Developing a Consumer Language to Describe Local Red Wines Using Projective
Mapping
by
Heather Jantzi
Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Nutrition with Honours
Acadia University March, 2017 ©Copyright by Heather Jantzi, 2017
This thesis by Heather Jantzi is accepted in its present form by the School of Nutrition and Dietetics as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science with Honours
Approved by the Thesis Supervisor
______Dr. Matt McSweeney Date
Approved by the Head of the Department
______Dr. Catherine Morley Date
Approved by the Honours Committee
______Dr. Jun Yang Date
ii
I, Heather Jantzi, grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to reproduce, loan or distribute copies of my thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats on a non-profit basis. I however, retain the copyright in my thesis.
______Signature of Author
______Date
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Matthew McSweeney for supervising this research project. His ongoing support and constructive feedback took away my fears of writing a thesis, and his humour and energy made my learning experience more enjoyable than I ever anticipated. I also extend great thanks to Dr. Catherine Morley; her enthusiasm for nutrition research inspired me to pursue a topic I was passionate about and her outstanding teaching skills provided me with the foundations I needed to turn my research curiosities into reality.
Thank you to my parents, Brad and Kristine Jantzi, for encouraging me to make the most out of my university experience. I attribute the skills and knowledge I developed from this project to their continuous reminders of embracing every opportunity that will benefit my personal growth. Thank you to my brother, Matthew Jantzi, for sharing advice from his own research in sociology. His feedback throughout my project provided a refreshing view on the writing process I otherwise would not have had.
Lastly, I can not fail to thank my friends. I thank my peers in the nutrition program for knowing exactly when to compliment my wine research with wine socials.
A greatest thank you goes out to my roommates for providing a warm, fun, and trustworthy living environment. The memories we have made in the last four years have made my Acadia experience one I will always be thankful for.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... V
LIST OF TABLES ...... VIII
LIST OF FIGURES ...... IX
ACRONYMS ...... X
ABSTRACT ...... XI
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 4
2.1 What is Wine? ...... 4
2.2 Grapes ...... 4
2.3 Water ...... 5
2.4 Alcohol ...... 6
2.5 Wine Making Process ...... 6
2.6 Types of Wine ...... 9
2.7 Sensory Evaluation ...... 10 2.7.1 The Wine Wheel ...... 10 2.7.2 Appearance ...... 11 2.7.3 Odour ...... 13 2.7.4 Taste ...... 15 2.7.5 Mouthfeel ...... 16
2.8 Market for Wine in Canada ...... 18
2.9 History of Nova Scotia Wine ...... 20
2.10 Nova Scotia Grape Varieties ...... 21
2.11 Nova Scotia Wine Regions ...... 22
2.12 Nova Scotia's Signature Wines ...... 23
v 2.13 Market for Wine in Nova Scotia ...... 24
2.14 Overall Summary and Objective ...... 25 2.14.1 Project Objectives ...... 26
CHAPTER 3: THE USE OF PROJECTIVE MAPPING TO DETERMINE DESCRIPTORS OF NOVA SCOTIA RED WINES ...... 27
3.1 Introduction ...... 27
3.2 Materials and Methods...... 29 3.2.1 Participants...... 29 3.2.2 Products ...... 30 3.2.3 Sample Preparation and Presentation ...... 30 3.2.4 Testing Environment ...... 31 3.2.5 Experimental Design ...... 31 3.2.6 Statistical Analysis ...... 33
3.3 Results and Discussion ...... 34 3.3.1 Global projective mapping of red wine blends ...... 34 3.3.2 Partial projective mapping of aromas of Nova Scotia red wine blends...... 37 3.3.3 Global projective mapping of single varietal Nova Scotia red wines ...... 39 3.3.4 Partial projective mapping of aromas of Nova Scotia single varietal red wine...... 41
3.4 Conclusion ...... 43
CHAPTER 4: DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF GEOGRAPHIC ORIGIN ON THE ACCEPTABILITY OF WINES ...... 57
4.1 Introduction ...... 57
4.2 Materials and Methods...... 58 4.2.1 Participants...... 58 4.2.2 Products ...... 59 4.2.3 Testing Environment ...... 59 4.2.4 Sample Preparation and Presentation ...... 59 4.2.5 Experimental Design ...... 60 4.2.6 Statistical Analysis ...... 60
4.3 Results and Discussion ...... 60
4.4 Conclusion ...... 62
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION...... 66
REFERENCES ...... 68
APPENDIX ...... 78
Appendix I: Consent Form ...... 78
vi Appendix II- Questionnaire for Consumer Panel...... 81
vii LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Nova Scotia Wine Grape Varietals……………………………………………22
Table 3.1 Geographical Location and Grape Varieties of Wines Assessed in the First Mapping Trial……………………………………………………………………………45
Table 3.2 Geographical Location and Grape Varieties of Wines Assessed in the Second Mapping Trial……………………………………………………………………46
Table 3.3 Eigenvalues and Percent of Variance for each Dimension of the Multiple Factor Analysis of the Global Mapping and Partial Mapping of Blends and Single Varietal Wines ………………………………………………………………………..…47
Table 3.4 Correlation of Attributes with the First Four Dimensions of MFA for Global PM of Nova Scotia Red Wine Blends and the Frequency of Terms……………….……48
Table 3.5 Correlation of Attributes with the First Four Dimensions of MFA for Partial PM of Nova Scotia Red Wine Blends and the Frequency of Terms……………….……50
Table 3.6. Correlation of Attributes with the First Four Dimensions of MFA for Global PM of Nova Scotia Single Varietal Red Wines and the Frequency of Terms...…52
Table 3.7. Correlation of Attributes with the First Four Dimensions of MFA for Partial PM of Nova Scotia Single Varietal Red Wines and the Frequency of Terms..….53
Table 4.1 Geographical Location and Grape Varieties of Wines Assessed in Consumer Acceptance Trial…………………………………………………………………………65
Table 4.2 Means and Standard Deviations of Aroma, Flavour, and Overall Liking of Wines Described as Being from Nova Scotia and California……………………………66
viii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 The original wine aroma wheel………………………………………………11
Figure 3.1 Presentation of wine samples and palate cleansers…………………………..31
Figure 3.2 An example of a completed wine map with descriptors next to each sample..33
Figure 3.3 Product map of global projective mapping of red wine blends………………54
Figure 3.4 Product map of partial projective mapping of red wine blends………………55
Figure 3.5 Product map of global projective mapping of single varietal red wines……..56
Figure 3.6 Product map of partial projective mapping of single varietal red wines……..57
ix ACRONYMS
ANOVA: Analysis of Variance
MFA: Multiple Factor Analysis
NS: Nova Scotia
NSLC: Nova Scotia Liquor Corporation
PM: Projective Mapping
UFP: Ultra Flash Profiling
x ABSTRACT
In the last two decades, the Nova Scotia wine industry has rapidly grown. Recent market research suggests that most Nova Scotia wine consumers are not wine experts, but identify Nova Scotia as a producer of quality wines. Current descriptors of Nova Scotia wines are provided by the winemakers and a wide variety of terms are used to describe the flavours and aromas present in the wine. The objective of this project is to determine consumer descriptors of Nova Scotia wines to begin the preliminary development of a wine wheel specific to the region. In total, two trials were conducted using Nova Scotia red wines. The first trial assessed six red wine blends and the second trial assessed six single varietal wines. Global mapping paired with ultra flash profiling was used to determine flavour descriptors of the wines and partial mapping paired with ultra flash profiling was used to determine aroma descriptors. Blended wines were described as sweet and fruity or dry and peppery whereas single varietal wines were described based on their body, bitterness, and acidity. Both blended and single varietal wine aromas were described with floral, oak, and fruity aromas with single varietal wines smelling stronger and sharper than blended wines. Consumer acceptability testing of Nova Scotia red wines indicated that the overall liking of flavours and aromas were not significantly different than wines described from California, indicating the importance of locality to Nova
Scotia wine consumers.
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CHAPTER 1: Introduction
The first winery in Nova Scotia opened in 1980, and since then the wine industry has grown significantly. Today there are currently twenty wineries present in Nova
Scotia. Nova Scotia (NS) has a cooler climate and shorter growing seasons than many other wine-growing regions around the world (Wines of Nova Scotia, 2016). Furthermore, traditional wine grapes, such as Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, or Merlot grapes do not grow naturally in NS; however, French hybrids, wine grape varieties bred to be optimally grown in less than desirable conditions, have flourished in NS. This has led to successful production of wines that are unique to the region. Examples of these grape varieties include Marechel Foch, Leon Millot, Baco Noir, and Castel (Naugler, Wright, & Murray,
2004).
