my translation). This sentence appears neither in the original version of Benjamin’s piece, published in French in ‘L’œuvre d’art à l’époque de sa reproduction mécanisée’, Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung , Vol. 5, 1936, p. 58 nor in the English translation used in this chapter. 34 . Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art’, p. 36. 35 . Schwartz, ‘The Eye of the Expert’, p. 420. He continues by saying that ‘If the externality of distraction and leisure serves a critical and compensatory function in Kracauer’s analysis ..., then for Benjamin the relation between production and leisure has taken a dialectical swing that makes them comple- mentary in a different, and now affirmative, way’. 36 . Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art’, pp. 39, 53–4, note 32. 37 . Ibid., p. 40. 38 . Peter Gilgen, ‘History after Film’, in H.U. Gumbrecht and M. Marrinan (eds), Mapping Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Digital Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), p. 55. 39 . Gilgen, ‘History after Film’, p. 56. 40 . Simpson, 9/11 , p. 69. 41 . Spiegelman, Metamaus , p. 166. ‘But theater, like cinema, straps the audience to a chair and hurtles you through time’. Ibid. 42 . Gary Panter, as quoted in Todd Hignite, In the Studio: Visits with Contemporary Cartoonists (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006), p. 100. 230 Notes

43 . Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art’, p. 54, note 32. 44 . Ibid., p. 33. 45 . Will Eisner, Comics and Sequential Art: Principles & Practice of the World’s Most Popular Art Form, expanded to include print & digital (Paramus: Poorhouse Press, 2006). 46 . McCloud, Understanding Comics , p. 9. 47 . Frank Möller, ‘Imaging and Remembering Peace and War’, Peace Review, Vol. 20, No. 1, January–March 2008, pp. 100–6. 48 . McCloud, Understanding Comics , p. 63. 49 . Ibid., p. 68. 50 . Gary Groth, Kim Thompson, and Joey Cavalieri, ‘Slaughter on Greene Street: Art Spiegelman and Françoise Mouly Talk about RAW,’ in Spiegelman, Conversations , pp. 48–9 (originally published in 1982). 51 . McCloud, Understanding Comics , p. 72 (emphasis in original). Other panel- to-panel transitions are moment-to-moment, action-to-action, subject-to- subject, scene-to-scene, and aspect-to-aspect. David Carrier criticizes the category of non-sequitur as ‘[n]arrowly correct’ but ‘misleading as a general characterization of this synthesis’. See The Aesthetics of Comics (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), p. 51. However, in McCloud’s typology, non-sequitur is not meant as a general characterization but as one of six possible panel-to-panel transitions in comics and certainly not the most frequent one. 52 . Ben O’Loughlin, ‘Images as Weapons of War: Representation, Mediation and Interpretation’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1, January 2011, p. 86. 53 . Ivan Brunetti (ed.), An Anthology of Graphic Fiction, Cartoons, & True Stories (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006), p. 7. 54 . See W.J.T. Mitchell, Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 5. 55 . Spiegelman, Metamaus , p. 168; See The Complete Maus , p. 77, for this particular panel. 56 . Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2003), p. 274. 57 . Scott McCloud, Making Comics: Storytelling Secrets of Comics, Manga and Graphic Novels (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), pp. 45–6. 58 . For an exception, see panel 9 on page 36 in Understanding Comics. Importantly, McCloud sees the realistic depiction of himself in this panel as the condition for the impossibility of readers’ attention to what he has to say. On p. 28, panel 5, he even depicts himself without glasses but also without eyes! 59 . Rachel Cooke, ‘Eyeless in Gaza’, The Observer , 22 November, 2009, at http:// www.guardian.co.uk/books/2009/nov/22/joe-sacco-interview-rachel-cooke (accessed 24 November 2009). 60 . Nicholas Mirzoeff, The Right to Look: A Counterhistory of Visuality (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2011), p. 1. 61 . Spiegelman, Metamaus , p. 132. 62 . McCloud, Making Comics , p. 100 (all quotations). 63 . McCloud, Understanding Comics , p. 36. 64 . ‘History after Film’, p. 56. As shown in Chapter 1, Gilgen develops the stereoscopic effect in engagement with Benjamin. Notes 231

65 . Sacco, Journalism , pp. ix–x. Note that Sacco does not say that photographs do, in fact, capture a real moment literally; he only says that they are perceived as capturing a real moment literally. That is the myth of photojournalism, of course. This myth has resulted in very powerful reading habits. 66 . Spiegelman, The Complete Maus , pp. 102, 165, 294. 67 . The following page references in the text are to Spiegelman, Metamaus . 68 . Susan Jacobowitz, ‘“Words and Pictures Together”: An Interview with Art Spiegelman’, in Conversations , pp. 159–60 (this interview appeared originally in Writing on the Edge , University of California, Fall 1994). 69 . Ibid., p. 159. 70 . Of course, these photographs serve many other functions as well. Marianne Hirsch, for example, discusses them in terms of ‘postmemory’ in Chapter 1 of Family Frames , pp. 17–40. 71 . Folman and Polonsky, Waltz with Bashir , pp. 116–7. 72 . Gilgen, ‘History after Film’, p. 56. 73 . Guibert, Lefèvre, and Lemercier, The Photographer (the following page references are to this book). 74 . In addition, photographs of Lefèvre are reproduced on pp. 4, 9, 158, 201, 235, 255. 75 . Sacco, Journalism , p. xi.

Unfinished Business

1 . Ajay Heble, Landing on the Wrong Note: Jazz, Dissonance and Critical Practice (New York and London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 78, 170. 2 . Entry ‘Dissonant’, The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principals , Vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p. 579. 3 . Michael J. Shapiro, The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography and Policy Analysis (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 126. 4 . Jae Emerling, Photography: History and Theory (London and New York: Routledge, 2012), p. 140. 5 . Ibid., p. 165. 6 . Jacques Rancière, The Emancipated Spectator, trans. G. Elliott (London and New York: Verso, 2009), p. 27. 7 . David MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema. Edited and with an introduction by Lucien Taylor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 68. 8 . Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography, trans. R. Howard (London: Vintage Books, 2000), pp. 27–8. 9 . Ibid., p. 27. 10 . Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003), p. 103. 11 . Frank Möller, ‘Associates in Crime and Guilt’, in A. Grønstad and H. Gustafsson (eds), Ethics and Images of Pain (New York: Routledge, 2012), p. 27. 12 . See, for example, Blocker’s discussion of the attempts of the then US Secretary of State, Colin Powell, in a statement before the UN Security Council on 5 February 2003, to justify the immanent war against Iraq with reference to 232 Notes

evidence allegedly provided by satellite images in Seeing Witness: Visuality and the Ethics of Testimony (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), pp. xiii–xxiii. 13 . Nicholas Mirzoeff, The Right to Look: A Counterhistory of Visuality (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2011). 14 . Roland Barthes, ‘Rhetoric of the Image’, in R. Barthes, Image Music Text. Essays selected and translated by Stephen Heath (London: Fontana Press, 1977), p. 40. 15 . See also, for example, Steve Mumford’s watercolours and drawings of life in Iraq, Baghdad Journal: An Artist in Occupied Iraq (Montreal: Drawn and Quarterly, 2005). 16 . Art Spiegelman, Metamaus (London: Viking, 2011); Jonathan Torgovnik, Intended Consequences: Rwandan Children Born of Rape (New York: Aperture, 2009). 17 . Alejandro Zambra, Ways of Going Home , trans. M. McDowell (London: Granta Books, 2013), p. 125. 18 . 48 , directed by Susana de Sousa Dias (2009). Antonio Lobo Antunes’s novels can be read with the same intention. 19 . 48 , 0:52–1:10. 20 . Policia Internacional de Defesa do Estado (International Police for the Defense of the State), renamed Direcção Geral de Segurança (General Security Directorate) in 1969. 21 . Mieke Bal emphasizes ‘slow looking’ in her work on representations of people in pain in ‘The Pain of Images’, in M. Reinhardt, H. Edwards, and E. Duganne (eds), Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/ Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/The University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 113–5. 22 . In The Abu Ghraib Effect (London: Reaktion Books, 2007), p. 99, Stephen F. Eisenman writes that normally ‘the one who watches is stronger than the one who is watched’. 23 . Jenny Edkins, ‘Exposed Singularity’, Journal for Cultural Research, Vol. 9, No. 4, October 2005, p. 374. 24 . Emília Tavares, ‘The Imprisoned Images’, Seismopolite: Journal of Art and Politics , 30 September 2012, at http://www.seismopolite.com/the-imprisoned- images (accessed 23 March 2013). 25 . See Frank Möller, ‘Shades of White: An Essay on a Political Iconography of the North’, in F. Möller and S. Pehkonen (eds), Encountering the North: Cultural Geography, International Relations and Northern Landscapes (Aldershot and Burlington: Ashgate, 2003), p. 63. 26 . After the 1974 revolution, the archives of PIDE-DGS archives disappeared including photographic records of African political prisoners. See 48 , 1:43– 2:06. The archive from which the photographs reproduced in the film were taken is not freely accessible to the public. See Tavares, ‘The Imprisoned Images’. 27 . Ibid. 28 . On the difference between portraits and mug-shots, see Edkins, ‘Exposed Singularity’, pp. 364–75. 29 . For example, blackness prevails from 31:08–31:54 and from 50:40–51:27. Notes 233

30 . James Elkins, What Photography Is (London and New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 173. 31 . 48 , 1:29:43–1:29:51, followed by almost inaudible sobbing (until 1:30:12). 32 . Will Michels, for example, notes that the curators of the project WAR/ PHOTOGRAPHY: Images of Armed Conflict and Its Aftermath at Houston’s Museum of Fine Arts felt that ‘it was most important to make sure that every picture we included was a great picture’. See ‘This Thing Called War and These People Called Photographers: Simon Norfolk in Conversation with Anne Wilkes Tucker, Will Michels, and Natalie Zelt’, Aperture , No. 208, Fall 2012, p. 21. 33 . See Frank Möller, ‘Photography after Empire: Citizen-photographers or Snappers on Autopilot’, New Political Science, Vol. 32, No. 4, December 2010, pp. 509–12. 34 . Fred Ritchin, ‘Between a Rock and a Soft Place’, Aperture , No. 209, Winter 2012, p. 65. 35 . Debbie Lisle, ‘The Surprising Detritus of Leisure: Encountering the Late Photography of War’, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space , Vol. 29, 2011, pp. 875–6. 36 . Ernst Van Alphen, Art in Mind: How Contemporary Images Shape Thought (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2005). 37 . Innocent Rwililiza, as quoted in Jean Hatzfeld, The Strategy of Antelopes: Living in Rwanda After the Genocide (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2009), p. 100. 38 . Antonio Olmos, ‘Shooting from the Hipstamatic: How I Wised Up to My Smartphone’s Potential’, The Guardian , 1 March 2013, at http://www. guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/photography-blog/2013/mar/01/hipstamatic- smartphone-photo-antonio-olmos (accessed 6 March 2013). 39 . Through the Eyes of Children: The Rwanda Project , at http://www.rwandaproject. org. See also http://www.facebook.com/RwandaProject (both accessed 22 March 2013). 40 . As of 22 March 2013. 41 . The same can be said with regard to Torgovnik’s project Foundation Rwanda: Hope for Children, Healing for Mothers which aims to finance secondary educa- tion for the children of women raped during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. See http://www.foundationrwanda.org/photosmedia.aspx (accessed 29 March 2013). 42 . See, respectively, Fred Ritchin, In Our Own Image (New York: Aperture, 1999), p. 27, and After Photography (London: W.W. Norton, 2009), p. 127. 43 . Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2003), p. 276.