Nova Scotia is well known for its white wines, most notably, its trademark wine,
Tidal Bay. Tidal Bay wines are known for their acidic, crisp, and fresh flavours. These flavours can be attributed to white wine grapes flourishing in NS’s terroir. Due to the cooler climate, the acidity in the grapes is preserved and contribute to the desirable crisp and acidic character (Wines of Nova Scotia, 2016). Although many wine consumers in
NS are under the impression that NS’s terroir can not grow quality red wine grapes winemakers are beginning to understand NS’s environment as the industry grows, and are now able to make red wines that contain desirable sensory properties (CBC News, 2016).
To date, there has been no research investigating the flavour descriptors of NS’s wines. Although a definition has been created for Tidal Bay from wine makers and wine experts, the sensory properties (aroma and taste) of wine blends and single grape varietal wines experienced by consumers have not been studied. Commonly, wines are described
1 based on characteristics using a wine aroma wheel. The wine aroma wheel was first introduced by Ann C. Noble of University of California, Davis to help all levels of wine drinkers identify flavours and aromas present in wines (Noble, n.d.). Many wine regions in the world have applied this concept to develop their own wine aroma wheel, whether it be for their region specifically, or for a specific style of wine the region creates, to illustrate their wine’s unique characteristics. Currently on NS wine labels, the description provided is created by the winemaker and a wide variety of words are used to describe the flavour and aromas present in locally produced wine. This can lead to consumer confusion and necessitates the need for a common consumer language.
As such, a wine wheel specific to NS should be developed to describe the region’s unique wine varieties. Not only will this benefit consumers, but it will also benefit local wineries, the Nova Scotia Liquor Corporation (NSLC), and companies looking to export
NS wines. Recent market research suggests that wine tourists identify NS as a producer of quality wines, and over half of NS’s wine consumers stated they enjoy consuming wine and learning about wine as a pastime but it is not a passion (Laceby & Sears, 2014).
Therefore, as most of NS’s wine consumers are not experts, it would be beneficial to create a wine wheel using consumer definitions as opposed to trained or experienced wine tasters’ definitions. Trained wine assessors are better able to distinguish small differences between wines. This research is the first of its kind in the region, and the styles of wine available are vast, preliminary work needs to be done to identify broad differences and descriptions of the wines.
One way to effectively investigate the major differences between wines and to create broad descriptors is to use a rapid sensory analysis. This method can identify
2 product attributes quickly and at a low cost while still producing effective results.
Furthermore, this approach commonly uses consumers to conduct product profiling as consumer’s capabilities to accurately describe sensory attributes are becoming more accepted within the sensory science community (Varela & Ares, 2014).
NS wine tourism research also discovered that locality is a significant motivator to purchase NS wines (Laceby & Sears, 2014). However, there has been little research to investigate consumers’ acceptance of NS wines in comparison to wines from other regions. As the NS wine industry is still growing and product profiling has not been conducted, it is unknown whether geographical origin of a wine is an external variable that effects liking of a wine. Furthermore, NS white wine, specifically Tidal Bay, has gained popularity throughout Nova Scotia (Wines of Nova Scotia, 2017), but the acceptance of NS red wines has not been investigated.
The first objective of this research is to explore descriptions of NS red wines using projective mapping, a rapid sensory method that is conducted using untrained consumers. This research is the beginning of the preliminary work for the development of a wine wheel specific to NS’s wines. The second objective of this study is to investigate consumer acceptance and liking of NS red wines using 9-point hedonic scales.
3 CHAPTER 2: Literature Review
2.1 What is Wine? Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes (Puckette &
Hammack, 2015, p. 4). Although wines can be made by fermentation of other fruits, known as fruit wine, grapes are the most common fruit used for wine making (Xu, 2008).
Wine is an ancient beverage and can be traced back to the Zagros Mountains in Iran
(5000 B.C.E) and evolved with developing viticulture in Ancient Egypt between 3000 and 2500 B.C.E. along the Nile Delta region (Xu, 2008). Advancements in wine technology developed through to the nineteenth century, however, major advancements in biochemistry and agriculture after World War II led to a significant increase in wine production (Xu, 2008). Wines can either be made as a single-variety wine or as a blend.
Single variety wines are those made exclusively with one grape variety whereas blends are made by mixing several wine grapes together (Puckette & Hammack, 2015, p. 4).
The major components that make up wine are discussed in the following sections.
2.2 Grapes Wine grapes come from the species Vitis vinifera and are smaller than the table grapes that are normally purchased for consumption (Puckette & Hammack, 2015, p. 4).
French hybrid varieties have also been engineered to create desirable wines (Nova Scotia
Agriculture, 2008). By weight, grapes are made up of 75% pulp, 20% skin, and 5% seeds
(Dharmadhikari, 1994). The pulp is the juicy mass of the grape that, once pressed, contains water and dissolved solids including sugar, small amount of acids, minerals, pectins, and trace vitamins. The skin, if incorporated in the fermentation process,
4 contributes to the aroma, flavour, colour, tannin, and is also responsible for making some wines feel dry or bitter (MacNeil, 2015, p. 9).
A large portion of the dissolved solids in the pulp is sugars. It is from this sugar that alcohol is produced during the fermentation process (MacNeil, 2015, p. 9). The sugar content of juice from ripe grapes contains between 150 to 250 g/L. Glucose and fructose are the two dominant sugars in grape juice; the concentration of glucose is higher in unripe grapes and the concentration of fructose is higher in overripe grapes. At the ripening stage, glucose and fructose are equal; because glucose is approximately 33 percent less sweet than fructose, the concentration of each of these sugars significantly impacts the overall sweetness of the wine (Dharmadhikari, 1994). Grape growers use subjective and objective measures, such as sampling and chemical analysis respectively, to assess the sugar content as well as other chemical constituents of the grapes; based on the style of wine, grapes are harvested when specific measures of each desired grape quality have been reached (Jackson, 2008, p. 213).
2.3 Water Water is the predominant chemical constitute of grapes and wine varying from
75% to 90% by volume (Amerine & Roessler, 1980, p. 68) and plays a critical role in establishing chemical reactions, grape growth, fermentation, and wine aging (Jackson,
2008, p. 274). The main function of water in wine is to act as an aqueous solvent for all other constituents of the wine such as sugar, minerals, acid, glycerol, and other organic compounds (University of California, Davis, 2004). In regards to sensory properties, water influences the tactile sensation of wine and could impart a watery taste (Amerine &
Roessler, 1980, p. 68).
5 2.4 Alcohol The alcoholic production in wine is the result of yeasts. During fermentation, yeast converts one molecule of sugar in the pulp to two molecules of ethanol (MacNeil,
2015, p. 10). Alcohol concentrations can reach up to 14% by volume per bottle of wine
(Jackson, 2002, p. 211). However, higher alcoholic concentrations may be achieved if sugar is added during the fermentation process or if the wine is fortified with more alcohol, in the case of Port, Medeira, and Vermouth styles (Jackson, 2002, p. 221-224).
Other factors that may affect the alcohol concentration include the sugar content, the fermentation temperature, and the yeast strain used (Jackson, 2008, p. 276). The most common yeast strain used is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but related species such as S. bayanus and S. uvarum are equally as effective at conducting alcohol fermentations
(Jackson, 2008, p. 365). Apart from contributing to the wine’s structure, aroma, and flavour, alcohol also acts as a vehicle by which aromas travel from the surface of the wine to the nose (Puckette & Hammack, 2015, p. 11). A high alcohol content in wine can mask aromas and flavours contained within the wine and can instead impart a burning or hot sensation. (MacNeil, 2015, p. 10). In addition, alcohol plays a role in stabilizing the wine by suppressing off-odour producing microbes, and can also decrease sourness and astringency in acidic wines (Jackson, 2008, p. 276-277). The sensory attributes imparted from alcohol, along with all other constituents of wine, are all a result of the wine making process.
2.5 Wine Making Process The wine making process differs depending on the style of wine. However, despite the style, wine making generally involves similar steps including destemming and crushing, fermentation, clarifying, aging, and bottling.
6 Wine making begins with the grapes being harvested and then entering a destemmer. This machine removes leaves and other extraneous materials from the grapes.
The destemmer also lightly crushes the grapes to release their juice. The resulting mass of crushed grapes, juice, skin, pulp, and seeds is called the must (MacNeil, 2015, p. 38). All colour and tannin compounds as well as some varietal flavour attributes are in the skin, so a maceration period may be included for the skins to soak in the juice (Margalit, 2012, p.
27). When making a white wine, the maceration period is excluded or shortened to prevent the skin from imparting unwanted flavours or colour in the wine (Margalit, 2012, p. 28). Next, the must is pressed to release the juices; these juices are then sent to tanks where small, suspended solids from the must can settle and the juice is filtered before fermentation (Jackson, 2008, p. 343). On the other hand, when making red wine, the maceration period is prolonged and occurs simultaneously with fermentation (Jackson,
2008, p. 333).
Fermentation typically occurs in stainless steel tanks under controlled temperatures for optimal yeast growth. Natural yeasts present on the grapes may be used for fermentation but it is common for the juice or must to be inoculated with a known yeast strain to produce specific flavour attributes (Jackson, 2008, p. 334). During red wine production, carbon dioxide produced by fermentation pushes the skins to the surface.
To prevent the skins from staying at the top of the juice and to maximize maceration, juice from the bottom of the tank is pumped over the surface of the skins or the winemaker uses a paddle to push the skins back down into the juice in a process called punching down. This is an important step in production to extract the colour and tannin compounds found in the skin into the juice for development of flavours and aromas
7 (MacNeil, 2015, p. 40). Fermentation continues until a desired alcohol content is reached or until all sugars have been converted to alcohol. Red wines may undergo a second malolactic fermentation to help reduce acidity (Jackson, 2008, p. 334).
After fermentation is complete, red wines are pressed to separate the skins from the liquid and are racked. Racking involves letting liquid separate from the sediments and can last for several weeks or months (Jackson, 2008, p. 334). Both red and white wines undergo fining where substances are added to improve appearance (cloudiness and colour), remove off flavours, and prevent potential instability (Margalit, 2012, p. 103).
Some of these fining substances include charcoal, albumin, casein, gelatin, and isinglass
(Jackson, 2008, p. 435-437). The wines are then filtered to remove any fine particles.
The final step before bottling the wine is the aging process. Depending on the style of wine and the desired flavours and aromas, wine can be aged in barrels or stainless steel vats. Aging wine in barrels can impart flavours of vanilla, tea, and tobacco
(MacNeil, K, p.48-49). Oak alternatives may also be used, due to the time and expense of using oak barrels, such as using oak chips or oak dust immersed in the wine (Margalit,
2012, p. 151). The duration of the aging process can also last from several months to several years depending on the style of wine being produced (winefolly.com, 2014).
Lastly, the wine is bottled. Wines can be sealed using a traditional oak cork, synthetic corks, or aluminum screw caps. Traditional corks are a more expensive method for sealing and are typically used for higher quality wines that can further be aged in the bottle (Margalit, 2012, p. 159). Although sealing wine with an oak cork is the traditional method, these wines risk being affected by cork taint. Cork taint is a musty, mouldy taste that results from contamination by a chemical compound called trichloroanisole,
8 affecting 2-5% of bottled wines (Prescott, Norris, Kunst, & Kim, 2005). However, most wines on the market are not meant to age for more than a year, making screwcap seals a more affordable option with no risk of cork taint (winefolly.com, 2014). Overall, the method in which winemakers choose to bottle and seal wine depends on the specific attributes for the style and type of wine they aim to create. In blind studies, consumers can not tell the difference between the closures of the wine (oregonstate.edu, 2004), however, consumers perceive corked wines as higher quality, and expect to pay more for a corked wine over a screwcap wine (Marin & Durham, 2007).
2.6 Types of Wine Wine is typically divided into two categories, table and fortified. Table wines are any wines that contain an alcohol content below 16% whereas fortified wines contain an alcohol content greater than 16% (May & Sharpe, 2004, p. 15). Furthermore, table wines are divided into still wine and sparkling wine. Still wines are without carbonation and sparkling wines undergo two complete fermentations, retaining the carbon dioxide content from the second fermentation (Amerine & Singleton, 1977, p.4-6).
Still table wines contain red, white, and rosé subgroups (Jackson, 2008, p. 520)
White wine is made from green, yellow, or dark skinned grapes pressed to extract the juice without drawing colour extract from the skins whereas red wine is made from letting the grape skins soak in the juice after crushing (May & Sharpe, 2004, p.16-17).
Rosé wines are produced by using red wine grapes but limiting the soaking time to the point where a blush colour is achieved (May & Sharpe, 2004, p.17). Many are made slightly sweeter to mask bitterness and are finished with carbonation to achieve a refreshing sensation (Jackson, 2002, p. 218).
9 Fortified wines are commonly known as dessert and appetizer wines (Jackson,
2008, p. 552). They are typically consumed in small amounts and the high alcohol content limits microbial spoilage allowing them to remain stable weeks after opening
(Jackson, 2002, p. 221). Common examples of fortified wines are sherry, port, Madeira, and vermouth (Jackson, 2008, p. 552).
2.7 Sensory Evaluation
2.7.1 The Wine Wheel The wine aroma wheel was invented by Ann C. Noble, a retired sensory chemist at the Viticulture and Enology Department of University of California, Davis
(ucdavis.edu, 2015). The purpose of the wheel is to provide terminology for aromas and flavours of wine to help people identify them in wine. Figure 2.1 shows the center tier of the wheel containing generic terms whereas the outside tier contains more specific terms.
The wine aroma wheel is an example of a lexicon. Lexicons are standardized vocabularies, used in the field of sensory evaluation; they describe the sensory properties of products and enable effective communication across diverse audiences (Lawless &
Civille, 2013). The terminology developed provides consistency in sensory evaluation and a foundation to understand product differences, thus aiding in success of product development (Lawless & Civille, 2013). Researchers have also developed a red wine mouthfeel wheel (Gawel, Oberholster, & Francis, 2000), as well as a white wine mouthfeel wheel (Pickering & Demiglio, 2008). The purpose of these wheels is to aid tasters in distinguishing and communicating the in-mouth sensations attributed to both red and white wines, this terminology is not provided on the original wine aroma wheel.
10
Figure 2.1: The original wine aroma wheel (©AC Noble, winearomawheel.com)
2.7.2 Appearance The wine wheel does not take into consideration the appearance of wines; however, evaluating the appearance of wines is important to maintain specific quality attributes that are appropriate for each type of wine (Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p. 26).
When evaluating the appearance of wines, the glass should be tilted against a bright white
11 background at around a 45-degree angle. Generally, the clarity of the wine is analyzed as well as the colour. However, since colour is a learned response that is highly subjective, there is no accepted terminology for evaluating the colour of wine (Amerine & Roessler,
1983, p. 26). Assessing colour for wine quality is less significant when little is known about a wine’s origin, style and age. If these attributes are known, the colour can indicate the correctness of the wine (Jackson, 2002, p. 3).
All bottled wine should be clear. Precipitate within a bottled wine is considered unacceptable, apart from well aged red wines. The colour of the wine can indicate grape maturity, skin contact, and the age of the wine. Immature white grapes make almost clear wines, mature white grapes can make more yellow-tinted wines, and older red grapes may enhance colour intensity. However, the colour intensity depends on the maceration time of the grapes during the wine making process for both red and wine grapes.
Oftentimes the colour effects quality and taste perception; for example, a deep red colour increases perceived quality even among experienced judges (Jackson, 2002, p. 3-4).
The viscosity of the wine can also be evaluated by the appearance. A wine’s viscosity refers to how resistant it is to flowing, or the wine’s liquid consistency. This is usually influenced by sugar, glycerol, and alcohol content of the wine. In table wine, the viscosity is usually ignored but it is typically more noticeable in dessert or fortified wines.
Alcohol may also influence wine tears. Wine tears, also referred to as wine legs, are wine droplets that remain on the inside of the wine glass after swirling. Tears that form and flow down the sides of glass can be indicative of higher alcohol concentrations (Jackson,
2002, p. 5).
12 Appearance is only one way wine is assessed, it establishes the first impressions of how the wine may smell, taste, and feel. If a wine looks different than a consumer is expecting for a specific style, their overall assessment of the wine may be lower.