Portfolio 2: Manuel Botelho, Aerogramas para 2010

1 . See Figures 46–49 for translations from the Portuguese. Bibliography

Adams, Robert. Why People Photograph: Selected Essays and Reviews (New York: Aperture, 1994). Adhikari, Mohamed. ‘Hotel Rwanda – The Challenges of Historicising and Commercialising Genocide’, Development Dialogue, No. 50, December 2008, pp. 173–95. Afonso, Aniceto and Carlos de Matos Gomes. Os Anos da Guerra Colonial – 1961.1975 (Lisbon and Matosinhos: QuidNovi, 2010). Agualusa, José Eduardo. The Book of Chameleons , trans. D. Hahn (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008). Amado, Jorge. The War of the Saints, trans. G. Rabassa (New York: Dial Press, 2005). Andersen, Rune S. and Frank Möller. ‘Engaging the Limits of Visibility: Photography, Security and Surveillance’, Security Dialogue, Vol. 44, No. 3, June 2013, pp. 203–21 . Annan, Kofi. ‘Message to the Symposium on the Media and the Rwanda Genocide, Carleton University School of Journalism and Communication, Ottawa, 13 March 2004’, in A. Thompson (ed.), The Media and the Rwanda Genocide. With a Statement by Kofi Annan (New York: Pluto Press/Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2007), pp. ix–x. Antunes, António Lobo. Knowledge of Hell , trans. C.E. Landers (Champaign, London, and Dublin: Dalkey Archive Press, 2008). Apel, Dora. ‘Torture Culture: Lynching Photographs and the Images of Abu Ghraib’, Art Journal , Vol. 64, No. 2, 2005, pp. 89–100. Arbus, Diane. Diane Arbus (New York: Aperture, 1972). Arias, Enrique Desmond. Drugs and Democracy in Rio de Janeiro: Trafficking, Social Networks, and Public Security (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006). Bal, Mieke. ‘The Pain of Images’, in M. Reinhardt, H. Edwards, and E. Duganne (eds), Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/ Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/The University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 93–115. Barthes, Roland. ‘Rhetoric of the Image’, in R. Barthes, Image Music Text, Essays selected and translated by Stephen Heath (London: Fontana Press, 1977), pp. 32–51. Barthes, Roland. Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography, trans. R. Howard (London: Vintage Books, 2000). Batchen, Geoffrey. Burning with Desire: The Conception of Photography (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1999). Batchen, Geoffrey, Mick Gidley, Nancy K. Miller, and Jay Prosser (eds). Picturing Atrocity: Photography in Crisis (London: Reaktion Books, 2012). Benjamin, Walter. ‘L’œuvre d’art à l’époque de sa reproduction mécanisée’, Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung , Vol. 5, 1936, pp. 40–68.

234 Bibliography 235

Benjamin, Walter. Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit , in W. Benjamin, Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit. Drei Studien zur Kunstsoziologie (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1963), pp. 7–44. Benjamin, Walter. ‘Little History of Photography’, in M.W. Jennings, B. Doherty, and T.Y. Levin (eds), Walter Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media , trans. E. Jephcott and K. Shorter (Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 274–98. Benjamin, Walter. ‘The Author as Producer’, in M.W. Jennings, B. Doherty, and T.Y. Levin (eds), Walter Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media , trans. E. Jephcott (Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 79–95. Benjamin, Walter. ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility. Second Version’, in M.W. Jennings, B. Doherty, and T.Y. Levin (eds), Walter Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media, trans. E. Jephcott and H. Zohn (Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 19–55. Benjamin, Walter. ‘Theory of Distraction’, in M.W. Jennings, B. Doherty, and T.Y. Levin (eds), Walter Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility and Other Writings on Media , trans. H. Eiland (Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 56–7. Bennett, Dashiell. ‘Bored, Lonely Japanese Man Becomes a “War Tourist” in Syria’, The Atlantic Wire , 3 January 2013, at http://www.theatlanticwire.com /global/2013/01/bored-lonely-japanese-man-becomes-war-tourist-syria/60531 (accessed 16 January 2013). Bennett, Jill. Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005). Berger, John. ‘Photographs of Agony’, in L. Wells (ed.), The Photography Reader (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 288–90. Berger, Peter and Thomas Luckmann. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Penguin, 1967). Bethencourt, Francisco and Diogo Ramada Curto (eds). Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). Bleiker, Roland. Aesthetics and World Politics (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). Blessing, Jennifer and Nat Trotman. Haunted: Contemporary Photography | Video | Performance (New York: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2010). Blocker, Jane. Seeing Witness: Visuality and the Ethics of Testimony (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2009). Botero, Fernando. Botero Abu Ghraib (Munich: Prestel, 2006). Bradshaw, Peter. ‘Waste Land – Review’, The Guardian, 24 February 2011, at http:// www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/feb/24/waste-land-review (accessed 28 July 2011). Brecht, Bertold. Arbeitsjournal. Erster Band 1938 bis 1942 , ed. W. Hecht (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1974). Bredekamp, Horst. ‘Wir sind befremdete Komplizen’, Süddeutsche Zeitung , 28 May 2004, p. 17. 236 Bibliography

Brocchetto, Marilia and Azadeh Ansari. ‘Landfill’s Closure Changing Lives in Rio’, CNN.com , 5 June 2012, at http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/05/world/americas- brazil-landfill-closure/index.html (accessed 8 October 2012). Brounéus, Karen. ‘Truth-Telling as Talking Cure? Insecurity and Retraumatization in the Rwandan Gacaca Courts’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 39, No. 1, March 2008, pp. 55–76. Brunetti, Ivan (ed.). An Anthology of Graphic Fiction, Cartoons, & True Stories (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006). Butler, Judith. Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence (London and New York: Verso, 2004). Butler, Judith. Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? (London and New York: Verso, 2010). Cabral, Amilcar. Revolution in Guinea: An African People’s Struggle (London: Stage 1, 1969). Cadwalladr, Carole. ‘Don McCullin: “Photojournalism has had it. It’s all gone celebrity”’, The Observer , 22 December 2012, at http://www.guardian.co.uk /artanddesign/2012/dec/22/don-mccullin-photojournalism-celebrity-interview (accessed 23 December 2012). Caldeira, Teresa Pires do Rio. City of Walls: Crime, Segregation, and Citizenship in São Paulo (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2000). Campbell, David. ‘Cultural Governance and Pictorial Resistance: Reflections on the Imaging of War’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 29, Special Issue, December 2003, pp. 57–73. Campbell, David and Michael J. Shapiro (eds). Securitization, Militarization and Visual Culture in the Worlds of Post-9/11 . Security Dialogue , Vol. 38, No. 2, special issue, June 2007, pp. 131–288. Cann, John P. Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War 1961–1974 (Sulihull: Helion, 2012). Carrier, David. The Aesthetics of Comics (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000). Castro, Ruy. Rio de Janeiro: Carnival under Fire , trans. J. Gledson (New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2004). Cawthra, Benjamin. Blue Notes in Black and White: Photography and Jazz (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011). Chabal, Patrick. ‘Lusophone Africa in Historical and Comparative Perspective’, in P. Chabal with D. Birmingham, J. Forrest, M. Newitt, G. Seibert and E. Silva Andrade, A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 3–134. Chaon, Anne. ‘Who Failed in Rwanda, Journalists or the Media?’ In A. Thompson (ed.), The Media and the Rwanda Genocide. With a Statement by Kofi Annan (New York: Pluto Press/Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2007), pp. 160–6. Charbonneau, Bruno. France and the New Imperialism: Security Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa (Aldershot and Burlington: Ashgate, 2008). Chéroux, Clément. Diplopie. L’image photographique à l’ère des médias globalisés: essai sur le 11 septembre 2001 (Paris: Le Point du Jour, 2009). Cohen, Patricia. ‘Yale Press Bans Images of Muhammad in New York’, The New York Times , 12 August 2009, at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/13/books/13book. html? _r=0 (accessed 24 March 2013). Connerton, Paul. How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Bibliography 237

Cooke, Rachel. ‘Eyeless in Gaza’, The Observer , 22 November 2009, http://www. guardian.co.uk/books/2009/nov/22/joe-sacco-interview-rachel-cooke (accessed 24 November 2009). Cotton, Charlotte. The Photograph as Contemporary Art, New Edition (London: Thames and Hudson, 2009). Couldry, Nick. Inside Culture: Re-imagining the Method of Cultural Studies (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage, 2000). Courtemanche, Gil. A Sunday at the Pool in Kigali, trans. P. Claxton (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2004). Crace, Jim. Being Dead (London: Penguin, 2000). Curticapean, Alina. Liminality Matters: Balkanism and Its Edges in Bulgarian Political Cartoons 2004–2009 (Tampere: Tampere University Press, 2011). da Cunha, Euclides. Rebellion in the Backland (Os Sertões) , trans. S. Putnam (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1944). Dallaire, Roméo with Brad Beardsley, Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda (London: Arrow Books, 2004). Danchev, Alex. On Art and War and Terror (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009). Danchev, Alex and Debbie Lisle (eds). Art and War. Review of International Studies , special section, Vol. 35, No. 4, October 2009, pp. 775–886. Danner, Mark. Torture and Truth: America, Abu Ghraib, and the War on Terror (New York: New York Review Books, 2004). Danto, Arthur C. ‘The Body in Pain’, The Nation, issue of 27 November 2006, http: //www.thenation.com.doc/20061127/danto (accessed 13 November 2006). Dauphinée, Elizabeth. ‘The Politics of the Body in Pain: Reading the Ethics of Imagery’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 38, No. 2, June 2007, pp. 139–55. Dean, Carolyn J. The Fragility of Empathy after the Holocaust (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2004). Dell, Simon. ‘Mediation and Immediacy: The Press, the Popular Front in France, and the Spanish Civil War’, in C. Young (ed.), The Mexican Suitcase: The Rediscovered Spanish Civil War Negatives of Capa, Chim, and Taro. Volume 1: The History (New York: International Center of Photography/Göttingen: Steidl, 2010), pp. 37–49. Diniz, André. Picture A Favela. Photos: Maurício Hora, trans. J. Soutar (London: SelfMadeHero, 2012). Duley, Giles. ‘Giles Duley: “I lost three limbs in Afghanistan, but I had to go back …”’, The Observer , 10 February 2013, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/ artanddesign/2013/feb/10/giles-duley-photography-amputee-afghanistan (accessed 10 February 2013). Dworkin, Ronald. ‘The Right to Ridicule’, The New York Review of Books , Vol. LIII, No. 5, 23 March 2006, p. 44. Dyer, Geoff. But Beautiful: A Book about Jazz (London: Abacus, 1998). Dyer, Geoff. The Ongoing Moment (London: Abacus, 2007). Ebony, David. ‘Botero Abu Ghraib’, in Fernando Botero, Botero Abu Ghraib (Munich: Prestel, 2006), pp. 5–19. Edkins, Jenny. Trauma and the Politics of Memory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). Edkins, Jenny. ‘Exposed Singularity’, Journal for Cultural Research , Vol. 9, No. 4, October 2005, pp. 359–86. 238 Bibliography