2.7.3 Odour Smell is a complex physiological system that involves millions of olfactory neurons that transform odorant signals into an image in the brain (Hasin-Brumshtein,
Lancet, & Olender, 2009). Smelling a wine exposes the senses to wines most volatile compounds, such as ester, aldehyde, ketones, and alcohol molecules (Torrens, Riu-
Aumatell, López-Tamames, & Buxaderas, 2004). The most effective assessment of analyzing the aroma of wine is swirling the wine followed by sniffing. The wine glass should be held at the stem and with the wrist stationary, moving the arm in a cyclical motion at the shoulder. Swirling the wine increases contact between air and wine promoting the release of volatile compounds. Wine glasses are shaped with a wide bowl to increase the surface area of the wine, which will optimize releasing aromas when drinking, and a narrow top to collect the aromas that are released when swirling
(winefolly.com, 2014). Inhaling at the rim of the glass, as well as the bowl, for up to two seconds is adequate to assess the in-glass odours. There should be a 30 to 60 second rest between sniffs to prevent loss of sensitivity (Jackson, 2002, p. 5-6). Wine smells are classified into two separate categories: the wine aroma and the wine bouquet.
Wine aromas are odours that are derived from the grape itself (Amerine &
Roessler, 1983, p. 33). An unfermented grape may not have an aroma. They are formed from the metabolism of sugar, fatty acids, organic nitrogen compounds, and cinnamic acids contained within the grape because of fermentation and skin contact (Robinson et
13 al., 2014). These smells are known as primary aromas, and are typically the fruit, floral, or herbal aromas identified in a wine (winefolly.com, 2016). In fine wines, grape varieties have a recognizable aroma (Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p. 34).
The bouquet of the wine refers to odours that are derived from the wine making process of fermentation and aging (Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p. 34). The bouquet from fermentation is known as secondary aromas and the bouquet from aging is known as tertiary aromas (winefolly.com, 2016). During fermentation, yeasts, specifically
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, transform the grape juice constituents, such as sugars through the fermentation process, into aroma and flavour compounds (Styger, Prior, & Bauer,
2011), and produce enzymes that metabolize sugar, fatty acids, organic nitrogen compounds, and cinnamic acids contained within the grape (Robinson et al., 2014).
Secondary aromas are usually those that smell creamy, musty, or bread-like
(winefolly.com, 2016). The tendency for a wine to improve with age in storage is attributed to the bouquet, or the development of tertiary aromas. It is in the storage process that the oak barrels or oxygen levels in a bottle influence the development of these aromas (Picard, Tempere, de Revel, & Marchand, 2015). Aromas from storing in oak barrels can vary depending on the origin (for example, French oak, American oak, or
Hungarian Oak), seasoning, and heating of the wood during aging. The odour modifications associated with oxygen exposure depend on the storage conditions and packaging materials such as sealing the bottle with cork, synthetic cork, or a screw top
(Robinson et al., 2014). Odours associated with the tertiary aromas are nuts, caramel, brown sugar, and smokiness (winefolly.com, 2016).
14 Aromas play an important role in wine flavour. Flavour is defined as the combination of taste, aroma, and mouthfeel characteristics of a product (Lawless &
Heymann, 2010, p. 47). When wine is tasted, the aromas travel retronasally to the olfactory senses, giving the wine its flavour (Francis & Newton, 2005). Taste specifically refers to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, spicy, and umami characteristics as perceived by the taste buds (Lawless & Heymann, 2010, p. 28-30).
2.7.4 Taste When tasting a wine in a sensory evaluation trial, 6 to 10 mL should be sipped and the amount sipped should be consistent for each tasting, ensuring that wine encounters all parts of the mouth by actively swirling (Jackson, 2002, p. 9). The taste of the wine differs from the flavour of the wine in that the flavour is a combination of the in- mouth odour, taste, and texture of the wine. The three important tastes in wine are sweet, sour, and bitter. Taste is less important than odour when judging, although, if one taste is too intense the wine can be rejected (Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p. 45).
Sweetness is detected all over the tongue, but is most sensitive on the tip
(Puckette & Hammack, 2015, p. 18). Sweetness in wine is a result of residual sugar, the sugar in the wine that has not been fermented. A wine is defined as dry when all residual sugar has been fermented (MacNeil, 2015, p. 14). Sweetness can round out and blend flavour components by reducing bitter, sour, and astringent notes that may make a wine taste harsh (Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p.46-47). It is possible that two wines can have the same level of sweetness but differ in perceived sweetness. Acidity can mask the sweetness of a wine, therefore, wines with a lower acidity will taste sweeter than wines with a higher acidity at the same residual sugar levels (Puckette & Hammond, 2015). As
15 a grape ripens, the acid content of the grape decreases and the sugar content increases, and winemakers may attempt to harvest the grapes when they are at a desirable acidity and sugar balance (MacNeil, 2015, p. 11).
Sour is another important taste in wine, and within wine sensory evaluation, is defined as vinegary (Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p. 47). Sourness can be mainly detected along the sides of the tongue and in cheeks (Jackson, 2002, p. 9). A wine’s acidity contributes to the tart and sour taste of the wine (Puckette & Hammack, 2015, p. 10).
Acidity can provide freshness and briskness that contribute to a thirst quenching sensation. Without enough acidity, a dry wine can taste flat and a sweet wine can taste candied (MacNeil, 2015, p. 11). It is common to find higher acidic wines from cooler regions as grapes will not ripen as fully as grapes from warmer climates (Puckette &
Hammond, 2015, p. 10).
Bitterness in wine is detected later than sweetness usually along the central, posterior region of the tongue (Jackson, 2002, p. 9). Bitter characteristics are attributed to tannin content. Tannins come from phenol compounds in the grape skin and function in the plant as protection and preservation. Tannins are primarily associated with red wines as they are fermented with the skins intact, however, the tannin content varies depending on the grape variety (MacNeil, 2015, p. 12). Too much bitterness in a wine is not acceptable to consumers, but some bitterness can balance a wine, smoothing out any other characteristics that may be too dominant in a wine (winefolly.com, 2012).
2.7.5 Mouthfeel The term body, or fullness, is used to describe the viscous mouthfeel of a wine
(Skogerson et al., 2009). A wine can be defined as having a light, medium, or full body.
16 Sweetness, acidity, tannin, and alcohol affect the body of a wine (Puckette & Hammack,
2015, p. 11), although evaluating wine body using these attributes can be inconsistent within the wine industry (Gawel, Van Sluyter, & Waters, 2007). Most research conducted to characterize wine body focuses on the liquids viscosity and the attributes used to describe it (Runnebaum, Boulton, Powell, & Heymann, 2011). Due to its viscous properties, there is a popular misunderstanding that alcohol and glycerol content in wine influences wine body with lower alcohol concentrations contributing to a light body and higher concentrations to a full body (Amerine & Roessler, 1976, p. 52). However, recent studies suggest that these traits do not significantly contribute to the viscous mouthfeel
(Gawel, Van Sluyter, & Waters, 2007), and that the viscous mouthfeel is correlated with physical properties such as viscosity and osmotic potential and chemical properties such as minerals, organic acids, and total extract (Runnebaum, Boulton, Powell, & Heymann,
2011).
Astringency, another mouthfeel characteristic of wine, if often confused by consumers with bitterness. Bitterness is a true taste from the taste buds and astringency is a tactile sensation in the mouth (Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p. 50). Astringency is the sensation of puckering or drying of the mouth (Jackson, 2002, p. 9). Astringency, like bitterness, is associated with the tannin content in the wine (Puckette & Hammack, 2015, p. 10).
The temperature of the wine can affect the smell, the taste, and the touch of wine
(Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p. 53). Coolness enhances the prickling and effervescence
(the bubbliness) in wine because cold temperatures retain carbon dioxide better (Amerine
& Roessler, 1983, p.54). Coolness may also diminish perceived sweetness (Jackson, 2002,
17 p. 98), and reduce volatile compounds such as sulphur dioxide (Amerine & Roessler,
1983, p. 54). Many odourous compounds are more volatile at warmer temperatures which may explain why red wines are most desirable served at warmer temperatures as the odours have a greater volatility (Amerine & Roessler, 1983, p. 54). Prickling is a sensation attributed to carbonation in wines, typically those that are classified as sparkling wines. Bubbles from the carbonation produce a prickling, tingling, or even a painful burning sensation (Jackson, 2002, p. 98). Burning, or warming of the mouth, can also be caused by the alcohol content in the wine (Puckette & Hammack, 2015, p. 11).
Slight pain because of a prickling or burning sensation may not be offensive to consumers; some may tolerate or prefer this sensation more than others (Amerine &
Roessler, 1983, p. 53).
It is important to focus on how individual sensations interact to generate perceptions of balance, flavour, and body (Jackson, 2002, p. 11). Balance is the perception that all odour, taste, and mouthfeel sensations are in equilibrium without one trait dominating (Jackson, 2002, p. 13). Wine makers worldwide are knowledgeable of the influences that impart the characteristics of flavours and balance that make their wines unique and desirable; Canada, although a small producer in the global market, is contributing to the development of popular wines in local wine-growing regions.
2.8 Market for Wine in Canada Canada is not a major producer of wine by global standards, making the domestic market the most important for Canadian wines (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
2015). Within the alcohol beverage sector, wine ranked second in terms of economic value after brewery products, and the growth of domestic wine consumption has out
18 performed that of domestic beer and spirits (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2015).
Between 2000 and 2007, the annual per capita consumption in Canada increased from
11.3 to 14.6 litres (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2015). In a recent interview on
CBC, the Chairman of Vinexpo, Xavier de Eizaguirre, stated that Canadian wine consumption is growing three times faster in Canada than on the global market, and consumption of domestic wines grew to around 15 litres per capita (2013).
The Canadian wine sector is largely located in Ontario and British Columbia and to a smaller extent in Quebec and NS (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2015). The
Canadian Vintners Association (CVA) represents over 90% of Canadian wine produced, advocating on public policy initiatives to find solutions that better the Canadian wine industry (Canadian Vintners Association, 2016). There are two categories of wine produced in Canada, those that are blended with Canadian grapes and imported grapes, and those that are made from 100% Canadian grapes (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
2015). The Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA), was established in Ontario and British
Columbia to designate viticulture areas and appellations (Canadian Vintners Association,
2016), and provide consumers with assurance of regulated product practices and quality
(Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2015). From 1997 to 2007, VQA sales in Ontario alone increased from 2.5 to 9.9 million litres (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2015).
Due to Canada's climate, it has been internationally recognized as a cool climate wine producer (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2015). White wine, benefitting from cool climate grapes, accounts for more than half of the domestic wine consumed in
Canada, whereas two thirds of red wine consumed is imported (Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada, 2015).
19 The Canadian export market for wine is not large due to low vineyard land, which prevents the capacity to manufacture bulk wine (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
2015). By 2014, Canada was ranked 27th in the world for export value at approximately
$66.3 million, however the export value increased 138% from 2010 (Canadian Vintners
Association, 2016). Canada's climate does not allow for a long growing season where large scale grape production can be guaranteed, and the weather causes fluctuations in year to year grape production (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2015). However,
Canada is the largest producer of icewine in the world, which represented 29% of the export value in 2014 (Canadian Vintners Association, 2016). The largest export markets are the United States, Hong Kong, South Korea, and the United Kingdom (Canadian
Vintners Association, 2016).
2.9 History of Nova Scotia Wine Although NS is one of the smaller wine producing regions of Canada, its history of wine making dates to the province’s settlement. Grapevines did not naturally occur in
NS. During the ice age when NS was covered by glacier, grape varieties never spread and cultivated over the previous existing land bridge between present day Massachusetts and
NS; the only present day path to NS is through New Brunswick in which conditions were too cold for grape migration (Naugler, Wright, & Murray, 2004, p. 7).
Grape growing in NS was started by early French settlers around 1600. Although wine grape cultivation was stopped while table grape cultivation flourished, wine grape growing began again in the 1970s and 1980s. The first commercial winery in NS, Grand
Pré Winery, was opened by Roger Dial in the early 1980s and reopened again as present day Domaine de Grand Pré in 2000 (Wood, 2006, p. 1-2). In 1983, shortly after the
20 opening of Grand Pre, Jost Vineyards was opened (Woods, 2006, p. 2). Wineries and vineyards continued to develop throughout all parts of NS including the LaHave River
Valley, Bear River, the Gasperau Valley, and Cape Breton (Wood, 2006, p. 2-5). Today, there are 20 wineries and about 632 acreage of grapes in production in NS (Nova Scotia,
2015).
2.10 Nova Scotia Grape Varieties There are three different grape varieties that are grown in NS: Vitis vinifera, labrusca, and French hybrids (Nova Scotia Agriculture, 2008). Vitis vinifera are the classic grape varietal that produces quality wine but are very sensitive to disease and harsh weather conditions. The labrusca, a hybrid of the species Vitis amurensis from
Russia, is a cold hardy and disease resistant grape but does not produce a high quality wine and is becoming more uncommon in NS wines. The French hybrid varieties are a combination of disease resistance with the quality of the vinifera varieties. These grapes were imported into North America in the 1930s and were bred to resist pests (Naugler,
Wright, & Murray, 2004, p. 135). Most of the grapes grown in NS are the French hybrid variety as they can survive in the short growing season and cooler climate (Nova Scotia
Agriculture, 2008). A list of common NS wine grape varieties is outlined in Table 2.1.
Most grapes require at least 150 frost free days and the vines can tolerate winter temperatures of about -23 ⁰C; the growing season lasts between the last spring frost and the last fall frost (Nova Scotia Agriculture, 2008), except for icewine grapes.
21 Table 2.1. Nova Scotia Wine Grape Varieties
Red Wine Grapes White Wine Grapes
Baco Noir L'Acadie Blanc
Leon Millot Marechal Joffre
Lucie Kuhlmann New York Muscat
Marechal Foch Ortega
Marquette Seyval Blanc
Castel Vidal Blanc
De Chaunac Chardonnay
Pinot Noir Muscat
Triomphe d'Alsace Riesling
Michurinetz Cayuga
Geisenheim
Note: Adapted from The tangled vine: Winegrowing in Nova Scotia, by C Naugler, B.
Wright, and R. Murray, 2004. Nova Scotia: Blue Frog Inc
2.11 Nova Scotia Wine Regions The terroir of the different regions of NS may influence the overall flavours in the final wine product. Terroir is defined as how a region’s climate, soil, and terrain can affect the taste of wine (winfolly.com, 2013). There is similar soil throughout the province, and soft sandstone, silt, and clay are commonly found (Naugler, Wright, &
Murray, 2004, p.59-116). However, the climate and terrain, differ throughout the province. Most of NS’s wineries are in the Annapolis and Gaspereau Valley, the farming center of NS. These regions benefit from warm summers, little rainfall, and south facing
22 slopes for increased sun exposure (Naugler, Wright, & Murray, 2004, p.59-81). With a similar climate, the Avon River Valley can attribute its unique terroir to the Acadians who built dykes to reclaim salt marshes in the 1600s. The high vigour clays and loams with lower acidity make the soil type the most unique, and richest, in all of NS (Naugler,
Wright, & Murray, 2004, p. 87-88).
Unlike the low rainfalls in the Annapolis, Gaspereau, and Avon River Valleys, the
LaHave River Valley, located 5 to 20 kilometers from the coastline, experiences the most rainfall. Winemakers in this region have developed a trellis system along the vines to withstand the winds from hurricanes that may occur late in the season (Naugler, Wright,
& Murray, 2004, p. 103-104). The Malagash Peninsula is also unique due to its specific climate as it has the most frost-free days in the year out of all the other wine regions
(Naugler, Wright, & Murray, 2004, p.95-96). The smallest of the grape growing regions in NS is along the Bear River. Although unknown by many wine drinkers, Bear River has continued success in growing both European varieties and French Hybrid grapes
(Naugler, Wright, & Murray, 2004, p. 116). The differing terroir on the grape varieties grown in NS can lead to many unique flavours in the finished product.
2.12 Nova Scotia's Signature Wines NS has been known for white wines that are bright, crisp, aromatic, and have prominent acidity (Wines of Nova Scotia, 2016). These characteristics can be attributed to NS's cool nights in the growing season that help preserve the grapes’ acids, which balances the sugar content (The Globe and Mail, 2015). In June 2012, NS launched its appellation wine, called Tidal Bay, to reveal the crisp, aromatic, and acidic characteristics
(Wines of Nova Scotia, 2016). Winemakers who choose to produce a Tidal Bay wine
23 must follow the same set of standards, however each wine produced is a unique product as there is a window of variation for the types, and amount, of each grape allowed in the final product (Wines of Nova Scotia, 2016). All grapes must be grown in NS with the primary varieties being L'Acadie Blanc, Vidal Blanc, Seyval Blanc, or Geisenheim. The alcohol content must be between 9.5-11% by volume and no water addition is permitted.
The wine making process must be completed according to the required standards and all blends must have vintage dates (Amateur Winemakers of Nova Scotia, 2013).