Eisenman, Stephen F. The Abu Ghraib Effect (London: Reaktion Books, 2007). Eisner, Will. Comics and Sequential Art: Principles & Practice of the World’s Most Popular Art Form, expanded to include print & digital (Paramus: Poorhouse Press, 2006). Elderfield, John. Manet and the Execution of Maximilian (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2006). Elkins, James. What Photography Is (London and New York: Routledge, 2011). Elliott, David. ‘Guerrillas and Partisans: Art, Power and Freedom in Europe and Beyond 1940–2012’, Framework , No. 10, July 2009, pp. 22–5. Emerling, Jae. Photography: History and Theory (London and New York: Routledge, 2012). Enwezor, Okwui. Snap Judgments: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography (New York: International Center of Photography/Göttingen: Steidl, 2006). Ferguson, Euan. ‘The truth is rarely so black and white’, The Observer , 26 July 2009, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/jul/26/robert-capa- photography-the-falling-soldier-spanish-civil-war (accessed 5 August 2009). Fitzgerald, Mary. ‘Women are Heroes by JR and Marc Berrebi – Review’, The Observer , 22 April 2012, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2012 /apr/22/women-are-heroes-jr-photography-review (accessed 23 April 2012). Folman, Ari and David Polonsky. Waltz with Bashir: A Lebanon War Story (London: Atlantic Books, 2009). Foucault, Michel. This Is Not a Pipe. With Illustrations and Letters by René Magritte. Translated and edited by James Harkness (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1983). Foucault, Michel. The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage Books, 1994). Frahm, Ole. Genealogie des Holocaust. Art Spiegelmans MAUS – A Survivor’s Tale (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 2006). Freire-Medeiros, Bianca. Touring Poverty (London and New York: Routledge, 2013). Fruzzetti, Lina and Ákos Östör. Singing Pictures: Art and Performance of Naya’s Women (Lisbon: Museu Nacional de Etnologia, 2007). Fujii, Lee Ann. Killing Neighbors: Webs of Violence in Rwanda (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2009). Gamerro, Carlos. The Islands. Introduction by Jimmy Burns , trans. I. Barnett in collaboration with the author (High Wycombe: And Other Stories, 2012). George, Terry (ed.). Hotel Rwanda: Bringing the True Story of an African Hero to Film (New York: Newmarket Press, 2005). Gilbertson, Ashley. Whiskey Tango Foxtrot: A Photographer’s Chronicle of the Iraq War. With an introduction by Dexter Filkins (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2007). Gil Ferreira, Hugo and Michael W. Marshall. Portugal’s Revolution: Ten Years On (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Gilgen, Peter. ‘History after Film’, in H.U. Gumbrecht and M. Marrinan (eds), Mapping Benjamin: The Work of Art in the Digital Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), pp. 53–62. Gillroy, Paul. ‘Reintroducing Humanity to the World: Alfredo Jaar’s Cosmopolitan Challenge to Institutionalized Indifference’, in Alfredo Jaar, It Is Difficult, Vol. Bibliography 239

2. Edited by Gabi Scardi and Bartelomeo Pietromarchi (Mantova: Edizioni Corraini, 2008), pp. 116–28. Goldstein, Donna M. Laughter Out of Place: Race, Class, Violence, and Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2003). Gourevitch, Philip. We Wish to Inform You that Tomorrow We Will be Killed with Our Families: Stories from Rwanda (New York: Picador, 1998). Gourevitch, Philip and Errol Morris. Standard Operating Procedure: A War Story (London: Picador, 2008). Graham, Philip. The Moon, Come to Earth: Dispatches from Lisbon (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2009). Gregory, Derek. The Colonial Present: Afghanistan, Palestine, Iraq (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004). Grønstad, Asbjørn and Henrik Gustafsson (eds). Ethics and Images of Pain (New York: Routledge, 2012). Groth, Gary, Kim Thompson, and Joey Cavalieri. ‘Slaughter on Greene Street: Art Spiegelman and Françoise Mouly Talk About RAW’, in Art Spiegelman, Conversations. Edited by Joseph Witek (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007), pp. 35–67. Guibert, Emmanuel, Didier Lefèvre, and Frédéric Lemercier. The Photographer: Into War-Torn Afghanistan with Doctors without Borders , trans. A. Siegel (New York and London: First Second, 2009). Hagopian, Patrick. ‘Vietnam War Photography as a Locus of Memory’, in A. Kuhn and K.E. McAllister (eds), Locating Memory: Photographic Acts (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2006), pp. 201–22. Halbwachs, Maurice. On Collective Memory. Edited, translated, and with an Introduction by Lewis A. Coser (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992). Haney, Erin. Photography and Africa (London: Reaktion Books, 2010). Hansen, Lene. ‘The Politics of Securitization and the Muhammad Cartoon Crisis: A Post-Structuralist Perspective’, Security Dialogue, Vol. 42, No. 4–5, August– October 2011, pp. 357–69. Hariman, Robert and John Louis Lucaites. ‘Public Identity and Collective Memory in U.S. Iconic Photography: The Image of “Accidental Napalm”’, Critical Studies in Media Communication , Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2003, pp. 35–66. Hariman, Robert and John Louis Lucaites. No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2007). Hatzfeld, Jean. A Time for Machetes – The Rwandan Genocide: The Killers Speak. Preface by Susan Sontag, trans. L. Coverdale (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2005). Hatzfeld, Jean. Into the Quick of Life – The Rwandan Genocide: The Survivors Speak , trans. G. Feehily (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2008). Hatzfeld, Jean. The Strategy of Antelopes: Living in Rwanda after the Genocide, trans. L. Coverdale (London: Serpent’s Tail, 2009). Heble, Ajay. Landing on the Wrong Note: Jazz, Dissonance and Critical Practice (New York and London: Routledge, 2000). Here Is New York: A Democracy of Photographs, conceived and organized by Alice Rose George, Gilles Peress, Michael Shulan, and Charles Traub (Zurich, Berlin, New York: Scalo, 2002). 240 Bibliography

Hersh, Seymour. ‘Torture at Abu Ghraib’, The New Yorker, issue of 10 May 2004, posted at 30 April 2004, http://www.newyorker.com/printable/?fact/040510fa _ fact (accessed 5 May 2004). Hersh, Seymour. ‘The General’s Report: How Antonio Taguba, who investigated the Abu Ghraib scandal, became one of its casualties’, The New Yorker, 25 June 2007, http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/06/25/070625fa_fact_ hersh?printable=true (accessed 3 June 2009). Hignite, Todd. In the Studio: Visits with Contemporary Cartoonists (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006). Hilsum, Lindsey. ‘Reporting Rwanda: the Media and the Aid Agencies’, in A. Thompson (ed.), The Media and the Rwanda Genocide. With a Statement by Kofi Annan (New York: Pluto Press/Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2007), pp. 167–87. Hirsch, Marianne. Family Frames: Photography, Narrative and Postmemory (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1997). Hoad, Phil. ‘Why Brazil’s favela films remain flavor of the noughties’, The Guardian , 18 August 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/filmblog/2011/ aug/18/brazil-elite-squad-2 (accessed 16 October 2012). Hoffman, Eva. After Such Knowledge: A Meditation on the Aftermath of the Holocaust (New York: Vintage, 2005). Hollis, Martin and Steve Smith. Explaining and Understanding International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). Hron, Madelaine. ‘Review of Intimate Enemy’, African Studies Quarterly: The Online Journal for African Studies, Vol. 10, Issues 2 and 3, Fall 2008, at http://www. africa.ufl.edu/asq/v10/v10i2a-16.htm (accessed 7 April 2009). Hugo, Pieter. Permanent Error (Munich, London, New York: Prestel, 2011). Hugo, Pieter and Linda Melvern. Rwanda 2004: Vestiges of a Genocide (London: oodee, 2011). Hyvärinen, Matti and Lisa Muszynski (eds). Terror and the Arts: Artistic, Literary, and Political Interpretations of Violence from Dostoyevsky to Abu Ghraib (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). Hyvärinen, Matti and Lisa Muszynski. ‘The Arts Investigating Terror’, in M. Hyvärinen and L. Muszynski (eds), Terror and the Arts: Artistic, Literary, and Political Interpretations of Violence from Dostoyevsky to Abu Ghraib (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 1–22. ‘“I was gutted that I’d been such a coward”: photographers who didn’t step in to help’, The Guardian , 28 July 2012, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2012/ jul/28/gutted-photographers-who-didnt-help (accessed 1 August 2012). Jaar, Alfredo. A Hundred Times Nguyen (Stockholm: Moderna Museet, 1994). Jaar, Alfredo. Let There Be Light: The Rwanda Project 1994–1998 (Barcelona: ACTAR, 1998). Jaar, Alfredo. ‘Muxima’, in S. Metsola, P. Siitari, and J.-P. Vanhala (eds), ARS 11 (Helsinki: Museum of Contemporary Art Kiasma, 2011), pp. 140–3. Jacobowitz, Susan. ‘“Words and Pictures Together”: An Interview with Art Spiegelman’, in A. Spiegelman, Conversations. Edited by Joseph Witek (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007), pp. 152–62. Jenkins, Henry. ‘Captain America Sheds His Mighty Tears: Comics and September 11’, in D.J. Sherman and T. Nardin (eds), Terror, Culture, Politics: Rethinking 9/11 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2006), pp. 69–102. Bibliography 241