Red wine grapes that are successfully grown in NS, are listed in Table 1, these grapes produce rounded, full-bodied wines with low tannins (Wines of Nova Scotia,
2016). It is often thought by consumers that NS is unable to produce quality red wines due to the cooler climate and shorter growing season. However, wine makers are starting to understand NS's terroir and are beginning to produce acceptable red wines (CBC News,
2016). Quality, in the case of wine production, is unclearly defined because no definition has been published and there is confusion about the parameters with which wine can be analyzed. Quality is subjective to an individual and his or her ability to perceive and approve it, therefore different levels of wine drinkers will assess quality based on different dimensions (Charters & Pettigrew, 2007).
2.13 Market for Wine in Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is the fourth largest wine grape producer behind Ontario, British
Columbia, and Quebec (Rimerman, 2013). The province's wine industry is made up of small producers that usually produce fewer than 10 000 cases annually (Rimerman, 2013).
However, the wine industry has had a beneficial impact on the provinces economy and
24 tourism. In 2011, with only 13 wineries at the time, the wine sector had a $196.3 million overall economic impact and generated $14.2 million in tourism (Rimerman, 2013).
In 2015, $11.6 million in local wine was sold in NS, an increase of 12% from the previous year with the sale of local wine doubling in the past 5 years. In addition, the sales of NS wine surpassed wine sales from France, Chile, and Australia in NS (Nova
Scotia Liquor Corporation, 2015). Due to smaller production, $300,000 in exports were generated in 2015 (Nova Scotia, 2016). The NSLC and the wineries themselves are the only authorized distributors of wine in the province. The NSLC has a mandate to support local industry and is prepared to increase shelf space to support the growth of local wines
(The Signal, 2016).
2.14 Overall Summary and Objective As noted previously, Ann C. Noble’s wine wheel has been an outstanding tool to learn about wines and allows numerous levels of wine drinkers (amateurs to experts) to describe complex flavour attributes in both red and white wines. Since her invention, numerous wine wheels have been created to describe specific wine styles as well as describe wines from specific regions. With NS’s fast growing wine industry and unique terroir, the province would benefit from having a wine wheel developed to describe their wines’ flavours. Being able to define the characteristics of NS wines would benefit consumers, wine markers, the NSLC, and companies interested in exporting NS wines.
By having a developed lexicon, NS wines can be classified as unique from all other wines produced from other wine regions on the market.
The objective of this project is to begin the preliminary foundations of creating a Nova
Scotia wine wheel by describing the aromas, tastes, and overall flavours of Nova Scotia
25 red wines and to evaluate the acceptance of these wines using research methods that utilize consumer participants.
2.14.1 Project Objectives 1. To determine the attributes that consumers use to describe Nova Scotia red wines
using rapid sensory techniques and to investigate the differences between single
grape and blended wine varieties.
2. To evaluate consumer liking and acceptability of NS red wines using 9-point
hedonic scales.
26 CHAPTER 3: The use of projective mapping to determine descriptors of Nova
Scotia red wines
3.1 Introduction There are many ways in which wines are categorized. These categories can include colour, vintage, region, and style of wine. Among these factors, however, a wine, whether red or white, will always be categorized as being a single variety wine or a blended wine. Single variety wines are those made exclusively with one grape variety whereas blends are made by mixing several wine grapes together (Puckette & Hammack,
2015, p. 4). Single varietal wines are commonly, but not always, named after the grape variety they are made from such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, and Zinfandel. Each grape variety brings its own unique characteristics to a wine; therefore, single varietal wines made from the same grape should have similar characteristics. This is also true for famous blends such as French Bordeaux wines, Champagne, and Port; because each blend is made with the same styles of grape and in the same quantities of each grape, each style will have similar characteristics.
Well-established wines and wine regions have been studied extensively using numerous sensory evaluative methods to create a standard description for the flavours, aromas, and mouthfeel. For example, Cabernet Sauvignon wines are known to be full bodied with flavours of black cherry, black currant, banking spices, and cedar
(winefolly.com, 2015). For most of the research that has been conducted over time on these wines, wine wheels have been created to classify wines from specific regions as well as grape varietal and style. However, wines that come from smaller regions that are made mostly from hybrid grapes, such as Nova Scotia red wines, have not undergone the
27 same extensive research and have not had their flavours and aromas classified and standardized.
Projective mapping (PM) is an effective way to begin investigating the flavours and aromas of NS red wines. PM is a rapid sensory analysis method that leads to a graphical representation of a product to understand relationships between products, or to better understand consumers’ descriptions of products (Risvik et al., 1994). It can be used to reveal product differences or to assess which attributes are most important in differentiating products. PM is a rapid sensory technique that allows for descriptive information to be gathered quickly and cost-effectively. The PM method involves instructing consumers to place samples, presented simultaneously, onto a two- dimensional space. A piece of paper measuring 60 cm X 40 cm is used for mapping the samples (Jervis & Drake, 2014). Panelists place samples that are perceived as more similar closer together on the space and those that are less similar farther apart; usually, assessors decide on their own discrimination criteria. Since PM does not provide descriptions of the samples, the method is usually paired with Ultra Flash Profiling (UFP).
In the UFP panelists are asked to list adjectives next to each sample after the projections have been made (Dehlholm, 2014, p. 234).
Global PM is performed with no restrictions in the assessors’ separation process;
Partial PM, however, refers to a restricted sensory attribute assessed such as aroma, colour, or mouthfeel (Dehlholm, Brockhoff, Meinert, Aaslyng, & Bredie, 2012). When assessing wine, it is important to incorporate not only the Global PM to evaluate overall differences, but to also conduct partial PM on the aromas of the wine. Aroma is the contributing factor to much a wine’s flavour. As wine is tasted, a wine’s volatile
28 compounds travel retronasally to the olfactory senses, giving the wine its flavour (Francis
& Newton, 2005).
Some research has been conducted to determine whether trained assessors are more effective in describing product differences using PM than panelists who are untrained. It has been suggested that experienced wine tasters may be better at discriminating between small differences among products, but refer to a common memorized wine prototype (Torri et al., 2013). However, some researchers believe that consumers produce similar descriptions as trained assessors in the UFP method (Liu,
Grønbeck, Di Monaco, Giacalone, & Bredie, 2016). Due to the lack of knowledge about
NS red wines it is appropriate to use consumers to generate broad attributes and product differences to being the process of generating a wine wheel unique to NS wines.
The objective of this study is to determine the attributes that consumers use to describe NS red wines using PM for preliminary development of a wine wheel for NS.
This will include the investigation of differences between blended variety and single grape variety wines.
3.2 Materials and Methods
3.2.1 Participants Participants for the PM trials were recruited through email and word of mouth.
All participants were 19 years of age or older, as this is the legal drinking age in the
Province of NS. All participants were from the Wolfville area in the Annapolis Valley, most of whom were faculty or students at Acadia University. The only screening criteria, aside from age, was that participants were wine consumers. Panelists were asked whether they had consumed wine in the last two weeks and if so, they were admitted into the trial.
29 A total of 18 participants completed the first trial and 11 participants completed the second trial; some participants participated in both trials.
3.2.2 Products Each PM session evaluated six red wines that were produced in NS, Canada. In the first trial, the six wines selected were red wine blends. Wines were selected based on wine producer and location produced. Table 3.1 outlines the red wine blends selected with their geographical location and grape varieties. Each wine came from different geographical location within NS. In the second PM trial, the six red wines evaluated were made from a single grape variety. Each wine assessed was made from a different grape variety and once again came from different wineries located in NS. Table 3.2. outlines sample’s geographical location along with the single grape variety used in the wine.
All wines were purchased at the NSLC in Wolfville, NS. These wines are exclusively available in NS and are not available for purchase elsewhere in Canada.
3.2.3 Sample Preparation and Presentation The wine bottles were opened approximately 15 minutes before each PM session and 30 ml of each wine was poured into clear standard ISO wine glasses and covered with lids. All wine bottles were stored at room temperature (23 °C). Random three-digit sample codes were written on the lids with permanent marker and placed on top of each wine glass for identification. Each set of samples was placed on a white tray; the order of sample presentation on each tray was randomized. Each tray contained three soda crackers and filtered water served at room temperature for palate cleansing (Figure 3.1).
Maxwell House brand coffee was presented in a small bowl with each tray to help panelists assess the aromatic attributes of the wine.
30
Figure 3.1 Presentation of wine samples and palate cleansers.
3.2.4 Testing Environment All sessions took place in the Centre for the Sensory Research of Food at Acadia
University. The lab was brightly lit and room temperature was maintained. Participants completed their projective maps on large tables. Depending on the assessor’s availability,
1 to 5 participants may have been completed testing at the same time. Discussion between participants was discouraged.
3.2.5 Experimental Design Approval for the study was received from the Acadia University Research Ethics
Board (REB 16-25). A total of two PM trials took place. The experimental procedure remained the same for each trial, only the samples were different. The first trial contained wine samples that were made from grape blends, and the second trial consisted of wine samples that were made from a single grape variety.
31 Participants were instructed on how to perform the PM method using sandwich cookies as an example food. Participants completed a total of two projective maps per trial, using a 40 cm X 60 cm sheet of paper for each. The first map assessed global perception of the wines and the second assessed the consumers’ perception of aromas
(partial perception). Panelists were encouraged to place samples that seemed similar closer together and those that were different further apart on their piece of paper.
Panelists labelled where each sample was placed and recorded the X and Y coordinates using a metre stick using the bottom left corner of the map as the origin (0,0). The PM was paired with the UFP method and participants listed a few describing words next to each sample (Perrin et al. 2008). A wine wheel was provided to aid in vocabulary and assessors were asked to avoid using descriptions that compare 2 or more wines to each other (e.g., Sample 395 was sweeter than sample 578). Participants were instructed that they could use attributes not found on the wine wheel as well. Figure 3.2 illustrates an example of a completed wine map.
To assess the global perception of the wine, participants were encouraged to swirl the wine sample around the glass a few times and to take a small sip, leaving some of the sample in the glass to evaluate the aroma for the second map. In between, each wine participants were instructed to eat approximately 1/3 of an unsalted cracker and take a drink of water. To evaluate the aroma of each sample, participants swirled the wine and took one or two quick sniffs. In between each wine, panelists were instructed to either smell their shirt or the coffee provided. It was emphasized to avoid over sniffing the samples to prevent fatigue.
32
Figure 3.2. An example of a completed wine map with descriptors next to each sample.
3.2.6 Statistical Analysis All coordinates panelists wrote on their map were double checked by the moderator for accuracy. The coordinates and attributes used to describe each sample were recorded in Microsoft Excel. All intensities of samples were considered separate attributes (e.g., slightly bitter, bitter, very bitter were all entered as separate traits). The first table contained all the x coordinates, the second table contained all the y coordinates and the third table contained the frequency of identified attributes.
Each assessor applied different criteria to distinguish between samples, and therefore the data analysis must consider varying variable sets. Multiple Factor Analysis
(MFA) achieves this by first normalizing each set of variables followed by principal component analysis (Dehlholm, 2014, p. 242-243). MFA data analysis was accomplished using XLSTAT software Version 2014.6 (Addinsoft, New York, NY).
33 3.3 Results and Discussion The objective of this study was to determine the attributes consumers use to describe NS red wines. Both the global PM and partial PM of aromas for each trial were paired with UFP to describe specific traits that differentiated the wines. The results from the sessions were analyzed using MFA and were used to create a representation of the products in graphical form.
3.3.1 Global projective mapping of red wine blends Table 3.3 lists the eigenvalues for the first four axes of the MFA for the PM trial assessing the differences in the overall flavour of NS red wind blends. The four dimensions of the graphical representation created using MFA account for approximately
85.8% of the variance (Figure 3.3). There is no distinction between wine products in each dimension based on grape variety, region of NS, or alcohol percentage. Each wine contained a blend of two or more NS grape varietals such as Lucie Kuhlmann, Castel,
Leon Millot, Marechal Foch, Marquette, and Baco Noir. Since the amount of each grape variety in each blend is unknown, the samples cannot be distinguished within dimensions based on their blend makeup.
To determine how consumers described the NS red wine blends, the sensory attributes generated by the participants were examined. A total of 90 terms were identified by the panelists to describe the red wine blends. Table 3.4 lists these attributes and their frequency (with terms being mentioned only once removed), as well as the correlation between attributes.
The first dimension is driven by fruity, outdoors, and bitter attributes. The positive side of the dimension is driven by oak, berry, pineapple, and lime, while the negative side of the dimension by bitter, black tea, balsamic vinegar, and pepper.
34 Furthermore, a lingering sensation was associated with the positive side, and the sensation of sharpness drove the negative side of this dimension. The second dimension is governed by sweetness, fruitiness, and bitterness. The positive side of the second dimension appears to be driven by sweet, floral, and fruity attributes. The negative side of the second dimension is described by terms such as very dry, bitter, and black fruit. The negative end of dimension two was also driven by sharp, balsamic vinegar, and black tea characteristics. Dimension three is governed predominantly by two acidic tasting driving the positive side and bitter aftertaste driving the negative side. Dimension four is highly governed by semi sweetness driving the positive end, however, there is no clear distinguishing traits associated with the negative end of the dimension.
Again, because the blend makeup of each NS wine is unknown, it is unclear how to distinguish between wines in each dimension of the product map in Figure 1. However, when comparing the sensory characteristics identified in Table 3 to the product map in
Figure 1, two main types of wine are evident among NS red wine blends: those that are described by consumers as sweet and fruity (WB4 and WB5), and another group that is found to be dry, peppery, and balsamic (WB2 and WB3).
Based on the positive dimensions one through four, red wine blends can be defined as having sweet, fruity (including berries, pineapple, and citrus), floral, earthy
(spices, vanilla, and oak), and acidic characteristics. These blends were also described as lingering in the mouth. Sweetness in the wines may suggest that the grapes used within the blends were growing in a warmer region of the province, where further maturity allows for higher sugar contents within the grape (MacNeil, 2015, p. 14). However, dimension three was driven by acidity, and this may suggest that these wines were blends
35 of grapes grown in cooler regions where maturity had not peaked. Therefore, some NS red wine grapes may be harvested at the balance between sweet and acidic characteristics desired in some red wines (MacNeil, 2015, p.11). Fruitiness, berry, and citrus fruits were prevalent in the positive side of these dimensions, and it can be concluded that these NS red wines have a fruity character. The earthy characteristics such as oak and vanilla are typically attributed to oak aging (Garde-Cerdan & Ancin-Azpiliceuta, 2006). Therefore, wines associated with these dimensions may have been aged in barrels.
The second classification of NS red wine blends are described as bitter, very dry, peppery, and balsamic in character. Bitter characteristics can be attributed to the tannin content in the wine; tannins come from phenol compounds in grape skins and levels can vary depending on grape variety (MacNeil, 2015, p. 12). The bitterness in these wines may be attributed to the specific grape varieties in the blend. The dry characteristic of the wine can be from grape ripeness at harvest or the duration of fermentation. Whereas sweet wines are made from grapes that have reached full maturity and the acids have converted to sugars, dry wines can be made from grapes that are harvested before peak maturity, where there is a lower sugar content in the grape. A wine may also be dry when all the sugars are converted to alcohol during the fermentation process, leaving no residual sugar in the final product (MacNeil, 2015. p. 14). The balsamic character in the wine is due to its volatile acidity, which is largely composed of acetic acid. Acetic acids in wine can be a result of the yeasts naturally present on the grape or yeasts strains used for fermentation. They can also form from bacteria such as acetic acid bacteria or lactic acid bacteria that occur naturally on the grape or are added during the wine making process (waterhouse.usdavis.edu, 2004). Furthermore, unlike the lingering characteristic
36 that described the positive sides of the dimensions, these wine blends were described as being sharp. Sharpness is often a term used to describe a spicy finish of a wine; this can be attributed to the alcohol content (alcohol burn), the specific grape variety, or the acid within the wine (winefolly.com, 2014). This characteristic also coincides with the peppery flavour that described these wine blends.
3.3.2 Partial projective mapping of aromas of Nova Scotia red wine blends Table 3.3 lists the eigenvalues for the first four axes of the MFA for the PM trial assessing the differences in the aromas of NS red wine blends. The four dimensions of this partial PM account for 87.7% of the variance. Figure 3.4 displays the graphical representation of the wines based on MFA. Once again, the wines are not distinguished within dimensions based on region, grape varieties, and alcohol percentage. A total of 86 terms were generated to describe the sensory characteristics of the aromas in NS red wine blends. These characteristics, along with their frequencies of use, are listed in Table 3.5.
Terms that were used only once were not included in the table. These terms were compared to Figure 3.4. to determine the aromas of NS red wine blends.