JR. Women Are Heroes: A Global Project by JR. Text by Marco Berrebi (New York: Abrams, 2012). Kabanda, Marcel. ‘Kangura: The Triumph of Propaganda Refined’, in A. Thompson (ed.), The Media and the Rwanda Genocide. With a Statement by Kofi Annan (New York: Pluto Press/Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2007), pp. 62–72. Kaplan, E. Ann. Trauma Culture: The Politics of Terror and Loss in Media and Literature (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 2005). Kaz, Leonel and Nigge Loddi (eds). Vik (Rio de Janeiro: Aprazível Edições, 2009). Keane, Fergal. Season of Blood: A Rwandan Journey (London: Penguin, 1995). Kelsey, Robin and Blake Stimson (eds). The Meaning of Photography (Williamstown: Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, 2008). Kendall, David (ed.). The Mammoth Book of War Comics (New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2007). Khatchadourian, Raffi. ‘Onward and Upward with the Arts: In the Picture – An Artist’s Global Experiment to Help People Be Seen’, The New Yorker , 28 November 2011, pp. 56–63. Khatib, Lina. Image Politics in the Middle East: The Role of the Visual in Political Struggle (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012). Kingsley, Hope, with contributions by Christopher Riopelle. Seduced by Art: Photography Past and Present (London: National Gallery, 2012). Kino, Carol. ‘Where Art Meets Trash and Transforms Life’, The New York Times, 21 October 2010, at http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/24/arts/design/24Muniz. html (accessed 21 October 2011). Klausen, Jytte. The Cartoons That Shook the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010). Kracauer, Siegfried. ‘Photography’, trans. T.Y. Levin, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 19, Spring 1993, pp. 421–36. Krippendorff, Ekkehard. Staat und Krieg. Die historische Logik politischer Unvernunft (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1985). Krippendorff, Ekkehard. Die Kunst, nicht regiert zu werden. Ethische Politik von Sokrates bis Mozart (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1999). LaCapra, Dominick. History and Memory after Auschwitz (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998). LaCapra, Dominick. History in Transit: Experience, Identity, Critical Theory (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2004). Ledbetter, Mark. ‘Do Not Look at Y/Our Own Peril: Voyeurism as Ethical Necessity, or To See as a Child Again’, in A. Grønstad and H. Gustafsson (eds), Ethics and Images of Pain (New York: Routledge, 2012), pp. 3–14. Leith, Sam. ‘When it comes to comics, you just can’t beat a drunken, violent aardvark’, The Guardian , 18 July 2010 at http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2010 /jul/18/comics-grow-up-graphic-novels-harvey-pekar (accessed 18 July 2010). Linfield, Susie. The Cruel Radiance: Photography and Political Violence (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2010). Lins, Paulo. City of God , trans. A. Entrekin (New York: Black Cat, 2006). Lisle, Debbie. ‘The Surprising Detritus of Leisure: Encountering the Late Photography of War’, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, Vol. 29, 2011, pp. 873–90. Love, Nancy S. and Mark Mattern. ‘Introduction’, New Political Science , Vol. 32, No. 4, December 2010, pp. 463–9. 242 Bibliography

Lowenthal, David. The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). Lurie, Susan. ‘Falling Persons and National Embodiment: The Reconstruction of Safe Spectatorship in the Photographic Record of 9/11’, in D.J. Sherman and T. Nardin (eds), Terror, Culture, Politics: Rethinking 9/11 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2006), pp. 44–68. Lyons, Robert and Scott Straus. Intimate Enemy: Images and Voices of the Rwandan Genocide (New York: Zone Books, 2006). MacDougall, David. Transcultural Cinema. Edited and with an introduction by Lucien Taylor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998). Magalhães, Altino. Monumento aos Combatentes do Ultramar (1961–1974) (Lisbon: Estúdios EURO press, 2007). Mamdani, Mahmood. When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002). Marinovich, Greg and Joao Silva. The Bang-Bang Club: Snapshots from a Hidden War (London: Arrow Books, 2001). Martins Pereira, Ricardo. Complexo: Universo Paralelo – a História de Mário e Pedro Patrocínio (Lisbon: Editorial Presença, 2011). Massumi, Brian. Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2002). Matos, José Sarmento de (organization and coordination). Lisboa à beira Tejo (Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, Arquivo Municipal de Lisboa, Padrão dos Descobrimentos, and EGEAC, 2010). Maxwell, Kenneth. Naked Tropics: Essays on Empire and Other Rogues . With a Foreword by Fouad Ajami (New York and London: Routledge, 2003). McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (New York: Harper Perennial, 1994). McCloud, Scott. Reinventing Comics: How Imagination and Technology Are Revolutionizing an Art Form (New York: HarperCollins, 2000). McCloud, Scott. Making Comics: Storytelling Secrets of Comics, Manga and Graphic Novels (New York: HarperCollins, 2006). Meade, Teresa A. ‘Civilizing’ Rio: Reform and Resistance in a Brazilian City, 1889– 1930 (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997). Melvern, Linda. A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide (London and New York: Zed Books, 2000). Meyerowitz, Joel. Aftermath (London: Phaidon, 2006). Mirzoeff, Nicholas. The Right to Look: A Counterhistory of Visuality (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2011). Mitchell, W.J.T. Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1994). Mitchell, W.J.T. Cloning Terror: The War of Images, 9/11 to the Present (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011). Moakley, Paul. ‘Portraits with Purpose: Vik Muniz in Waste Land’, Time Light Box , 22 March 2011, at http://lightbox.time.com/2011/03/22/portraits-with-purpose-vik-muniz-in-waste-land/ #1 (accessed 11 October 2012). Modan, Rutu. Exit Wounds (Montreal: drawn + quarterly, 2007). Möller, Frank. ‘Shades of White: An Essay on a Political Iconography of the North’, in F. Möller and S. Pehkonen (eds), Encountering the North: Cultural Geography, Bibliography 243

International Relations and Northern Landscapes (Aldershot and Burlington: Ashgate, 2003), pp. 57–74. Möller, Frank. ‘Photographic Interventions in Post-9/11 Security Policy’, Security Dialogue , Vol. 38, No. 2, June 2007, pp. 179–96. Möller, Frank. ‘Imaging and Remembering Peace and War’, Peace Review, Vol. 20, No. 1, January–March 2008, pp. 100–6. Möller, Frank. ‘The Implicated Spectator: From Manet to Botero’, in M. Hyvärinen and L. Muszynski (eds), Terror and the Arts: Artistic, Literary, and Political Interpretations of Violence from Dostoyevsky to Abu Ghraib (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 25–40. Möller, Frank. ‘Comix Narratives of Peace, War, and Terrorism’, paper presented at 49th Convention of the International Studies Association, San Francisco, 26–29 March 2008, Innovative Panel Frivolous Entertainment or Potent Tool of Communication? The Role of Cartoons and Graphic Novels in a Global Age. Möller, Frank. ‘The Looking/Not Looking Dilemma’, Review of International Studies , Vol. 35, No. 4, October 2009, pp. 781–94. Möller, Frank. ‘Rwanda Revisualized: Genocide, Photography, and the Era of the Witness’, Alternatives: Global, Local, Political , Vol. 35, No. 2, April–June 2010, pp. 113–36. Möller, Frank. ‘The Humble Doodle: Graphic Novels and the Question of Urgency’, D. Arieli-Horowitz and D. Sering (eds), Scared to Death: Terror and Its Manifestations in the Spheres of Art and Popular Culture (Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2010), pp. 129–49. Möller, Frank. ‘Photography after Empire: Citizen-photographers or Snappers on Autopilot?’ New Political Science , Vol. 32, No. 4, December 2010, pp. 501–13. Möller, Frank. ‘Celebration and Concern: Digitization, Camera Phones and the Citizen-Photographer’, in C. Martin and T. von Pape (eds), Images in Mobile Communication: New Content, New Uses, New Perspectives (Wiesbaden: VS Research, 2012), pp. 57–78. Möller, Frank. ‘Associates in Crime and Guilt’, in A. Grønstad and H. Gustafsson (eds), Ethics and Images of Pain (New York: Routledge, 2012), pp. 15–32. Möller, Frank. ‘Photo-activism in the Digital Age: Visions from Rio de Janeiro’, in N.S. Love and M. Mattern (eds), Doing Democracy: Activist Art and Cultural Politics (New York: SUNY Press, forthcoming). Möller, Frank and Rafiki Ubaldo. ‘Imaging Life after Death: Photography and the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda’, in L. Bisschoff and S. van de Peer (eds), Art and Trauma in Africa: Representations of Reconciliation in Film, Art, Music and Literature (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2013), pp. 131–51. Moore, Cerwyn and Laura J. Shepherd (eds). ‘Aesthetics and Global Politics’, Global Society , special issue, Vol. 24, No. 3, July 2010, pp. 299–445. Mukagendo, Marie Consolée. ‘The Struggles of Rwandan Women Raising Children Born of Rape’, in J. Torgovnik, Intended Consequences: Rwandan Children Born of Rape. Introduction by Marie Consolée Mukagendo (New York: Aperture, 2009), pp. 6–11. Mumford, Steve. Baghdad Journal: An Artist in Occupied Iraq (Montreal: Drawn and Quarterly, 2005). Nardin, Terry and Daniel J. Sherman. ‘Introduction’, in D.J. Sherman and T. Nardin (eds), Terror, Culture, Politics: Rethinking 9/11 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2006), pp. 1–11. 244 Bibliography

Neate, Patrick and Damian Platt. Culture Is Our Weapon: Making Music and Changing Lives in Rio de Janeiro. Foreword by Caeteno Veloso (London: Penguin, 2010). Nganemariya, Illuminée with Paul Dickson. Miracle in Kigali – A Survivor’s Journey (St Ives: Tagman Press, 2008). O’Hagan, Sean. ‘Out of the ordinary’, The Observer, 25 July 2004, http://www. guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2004/jul/25/photography1/print (accessed 13 February 2012). Olmos, Antonio. ‘Shooting from the Hipstamatic: How I Wised Up to My Smartphone’s Potential’, The Guardian , 1 March 2013, at http://www.guardian. co.uk/artanddesign/photography-blog/2013/mar/01/hipstamatic-smartphone- photo-antonio-olmos (accessed 6 March 2013). O’Loughlin, Ben. ‘Images as Weapons of War: Representation, Mediation and Interpretation’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1, January 2011, pp. 71–91. Paglen, Trevor. Invisible: Covert Operations and Classified Landscapes. With an Essay by Rebecca Solnit (New York: Aperture, 2010). Paglen, Trevor. ‘Images of the Everywhere War’, Aperture , No. 209, Winter 2012, pp. 78–9. Pekar, Harvey, Heather Roberson, and Ed Piskor. Macedonia: What Does It Take to Stop a War? (New York: Villard Books, 2007). Peress, Gilles. The Silence (Zurich: Scalo, 1995). Perlman, Janice. Favela: Four Decades of Living on the Edge in Rio de Janeiro (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). Perlmutter, David D. Visions of War: Picturing Warfare from the Stone Age to the Cyber Age (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1999). Pessoa, Fernando. The Book of Disquietude by Bernardo Soares, Assistant Bookkeeper in the City of Lisbon , trans. R. Zenith (Manchester: Carcanet, 1991). Phillips, Sandra S. ‘Surveillance’, in S.S. Phillips (ed.), Exposed: Voyeurism, Surveillance and the Camera (London: Tate Publishing, 2010), pp. 140–4. Phillips, Sandra S. (ed.). Exposed: Voyeurism, Surveillance and the Camera (London: Tate Publishing, 2010). Phillips, Tom. ‘City of guns’, The Guardian , 15 February 2008, at http://www. guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/15/brazil.internationalcrime?INTCMP =SRCH (accessed 7 October 2012). Phillips, Tom. ‘Number One with a Bullet’, The Observer , 27 July 2008, at http:// www.guardian.co.uk/film/2008/jul/27/worldcinema?INTCMP =SRCH (accessed 16 October 2012). Phillips, Tom. ‘Brazil Crime Wars: Spiderman’s Story of Drugs and Jesus in Rio’s Slums’, The Guardian , 5 November 2009, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/ world/2009/nov/05/brazil-drugs-rio-de-janeiro (accessed 1 September 2012). Phillips, Tom. ‘Rio de Janeiro Police Occupy Slums as City Fights back against Drug Gangs’, The Guardian , 12 April 2010, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/ apr/12/rio-de-janeiro-police-occupy-slums (accessed 12 May 2011). Phillips, Tom. ‘As Rio builds hotels for World Cup, Countless Families are Trapped in Squads’, The Guardian , 14 March 2012, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/ world/2012/mar/14/rio-brazil-homeless-families-squats (accessed 23 March 2012). Bibliography 245

Pollock, Griselda. ‘Photographing Atrocity: Becoming Iconic?’ In G. Batchen, M. Gidley, N.K. Miller, and J. Prosser (eds), Picturing Atrocity: Photography in Crisis (London: Reaktion Books, 2012), pp. 65–78. Porfírio, José Luís. ‘Manuel Botelho – Aerogramas para 2010’, trans. J. Elliott, in I. Carlos, concepção, Professores (Lisbon: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2010), pp. 61–76. Pottier, Johan. Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late 20th Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002). ‘Project: The Anxiety of Images’, Aperture , No. 204, Fall 2011, pp. 50–73. Prosser, Jay. Light in the Dark Room: Photography and Loss (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2005). Prunier, Gérard. The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (London: Hurst and Co., 2005). Prunier, Gérard. Africa’s World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). Purcell, Andrew. ‘This is How the System Works’, The Guardian , 18 July 2008, at http: //www.guardian.co.uk/film/2008/jul/18/1 (accessed 15 October 2012). Ramos, Silvia. ‘Unique Look at the Lives of Combatants in Brazil Crime Wars’, The Guardian , 5 November 2009, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009 /nov/05/brazil-rio-dance-with-devil (accessed 4 June 2010). Rancière, Jacques. The Emancipated Spectator , trans. G. Elliott (London and New York: Verso, 2009). Rancière, Jacques. The Future of the Image , trans. G. Elliott (London and New York: Verso, 2009). Reichel, Peter. Der schöne Schein des Dritten Reichs. Faszination und Gewalt des Faschismus (Munich and Vienna: Hanser, 1991) Reinhardt, Mark. ‘Picturing Violence: Aesthetics and the Anxiety of Critique’, in M. Reinhardt, H. Edwards, and E. Duganne (eds), Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/ The University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 13–36. Reinhardt, Mark. ‘Painful Photographs: From the Ethics of Spectatorship to Visual Politics’, in A. Grønstad and H. Gustafsson (eds), Ethics and Images of Pain (New York: Routledge, 2012), pp. 33–56. Reinhardt, Mark, Holly Edwards, and Erina Duganne (eds). Beautiful Suffering: Photography and the Traffic in Pain (Williamsburg/Chicago: Williams College Museum of Art/The University of Chicago Press, 2007). Ritchin, Fred. In Our Own Image (New York: Aperture, 1999). Ritchin, Fred. After Photography (London: W.W. Norton, 2009). Ritchin, Fred. ‘Between a Rock and a Soft Place’, Aperture , No. 209, Winter 2012, pp. 62–7. Robb, Peter. A Death in Brazil: A Book of Omissions (London: Bloomsbury, 2005). Roger, Nathan. Image Warfare in the War on Terror (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). Rose, Gillian. Visual Methodologies, Third Edition: An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage, 2011). Rosler, Martha. 3 Works (Halifax: The Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, 1981, 2006). Ross, Christine. ‘Introduction: The Precarious Visualities of Contemporary Art and Visual Culture’, in O. Asselin, J. Lamoureux, and C. Ross (eds), Precarious 246 Bibliography

Visualities: New Perspectives on Identification in Contemporary Art and Visual Culture (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008), pp. 3–16. Rothberg, Michael. ‘“We Are Talking Jewish”: Art Spiegelman’s Maus as “Holocaust” Production’, Contemporary Literature , Vol. XXXV, No. 4, 1994, pp. 661–87. Rubin, Elizabeth. ‘Lynsey Addario at War’, Aperture , No. 201, Winter 2010, pp. 24–33. Rurangwa, Révérien. Genocide: My Stolen Rwanda , trans. A. Brown (London: Reportage Press, 2009). Rusesabagina, Paul with Tom Zoellner. An Ordinary Man: An Autobiography (London: Penguin, 2007). Sacco, Joe. Safe Area Goražde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 1992–1995. Foreword by Christopher Hitchens (Seattle: Fantagraphics Books, 2000). Sacco Joe. Palestine (London: Jonathan Cape, 2003). Sacco, Joe. War’s End: Profiles from Bosnia 1995–1996 (Montreal: drawn + quarterly, 2005). Sacco, Joe. Footnotes in Gaza (London: Jonathan Cape, 2009). Sacco, Joe. Journalism (London: Jonathan Cape, 2012). Sacco, Joe and Art Spiegelman. ‘Only Pictures?’ The Nation, issue of 6 March 2006, at http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060306/interview (accessed 17 February 2006). Sagan, Scott D. The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). Salgado, Sebastião. Africa (Cologne: Taschen, 2010). Saltzman, Lisa. ‘What Remains: Photography and Landscape, Memory and Oblivion’, in Jennifer Blessing and Nat Trotman, Haunted: Contemporary Photography | Video | Performance (New York: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2010), pp. 126–37. Sansone, Livio. ‘The Localization of Global Funk in Bahia and in Rio’, in C.A. Perrone and C. Dunn (eds), Brazilian Popular Music & Globalization (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp. 136–60. Satrapi, Marjane. The Complete Persepolis (New York: Pantheon, 2007). Scarry, Elaine. The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985). Schulz, Charles M. Security Is a Thumb and a Blanket (Kennebunkport: Cider Mill Press, 1963). Schwartz, Frederic J. ‘The Eye of the Expert: Walter Benjamin and the Avant Garde’, Art History , Vol. 24, No. 3, June 2001, pp. 401–44. Schweizer, Nicole. ‘An Open Work – A Non-Stop Record: Selected Works 1985– 2007’, in Alfredo Jaar, It Is Difficult, Vol. 2 , edited by G. Scardi and B. Pietromarchi (Mantova: Edizioni Corraini, 2008), pp. 132–73. Shapiro, Michael J. The Politics of Representation: Writing Practices in Biography, Photography and Policy Analysis (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1988). Shapiro, Michael J. Cinematic Geopolitics (London and New York: Routledge, 2009). Simpson, David. 9/11: The Culture of Commemoration (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2006). Sliwinski, Sharon. ‘A Painful Labour: Responsibility and Photography’, Visual Studies , Vol. 19, No. 2, October 2004, pp. 150–61. Bibliography 247

Sliwinski, Sharon. Human Rights in Camera. Foreword by Lynn Hunt (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2011). Smith, Karen E. Genocide and the Europeans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). Solomon-Godeau, Abigail. Photography at the Dock: Essays on Photographic History, Institutions, and Practices. Foreword by Linda Nochlin (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991). Sontag, Susan. On Photography (London: Penguin, 1979). Sontag, Susan. Regarding the Pain of Others (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003). Spiegelman, Art. The Complete Maus: A Survivor’s Tale (London: Penguin, 2003). Spiegelman, Art. In the Shadow of No Towers (New York: Pantheon, 2004). Spiegelman, Art. Conversations. Edited by Joseph Witek (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007). Spiegelman, Art. Metamaus (London: Viking, 2011). Stassen, J.P. Deogratias: A Tale of Rwanda , trans. A. Siegel (New York and London: First Second, 2006). Staub, Michael E. ‘The Shoah Goes On and On: Remembrance and Representation in Art Spiegelman’s Maus ’, MELUS , Vol. 20, No. 3, Fall 1995, pp. 33–46. Storr, Robert. SEPTEMBER: A History Painting by Gerhard Richter (London: Tate Publishing, 2010). Straus, Scott. The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2006). Strauss, David Levi. Between the Eyes: Essays on Photography and Politics . Introduction by John Berger (New York: Aperture, 2003). Struk, Janina. Private Pictures: Soldiers’ Inside View of War (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011). Suleiman, Susan Rubin. Crises of Memory and the Second World War (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2006). Tavares, Emília. ‘The Imprisoned Images’, Seismopolite: Journal of Art and Politics , 30 September 2012, at http://www.seismopolite.com/the-imprisoned-images (accessed 23 March 2013). Taylor, Diana. The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2003). Testino, Mario. Mario de Janeiro Testino (Cologne: Taschen, 2009). The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles . Volume 1 and Volume 2 , prepared by W. Little, H.W. Fowler, and J. Coulson, revised and edited by C.T. Onions, third edition completely reset with etymologies revised by G.W.S. Friedrichsen and with revised addenda (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973). ‘The Shot That Nearly Killed Me: War Photographers – A Special Report’, The Guardian , 18 June 2011, at http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2011/jun/18/ war-photographers-special-report (accessed 19 June 2011). ‘This Thing Called War and These People Called Photographers: Simon Norfolk in conversation with Anne Wilkes Tucker, Will Michels, and Natalie Zelt’, Aperture , No. 208, Fall 2012, pp. 18–27. Thompson, Allan (ed.). The Media and the Rwanda Genocide. With a Statement by Kofi Annan (New York: Pluto Press/Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2007). Torgovnik, Jonathan. Intended Consequences: Rwandan Children Born of Rape. Introduction by Marie Consolée Mukagendo (New York: Aperture, 2009). 248 Bibliography

Totten, Samuel and Rafiki Ubaldo (eds). We Cannot Forget: Interviews with Survivors of the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda (New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 2011). van Alphen, Ernst. Art in Mind: How Contemporary Images Shape Thought (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2005). Vargas, João H. Costa. ‘When a Favela Dared to Become a Gated Condominium: The Politics of Race and Urban Space in Rio de Janeiro’, Latin American Perspectives , Vol. 33, No. 4, July 2006, pp. 49–81. Veloso, Caetano. ‘Foreword’, in M. Testino, Mario de Janeiro Testino (Cologne: Taschen, 2009), unpaginated. Waiselfisz, Julio Jacobo. Mapa da Violência 2012: Os Novos Padrões da Violência Homicida no Brasil (São Paulo: Instituto Sangari, 2011). Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Modern World System I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (Orlando: Academic Press, 1974). Weber, Cynthia. ‘I am an American’: Filming the Fear of Difference (Bristol: Intellect, 2011). Welzer, Harald. Das kommunikative Gedächtnis. Eine Theorie der Erinnerung (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2002). Westerbeck, Colin and Joel Meyerowitz. Bystander: A History of Street Photography (London: Thames and Hudson, 1994). Wieviorka, Annette. The Era of the Witness, trans. J. Stark (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2006). Winter, Jay. Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Witkovsky, Matthew S. Foto Modernity in Central Europe, 1918–1945. Introduction by Peter Demetz (London: Thames and Hudson, 2007). Wright, Bradford W. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001). Wright, Colin. ‘Media Representations of 9/11: Constructing the Different Difference’, in C. Demaria and C. Wright (eds), Post-Conflict Cultures: Rituals of Representation (London: Zoilus Press, 2006), pp. 15–26. Wynne-Jones, Ros. ‘A Rwandan Genocide Survivor Speaks Out: “Now, I Must Be the Narrator”’, The Guardian, 8 April 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009 /april/08/rwanda-experience (accessed 8 April 2009). Young, Cynthia (ed.). The Mexican Suitcase: The Rediscovered Spanish Civil War Negatives of Capa, Chim, and Taro (New York: International Center of Photography/Göttingen: Steidl, 2010). Young, James E. At Memory’s Edge: After-Images of the Holocaust in Contemporary Art and Architecture (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000). Zambra, Alejandro. Ways of Going Home , trans. M. McDowell (London: Granta Books, 2013). Zerubavel, Eviatar. Time Maps: Collective Memory and the Social Shape of the Past (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2003).

Films, videos, and television

48 , directed by Susana de Sousa Dias (2009). Bibliography 249

Burke + Norfolk: Photographs from the war in Afghanistan by John Burke and Simon Norfolk , Video, directed by Luke Tchalenko (2011), at http://www.tate.org.uk/ context-comment/video/burke-norfolk-photographs-war-afghanistan (accessed 24 October 2012). Cidade de Deus , directed by Fernando Meirelles (2002). Cidade dos Homens , directed by Paulo Morelli (2007). Complexo: Universo paralelo , directed by Mário Patrocínio (2011). Crime Scene Investigation , Season 10, Episode 19, ‘World’s End’, directed by Alec Smight (2010). Favela Rising: a musica é uma arma, directed by Jeff Zimbalist and Matt Mochary (2005). Dancing with the Devil , directed by Jon Blair (2009). Hotel Rwanda , directed by Terry George (2005). ISETA: Behind the Roadblock , directed by Juan Rein and Eric Kabera (2008). Kontaktabzüge: Die Grosse Tradition der Fotoreportage – Don McCullin , directed by Sylvain Roumette (2008). Lixo Extraordinário ( Waste Land ), directed by Lucy Walker; co-directed by João Jardim and Karen Harley (2010). Shake Hands with the Devil , directed by Roger Spottiswoode (2007). Shake Hands with the Devil: The Journey of Roméo Dallaire , directed by Peter Raymont (2004). Shooting Dogs , directed by Michael Caton-Jones (2005). Triage: Dr. James Orbinski’s Humanitarian Dilemma , directed by Pat Reed (2007). Tropa de Elite , directed by José Padilha (2007). Tropa de Elite 2, directed by José Padilha (2011). Women Are Heroes , produced by JR, at http://jr-art.net (accessed 8 October 2012).

Websites

Botelho, Manuel, at http://www.manuelbotelho.com (accessed 5 March 2003). Committee to Protect Journalists: Defending Journalists Worldwide, at https: //cpj.org/killed/2012 (accessed 10 January 2013). Fondação Joaquim Nabuco, at http://www.fundaj.gov.br/docs/canud/fotos.htm (accessed 26 September 2012). Foundation Rwanda: Hope for Children, Healing for Mothers , at http://www.foundationrwanda.org (accessed 29 March 2013). Global Center for the Responsibility to Protect, R2P Monitor , issue 4, 15 July 2012, at http://www.globalr2p.org (accessed 31 July 2012). Jaar, Alfredo. ‘The Rwanda Project 1994–2000’, at http://www.alfredojaar.net (accessed 27 July 2012). JR, at http://jr-art.net (accessed 3 June 2011). JR. ‘Women are Heroes’, at http://www.jr-art.net/projects/women-are-heroes- brazil (accessed 7 October 2012). Norfolk, Simon. ‘Ascension Island: The Panopticum (ECHELON for beginners)’, at http:// www.simonnorfolk.com (accessed 16 January 2012). Porto Maravilha: um sonho que virou realidade, at http://portomaravilha.com.br (accessed 23 November 2012). 250 Bibliography

Seguridad y justicia y paz, at http://www.seguridadyjusticiaypaz.org.mx (accessed 15 September 2012). The Library of Congress, American Memory , at http://memory.loc.gov/ammem /cwphtml/cwbrady.htlm (accessed 12 March 2010). Through the Eyes of Children: The Rwanda Project , at http://www.rwandaproject.org (accessed 22 March 2013). Through the Eyes of Children: The Rwanda Project , at http://www.facebook.com /RwandaProject (accessed 22 March 2013). Ubaldo, Rafiki. ‘Temples of Memory’, at http://www.templesofmemory.org (accessed 5 March 2003). Unidades de Policia Pacificadora, at http://www.upprj.com (accessed 6 October 2012).

Exhibitions

António Barreto: Fotografias, 1967/2010 , 12 November–30 December 2010, Galeria Corrente d’Arte, Lisbon. Professores , 14 October 2010–2 January 2011, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon. Vik Muniz: VIK , 21 September–31 December 2011, Museu Coleção Berardo, Lisbon.

Documents

Cámara Municipal de Lisboa, Gabinete dos vereadores do PCP, ‘Memorial de Homenagem às Vítimas das Guerras Coloniais’, Proposta no 222/2010, 28 April 2010. United Nations, ‘Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples of December 14, 1960’ (resolution 1514).

Other sources

Holman, Bill. ‘Notes from Bill Holman’, Bill Holman Band, Hommage (Littleton: Jazzed Media, 2007). Lewis, Mel. Make Me Smile (New York: Sony Music, 1993). The Vanguard Jazz Orchestra. Up from the Skies – Music of Jim McNeely (Catskill: Planet Arts Recordings, undated) Index

Numbers in bold refer to photographs; n = notes.

Abu Ghraib, 7–9, 18, 51, 72, 182 Benjamin, Walter, 11, 25–6, 28, 124, Abu Ghraib photographs, 7–9, 18, 167–9, 199n3, 199n14, 229n27 41–3, 47, 51, 144, 197n66 Berg, Nicholas, 47 Adams, Eddie, 205n59 Berger, John, 44 Adams, Robert, 167 Berger, Peter, 31 Addario, Lynsey, 68, 72 Berry, Ian, 61, 64 Adhiambo, Phoebe, 116 Blair, John, 112–13 Aerogramas para 2010 (Botelho), 160, Bleiker, Roland, 19, 29, 34, 163, 202n3 Portfolio 2 Blocker, Jane, 180, 231–2n12 aestheticization, 37–9, 166 Bossan, Enrico, 70 Afghanistan, 36–7, 67, 176–7 Botelho, Manuel, 35, 155–62, and Simon Norfolk’s photography, 157–60, 183–4, Portfolio 2 36–7 Botero, Fernando, 7–8, 52, 182 aftermath photography, 45–6, 77–82, Botero Abu Ghraib, 7–8, 52 189 Bouvet, Eric, 69 Agee, James, 92 Bradshaw, Peter, 119–22 Agualusa, José Eduardo, 78 Brady, Matthew, 10, 46 Amado, Jorge, 123 Brecht, Bertold, 199n14 Angola, 129–30, 132, 146, 148, 155 Brookmeyer, Bob, 10 Annan, Kofi, 77 Broomberg, Adam, 73 anti-aesthetic movement, 26 Burke, John, 36 Antônio Conselheiro (Antônio Burrows, Larry, 58 Vicente Mendes Maciel), 102–3, Butler, Judith, 203n18 217n22 bystander, 47, 51, 54 Antunes, António Lobo, 160 ArbeiterIllustrierteZeitung, 11 Callot, Jacques, 9 Arbus, Diane, 54 camera phones, 6, 56, 69 Arendt, Hannah Campbell, David, 44, 126 and power, 48, 70 Cann, John, 131 artivism, 114 Capa, Robert, 13, 50, 59 Aubert, François, 6, 196n54 Carter, Kevin, 60–1, 197n68 Azoulay, Ariella, 74 Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 17, 80 Cartoons, 33–4, 201n47 Bal, Mieke, 9, 12, 18, 38, 42, 44, 87, Castro, Ruy, 104, 218n30 202n6, 232n21 catadores (garbage pickers), 118–23 Bangert, Christoph, 74 Cavaco Silva, Aníbal, 146–8 Barreto, António, 162 Chabal, Patrick, 130–1 Barthes, Roland, 55, 179, 207–8n105 Chalasani, Radhika, 61–2, 66, 71 Batchen, Geoffrey, 74 Chanarin, Oliver, 73 Beautiful Suffering, 28–9, 43 Chéroux, Clément, 70 beauty, 26–8, 36–9, 44, 46–7, 189 Cidade de Deus (Lins), 95–6

251 252 Index

Cidade de Deus (Meirelles), 109–13, digital age/digitization, 11, 21, 43–5, 115, 117 56, 74, 80 citizen-photography/-photographers, discovery scenarios, 105–6 11, 57, 72–3, 187–8, 227n10 documentary photography, 27, 42, and objectivity, 188 53, 59, 89, 125, 183, 194–5n19 clouds, 98 and subjugation, 42–3 collective memory, 127–8 Drew, Robert, 210n31 and collective instruction, 127–8 Dworkin, Ronald, 34, 163–4, 227n4 and identity, 127 Dyer, Geoff, 44, 46, 80, 210n26 comics and graphic novels, 163–77 and abstraction, 173 Edkins, Jenny, 45, 51, 141, 154, 185 and distraction, 167–9 Eggleston, William, 31–2 and knowledge production, 164 Eisenman, Stephen F., 232n22 and photographs, 173–7 Elderfield, John, 5–7, 16 and readers’ involvement, 164–5, Elkins, James, 11–14, 24, 28, 41, 55, 167–73 110, 186, 195n39, 199n2 and subversion, 164 Elliott, David, 167 and text–image-relationship, El Rashidi, Yasmine, 70 171–2 emancipation, 48–50 and the un-photographable, 176, 182 Emerita, Gutete, 43, 87, 96, 120, and violence, 166 204n33 as participatory art, 171 Emerling, Jae, 20, 24, 26, 178, as sequential art, 169–70 200n20 commission diaries, 156–60 Enwezor, Okwui, 60 community-based photography, episodic writing, 172, 192 114–23 Evans, Walker, 92 Connerton, Paul, 207n92 ‘Execution of Emperor Maximilian’, Couldry, Nick, 31 3–7, 144, 181 Crace, Jim, 125–6 executions in front of the camera, 47 critique of digitization, 11 cultural studies, 32 family album, 24, 72, 186 Fascism, 25–6 Dallaire, Roméo, 79, 83, 155 Favela Rising: a Musica é uma Arma Damisch, Hubert, 98 (Zimbalist and Mochary), 115 Dancing with the Devil (Blair), 112–13 Favelas, see popular communities (in Danner, Mark, 41, 203n21 Rio de Janeiro) Danto, Arthur, 202n15 Ferguson, Adam, 67 Dauphinée, Elizabeth, 43–4, 204n39 Fernando Botero: Abu Ghraib, 7–8 Dean, Adam, 68 Ferrato, Donna, 61–3 Dean, Carolyn, 202n15 Field, Road, Cloud (Jaar), 95–8 death, 126, 136, 139–41 Field, Road, Cloud, partial, Alfredo Jaar De Barros, Flávio, 103 (Fig. 4), 97 decolonization, 130 film, 109–13, 184–7 Der Arbeiter-Fotograf, 11 and representations of violence, De Sousa Dias, Susana, 184–7 110–13 Detachment 3, Air Force Flight Test first moment of photographic Center #2, 2008, Groom reception, 40 Lake, NV (Distance ~26 miles), Trevor Fitzgerald, Mary, 121 Paglen (Fig 1), 15 Folman, Ari, 176 Index 253

48 (De Sousa Dias), 184–7 Intimate Enemy (Lyons and Straus), Foucault, Michel, 87, 165 89–93 Foundation Rwanda, 233n41 Iraq, 125 Freire-Medeiros, Bianca, 106 ISETA: Behind the Roadblock, 79 Fujii, Lee Anne, 91–3 Jaar, Alfredo, 43, 45, 85–9, 95–8, 97, 120 genocide and multi-sensory reception, 87 as an aggregate category, 91 and skepticism, 86, 88 see also Rwanda Jardim Gramacho (Rio de Janeiro), gente, 114, 117, 122, 218n30, 118–23 220–1n76 jeito, 218n30 Gilbertson, Ashley, 29 Jiranek, David, 191 Gilgen, Peter, 25, 33, 169, 173, 176 Jobim, Antonio Carlos, 107 Gillroy, Paul, 86 JR, 114–18, 120–3 Glauber, Barbara, 28 Gourevitch, Philip, 42, 79 Kabela, Eric, 79 Goya, Francisco de, 9 Kamanga, Elizabeth, 115–16 Guedes de Carvalho, Kaplan, E. Ann, 208n8 Francisco, 132 Kayitesi, Claudine, 82 Guibert, Emmanuel, 176 Keenan, Thomas, 71–2 Guinea-Bissau, 129–31, 146, Kibera (Nairobi, Kenya), 115–16 148, 155 Kino, Carol, 120 ‘gutter’, 169–71 Knight, Gary, 68–9 Kracauer, Siegfried, 10, 168 Habermas, Jürgen, 48 Krippendorff, Ekkehard, 126 Hagopian, Patrick, 18–19 Hariman, Robert, 48–9, 205n59 LaCapra, Dominick, 85 Heble, Ajay, 178 Lange, Dorothea, 43, 120 Hersh, Seymour, 8, 51 Lefèvre, Didier, 176–7 Hetherington, Tim, 74 Lemercier, Frédéric, 176 Holman, Bill, 31 Les Misères et les Malheurs de la Guerre Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 10 (Callot), 9 Holocaust and testimony, 77 Lessard, Emily, 28 Hopkinson, Tom, 64 Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (Agee Hughes, Nick, 79 and Evans), 92 Hugo, Peter, 222n104 Lewis, Stephen, 214n50 Libya, 74 illustrated magazines, 10 Life, 30 images and knowledge production, Liga dos Combatentes, 128, 132, 19–22, 84 144–5, 148, 187 ‘initial spark’, 53–5, 180 limits of representation, 11, 13, 45, and violence, 55 82, 88, 95 ‘intellectual stereoscopic effect’, 25, limits of visibility, 17, 60, 188 88, 90, 125, 171, 173 Limit Telephotography series see also multi-scopic effects, (Paglen), 14 triplescopic effect Lin, Maya, 128 Intended Consequences (Torgovnik), Linfield, Susie, 205n59 93–5, 182–3 lingqi photographs, 11–14 inter-visuality, 182–4 Lisle, Debbie, 52–3 254 Index

Lixo Extraordinário (Walker), 119 as plotlines, 127 behind and looking/not looking dilemma, 49 visualization Longo, Robert, 52 see also collective memory; Los Desastres de la Guerra (Goya), 9 photography/photographs, and Lucaites, John Louis, 48–9, 205n59 memory Luckmann, Thomas, 31 Metamaus (Spiegelman), 174, 182 Lundgren, Hampus, 61, 65 Meyerowitz, Joel, 81 lynching photographs, 14 ‘Migrant Mother’ (Lange), 43 Lyons, Robert, 89–93, 95, 185 Mirzoeff, Nicholas, 9–10, 48 Mitchell, W.J.T., 29–30, 33, 46, 48, MacDougall, David, 30, 32–4, 92, 197n65 201n49 Mochary, Matt, 115 Manet, Edouard, 4–7, 144, 181, Monumento aos Combatentes do 194n7, 196n54 Ultramar, Belém, 125, 128, Marinho, Rosiete, 113 132–55, 161, 183 Marinovich, Greg, 60–2, 64, 69, and alternative memories, 148–51 209n16 and borrowed legitimacy, 136 Maus (Spiegelman), 172, 174–5, 182 and coherent historical narratives, McCloud, Scott, 170, 172–3, 230n51, 135–6 230n58 and disappearance as memorial, McCullin, Don, 17, 57–8, 209n21 142–4 McHugh, John D., 68 and disappearance of names, McNeely, Jim, 52 142–4, 155 Memorial de Homenagemàs Vítimas and discursive construction of das GuerrasColoniais, 161–2 meaning, 148 memorials, 125, 128, 132–55, 161–2 and humanitarian operations, and anonymous death, 139–41 136, 146 and collective memory, 127 and larger mnemonic structures, and discourse, 126, 148, 161 135 and current needs, 127 and mnemonic hierarchies, 146 and historical coherence, and Museu do Combatente, 136 127–8 and politics of naming, 128–51 and names, 139–42, 154–5 and self-identification, 144 see also Monumento aos and tourism, 139 Combatentes do Ultramar, Belém and ‘unification’ of people memory, 82–4, 124–62, 170, 186–7, involved in the wars, 128, 191, 223n3 145–6, 151; see also Monumento and alternative acts of memory, aos Combatentes do Ultramar, 126, 148–51, 161–2 Belém, and mnemonic and changeability of hierarchies memories, 127 and visual deconstruction, 151–5 and forgetting, 127 and visualizations of memory, and historical narratives, 127 132–55 and identity, 83, 127 and World War I, 136, 146 and stipulation, 83 Morris, Errol, 42 and trauma, 83 Morro da Providência (Rio de and visual deconstructions, 151–62 Janeiro), 103, 113–18, 120, 122–3 and visualization, 125, 132–62, Moura, Wagner, 111 183–4 Mozambique, 129–30, 146, 148, 155 Index 255 mug-shots, 184–6 and agency, 116, 180, 185 multi-scopic effects, 182 and archive, 81, 86, 89 multi-visuality, 29 and beauty, 26–7, 36–9, 44, 93–5, Muniz, Vik, 118–23 121, 189 and captions, 25, 29; see also Nachtwey, James, 42, 58 photography/photographs, and Nguyen Ngoc Loan, 47 language Nguyen Thi Thuy, 45 and citizen-photography, 11, 57, Nissen, Mads, 68 72–3, 187 Norfolk, Simon, 17, 19, 36–7, and community, 114–23 46, 189 and difference, 32 and John Burke, 36–7 and digitization, 11, 43–4 Nzilani, Angela, 115 and dignity, 43–4 and elusiveness, 34–5 Øberg, Jan, 125 and enjoyment, 25–6 Okten, Kerim, 61, 63–4 and event-ness, 71–2 Olmos, Antonio, 190 and everyday life, 114, 117, 125 O’Loughlin, Ben, 171 and evidence, 24–5, 31, 59, 70, 175 oral tradition, 83 and excess meaning/surplus of meaning, 32, 118 Paglen Trevor, 14–15, 15, 17, 19, 46, and explanations, 24, 31–3, 35, 73, 188–9 84, 118 paintings, 3–7 and exploitation, 27, 42–3, 116, Panter, Gary, 169 119, 121, 180, 190 participant witness, 5, 19, 36–55, and formal analysis, 11–12 81–2, 85, 165, 178–9, 188, 192 and ‘hermeneutics of suspicion’, and critique, 192 9, 181 and political response, 55 and historical discourse, 11, 21, as ideal type, 55, 179 24, 51 peace research, 19–22, 32, 35, 100, and implication, 19, 46, 88, 96, 124–5 184, 192 Peanuts (Schulz), 165–6 and inscription, 25 Pearl, Daniel, 47 and language, 21, 24–35, 86–90 Penttilä, Janne, 59 and limits of visibility, 17 Pereira, Adalton, 117 and meaning, 14, 16, 30–2, 61, 84, performance, 121–2, 190–1 88, 118, 185, 189 and self-reproduction of the and memory, 53, 65–6, 79, 84, state, 126 95, 191 as opposed to representation, 122 and participation, 116, 119, 121–2, see also photography/photographs, 190–1 as performance and peace, 19–20 Perlman, Janice, 102, 107–8, 114 and peace research, 19–22, 183 Perlmutter, David, 205n59 and political activism, 10–11, 21, Pessoa, Fernando, 131 27, 50, 55 Phillips, Sandra, 14 and politicization/depoliticization, photography/photographs 26–7, 39, 48–9, 94 and aestheticization, 26, 37–9, 94; and pornography, 39 see also ‘uglification’ (Sontag) and revolutionary use value, and aftermath, 45–6, 77–82, 189 25–6 256 Index photography/photographs –Continued and risks and dangers, 66–9, 79 and seduction, 37, 45, 116, 120, and the photojournalistic tradition, 189, 192 16, 57–9, 117, 187–9, 233n32 and sensitivization/ and the state of the profession, desensitivization, 64 69–74 and shock/’shock’, 40–1 and witnessing, 57, 69, 78–9 and social-documentary see also social documentary photography, 11, 26–7, 43 photography and the American Civil War, 10, Pictures of Garbage (Muniz), 119–23 46, 80 political art, 7, 16, 38, 42 and the approximate, 25–6, 84–5, Polonsky, David, 176 89–95 popular communities (in Rio de and (the myth of) objectivity, 26–7 Janeiro), 95–123, 216n1, 216n4, and the need to respond, 51 217n14 and the surround, 15–16, 155 and integration into the city, 107–8 and the un-photographable, 176, 182 and marginality/marginalization, and trauma, 57, 81, 85 99, 106, 110–11, 120–1, 219n39 and user-generated images, 11 and pacification, 114, 123, 218n38 and violence, 18–19, 38, 45–6, 62, and participation in art projects, 105, 117, 189 118–23 and visibility/invisibility, 16–17, 46, and popular perception, 107, 49, 72, 88, 94–5 117–18 and voyeurism, 39, 42–3, 50–1 and representations in film and and war, 10, 14, 16–17, 46, 58, 80, 188 media, 109–13, 116–17 and witnessing, 57, 60, 80 and social communications, 114 as explanations, 79, 84 and struggles to become gente, 114, as part of visual culture, 5 117, 122 as performance, 121–2, 180, 190–1 and tourist pictures, 117 as process, 121–2, 190–1 and visibility, 109–18, 121 of human suffering see and women, 115–18 photography/photographs, of as a community, 109 people in pain as opposed to the city proper, 106–8 of material objects, 95–6, 156–60, Porfírio, José Luís, 156 184, Portfolio 1, Portfolio 2 Portuguese colonial wars (1961–1974), of people in pain, 12, 18, 21–2, 35, 125, 128–32, 161, 184 38–9, 41–4, 46, 48, 51, 54, 58, and commission diaries, 156–60 93–5, 116, 187 and counterinsurgency, 129–31 of people living in unfavourable and Empire, 131–2, 184 conditions, 48–9, 187 and integration into NATO, 129–30 see also photojournalism; spectators/ and legitimacy, 131 spectatorship and politics of naming, 128, 130 photojournalism, 11, 14, 17, 30, 43, and shortage of personnel, 130–1, 50, 56–74, 78, 169–70, 187–90 224n23, 224n35, 226n57 and depictions of everyday life, 50 and state sovereignty, 131 and exhaustion of tradition, 13, 17 and the 1974 revolution, 128, and genocide, 77–9 130–2, 145 and interference, 58–66 and visualization of memories, and photojournalistic icons, 13, 132–60, 184 70, 170 as overseas wars, 128, 145 Index 257 postcards, 86–7 and the 1994 genocide, 35, 49, Prosser, Jay, 203n27 77–98, 155, 189, 191 Prunier, Gérard, 90 and rape, 93–5 punctum, 55, 179, 207–8n105 Rwanda Project 1994–2000 (Jaar), 85–9 Rwililiza, Innocent, 49 quasi-expert, 165–9 Sacco, Joe, 33, 163–4, 172, 174, 176, ‘radical documentary’, 27–8 227n9, 231n65 Ramiro, André, 112 Salazar, António de Oliveira, 131–2 Ramos, Silvia, 113 Salazar regime in Portugal, 130–1, 187 Rancière, Jacques, 20, 43, 49, 151–2, Salgado, Sebastião, 45 198n80 Salti, Rasha, 209n24 Raymont, Peter, 79, 98 Sansone, Livio, 107–8 Real Pictures (Jaar), 86–7 Scarff, Oli, 61, 65 Rein, Juan, 79 Scarry, Elaine, 44 Reinhardt, Mark, 8–9, 11, 18, 38–42, Schulz, Charles M., 165–6 47, 50, 88 Schwab, Rick, 28–9 representation Schwarz, Shaul, 69 and ethics, 21, 39 second moment of photographic and limits of representation, reception, 38–47, 55, 80, 180 11–13 ‘September’ (Richter), 52 as opposed to performance, 122 Shake Hands with the Devil of people in pain, see photography/ (Raymont), 98 photographs, of people in pain Shapiro, Michael, 6, 20, 178, 215n70 response to photographs, 51, 180, 192 Silva, Joao, 60, 68 and adequateness, 51–4, 192 Silva, Severino, 117 Richter, Gerhard, 52 Simpson, David, 47, 126, 141, 144, ridicule, 34 225n46 Riis, Jacob, 28, 200n16 Signs of Life (Jaar), 86–7 Rio de Janeiro, 95–123 Sliwinski, Sharon, 51, 198n78 and drug gangs/traffic, 106, 108–9 social documentary photography, 11, and economic development, 104 26–7, 43, 60 and representations in literature, Solomon-Godeau, Abigail, 42, 70–1, photography, film, 104, 109 194–5n19 and socio-economic inequality, Sontag, Susan, 9–12, 38, 40–1, 44, 47, 101, 109 51, 53–4, 64, 127, 180, 204n40, and tourism in popular 206n79, 207n91, 207n100 communities, 105–6, 117 ‘space of architecture’, 45, 189, 192 and violence, 100–3, 105, 112 ‘space of landscape’, 37, 45, 120, 189, see also popular communities (in 192 Rio de Janeiro) Spanish Civil War Ritchin, Fred, 19–20, 72–3, 161, 191, and photography, 13, 50 195n34, 197n70 specialization, 124–5 Robb, Peter, 103 spectators/spectatorship, 5, 8–9, 12, Robertson, Graeme, 61, 63–4 37–41, 47–51, 121–2, 192 Rosler, Martha, 26–8, 41, 200n16 and co-construction of meaning, Rwanda 40–1, 118 and children born of rape, 93–5 and passivity, 5, 40, 47, 54–5 and interviews with survivors, 93 and power, 48 258 Index spectators/spectatorship–Continued The Photographer (Guibert, Lefèvre and and response to photographs, Lemercier), 176–7 51–4, 180 The Silence of Nduwayezu (Jaar), and responsibility, 51, 54 87–8 and witnessing, 50, 52, 54, 56 ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Its as accessories to a crime, 47–50 Technological Reproducibility’, 25 as constituting the public, 48–9, 192 Thompson, Florence, 43, 120 as learning process, 179 Through the Eyes of Children, 191 as producers of images/agents of Torgovnik, Jonathan, 93–5, 94, 182–3, their own image, 44, 56, 69, 116, 233n41 180, 191 trauma, 52, 57, 83, 85, 87, 187 Spiegelman, Art, 33, 163, 167, 169–75, and archive, 81 182, 206n80 and artistic work, 52, 85 Stallabras, Julian, 73 and silence, 88 Stoddard, Tom, 68 triplescopic effect, 176, 181 Storr, Robert, 209–10n24 Tropa de Elite (Padilha), Straus, Scott, 89–93, 95, 185 109–13, 115 Strauss, David Levi, 18, 39, 70, Tropa de Elite 2 (Padilha), 109–13 207n104 Struk, Janina, 41, 43, 51 Ubaldo, Rafiki, 35, 95–6, 184, studium, 179 Portfolio 1 Sudan, 42, 60–1, 66 ‘uglification’ (Sontag), 40 superheroes, 166 see also photography/photographs, surround, 15–16, 155, 196n54 and aestheticization survivors’ guilt, 155 Umubyeyi, Sylvie, 85 United Nations, 78, 130, 166 Tahrir Square, Cairo, 69–72 and UNAMIR, 79 Taylor, Diana, 54–5, 81, 172 and UN Resolution 1514, 130, 132 Temples of Memory (Ubaldo), un-photographable (the), 176, 182 Portfolio 1 user-generated images, 11, 41 terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, Uwanyiligira, Edith, 79 52–5, 69–72, 81 and the aftermath, 81 Valentine with her Daughters Amelie and contextualization by means of and Inez, Rwanda 2006, Jonathan pictorial memory, 53 Torgovnik (Fig 3), 94 and memorials, 126 Van Alphen, Ernst, 98 Testino, Mario, 104 Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 128, 137, text–image-relationship, see 141, 144 photography/photographs, and Vietnam War, 128 language visibility, 10, 46, 72, 88, 105, 109, ‘The BBC World Service Atlantic 114–18, 121, 191–2 Relay Station at English Bay on and power, 48, 72, 105, 115–16 Ascension Island’ (Norfolk), 17 visual culture, 5, 55, 164, 181 The Emancipated Spectator, 43 visual dissonance, 178–81 ‘The Era of the Witness’, 77–9, 83 visual emancipation, 50 The Eyes of Gutete Emerita (Jaar), visual literacy, 50, 180–1, 188 87–8 visual peace research, 19–22, 62, ‘The Haunting’ (Longo), 52 180–1, 183 The Mexican Suitcase, 222n103 visuality (in Mirzoeff), 9–10, 48 Index 259 visual surround, 15–16 Wilkes Tucker, Anne, 73 Vugutsa, Zippy, 115 Willis, Deborah, 72 witnessing, 52–7, 77–80 Walker, Lucy, 119 as an activity, 54–5 Wall, Jeff, 15 through reflection, 55 Waltz with Bashir (Folman and Women Are Heroes (JR), 114–18 Polonsky), 176 word–image-relationship, see war photography, see photography/ photography/photographs, photographs, and war and language watercolours, 156, 181 worker-generated Weber, Cynthia, 20 photography, 11 ‘We Will Not Be Silenced’ (McNeely), 52 Ybarra Zavala, Alvaro, 67 Wieviorka, Annette, 77, 83, 214n58 Zambra, Alejandro, 183 WikiLeaks, 73 Zimbalist, Jeff, 115