Dimension 1 is governed by fruity characteristics, sour characteristics, and the strength of aroma. The positive dimension is driven by oak, medium, and sour characteristics, while the negative is driven by fruity terms (strawberry, apricot, pineapple), tart, and light. Similar to the global PM of red wine blends, an oaky character is present in the aromas. There is a clear distinction between the strength of the overall aroma within this dimension; wines were described as having a light smell were found on the opposite side of those that had a medium or strong aroma. Although medium is not a common term used to describe wine aroma (but rather used to describe body), it can be
37 suggested that because the participants were not trained, medium was a term used to describe a wine that was in between light aroma and strong aroma. However, there is discrepancy in the panelists’ responses as tart and sour were placed on opposite sides of the first dimension. Each are due to volatile acidity, as mentioned earlier, present because of acetic acid in the wines (waterhouse.usdavis.edu, 2004). Therefore, panelists were confused by these two terms and the panelists may not have agreed on what defines a sour aroma.
Dimension 2 is governed by fruit aromas. The positive side of the dimension is associated with pear, citrus, and dried fruit aromas and the negative is driven by plum, pomegranate and raspberry aromas. The positive side of the dimension is also associated with an alcohol aroma. A discrepancy exists in this dimension as well; the term astringent was used to describe aromas and drives the positive end of the dimension. However, astringent is a term referring to a dry mouthfeel and is not usually considered to be an aroma (Jackson, 2002, p. 9). It is likely consumers are aware that astringent is an attribute associated with wines, but do not understand the context in which it is applied or do not understand the definition of astringency. There are no clear trends in the sensory characteristics on the third dimension, however, the fourth dimension is positively driven by floral aromas (rose and lilac).
From these results, consumers can identify and discriminate NS red wine blends’ aromas by their intensity, sour, oak, fruity, and floral character. The assessment of the aromas agreed with many of the characteristics generated in the global mapping. Fruit characteristics such as citrus, berries, and pineapple were prevalent in both partial and global mapping, as well as oak, floral, and tart (sour and balsamic) traits. Based on the
38 first dimension, NS red wine blends can be clearly sorted based on their aroma strength
(light aroma to strong aroma). Wines with light aromas have fruity characteristics (WB1) and the stronger aromas contain oak and sour aromas (WB5). It is evident that fruity aromas are prevalent descriptors within dimension 2, and these wines can be sorted as having pear and citrus aromas (WB2) or red fruit aromas (WB4). Specific samples are not sorted based on the same criteria used the global PM.
3.3.3 Global projective mapping of single varietal Nova Scotia red wines The dimensions of the global PM account for approximately 83.7% of the variance and the eigenvalues are presented in Table 3.3. Figure 3 shows the graphical representation created using MFA. Table 3.6 lists the sensory terms generated to describe
NS single varietal wines with their frequency of use. A total of 78 terms were generated and terms used only once were removed from the list. The terms from Table 3.6 were compared to Figure 3.5 to determine what characteristics defined single varietal red wines. Dimension one is governed by earthy, acidity, and bitter attributes. The positive side of the dimension is driven by earthy characteristics such as oak and smoky as well acidic characteristics such as acidic aftertaste and tartness. Alcohol and harsh were also terms on the positive side of the dimension, while bitter drove the negative dimension.
Dimension two is governed by body, fruitiness, and mouthfeel characteristics.
The positive side of the dimension contains fruitiness, mild and bold, fuzzy mouthfeel, and smooth. Although there is a discrepancy between both mild and bold body styles on the positive end of the dimension, light flavour was the driving characteristic on the negative side of dimension two. From these results, it can be assumed that assessors could distinguish light wines apart from the rest, but may not have known the difference
39 between mild and bold wines. Another discrepancy is fuzzy mouthfeel and smooth are conflicting terms and they are both found on the positive dimension. However, as seen in
Table 3.6, the smooth attribute was used by consumers to describe the wines much more often than the fuzzy mouthfeel attribute.
From the results of the global PM single varietal wines, terms generated were very different than the Global PM of blended red wines (Section 3.3.1). The panelists focused more on taste intensity and mouthfeel properties of the single varietal wines as opposed to specific flavours. Terms such as light, bold, and smooth were used to describe mouthfeels and specific tastes identified were acidic, bitter, and very dry. The only specific flavours identified were earthy characteristics, such as smoky and oak, and fruitiness. The single varietal wines also do not seem to follow any clear trends; however, they could be sorted based on a light body (SV4), bold body with fruit flavours (SV6), earthy flavours with acidic characteristics (SV1), and bitter character (SV5).
Due to the discrepancies between sensory characteristics within the dimensions as well as a lack of specific flavours identified, many conclusions can be suggested. Firstly, these results may indicate that all the wines tasted very similar and assessors had a difficult time distinguishing specific characteristics between them when performing the
UFP task. Secondly, because many of the terms generated fell into acidic, bitter, and strength categories, it can be suggested that these are the most predominant and intense sensory attributes that consumers recognize with the NS single varietal wines. Lastly, although liking was not accounted for in this study, these results may imply that many assessors did not like the wines and found it more difficult to generate specific terms and instead used more generalized terms, some of which are not desirable if the levels are too
40 intense in one sample. Based on the comparison between NS single varietal wines and the blended red wines as well as the discrepancy and difficulty in term generation, NS single varietal red wines are described using much broader terms by consumers.
3.3.4 Partial projective mapping of aromas of Nova Scotia single varietal red wine Figure 3.6 illustrates a graphical representation of the products based on the MFA.
Table 3.7 outlines the terms generated and their frequencies of use. A total of 81 terms were generated and they were compared to Figure 4 to determine the aromas for NS single varietal red wines.
Dimension 1 was governed by aroma strength, fruit, and floral characteristics.
The positive side of the dimension was driven by light intensity, sour cherry, and pepper.
The negative side of the dimension was driven by floral, tart, and potent or sharp characteristics. This dimension clearly shows distinction between recognizing the wine aromas as being light or strong. When compared to the aromas of the red wine blends
(Table 3.5), light was an intensity that was identified in both trials. However, strong and potent aromas were only prevalent in the single varietal red wine aromas suggesting that single varietal red wines have more distinct aromas than the red wine blends. The second dimension was governed by strength, sweetness, and specific aromas.. The third dimension was driven by fruity and alcohol aromas on the positive side and balsamic, red fruit, and rose on the negative side. Additionally, the fourth dimension was governed by mushroom and raisin aromas on the positive, and strong intensity on the negative side.
The greatest significance of the terms generated in these dimensions is their similarities to those in the aromas of red wine blends. In both graphical representations, wines that had a fruity aroma were also associated with floral aromas. Furthermore, specific aromas
41 such as rose, dried fruit (raisins), and red fruit (strawberries), were used to describe aromas in both the partial PM of blended and single varietal red wines, indicating that aromas of specific grape varieties are also prevalent when blended with other grape varietals.
NS single varietal wine aromas can be sorted, like blended wine aromas, based on their intensity. Wines were clearly separated based on light or strong and sharp aromas.
Wines that have a light aroma are associated with earthy characteristics such as spicy and oak, as well as cherry and sour cherry notes (SV1 and SV2). Strong aromas are sweet, floral, and tart (SV4 and SV6). The characteristics used to describe aroma only showed some similarities to the terms generated in the global PM of single varietal wines.
Notably, sweetness was detected in the aroma of these wines, but was not a driving attribute within the global assessment. Specific fruity characteristics as well as floral aromas were identified in the partial PM as opposed to the global PM. In agreement with the global PM, similarities existed in earthy traits (oak, smoky, and pepper), alcohol, and the intensities of light to strong.
A limitation in this study is that panelists were screened as consumers of wine, however questions pertaining to their knowledge about wine was not asked. This information would have been beneficial in understanding the participants’ terminology generation and it would also indicate if the panel was representative of average wine consumers. Future studies in this area should include questions about level of wine knowledge when participants are screened. Another limitation in this study was the serving temperature of the wine. All wine was served at room temperature (23 degrees), however some wines indicated on the label that they were best served chilled. Descriptors
42 for these wines may have differed if they were served at their recommended temperature.
Future research should consider the recommended serving temperature of each wine. To better understand the flavour and aroma attributes generated by the participants, the wine production methods for each wine should be researched. As each step in the wine production (variety, growing conditions, processing and aging) can affect the wine flavour and aroma (Bakker & Clarke, 2012), the traits generated could be explained by numerous factors.
3.4 Conclusion PM and UFP were effective methods in describing NS red wine flavours and aromas by consumers. Amongst NS red wine blends, a pattern of two types of wine exist.
Blended wines are described as either being sweet and fruity, or are described as having dry, peppery, and balsamic traits. NS single variety wines were mainly described as being light or full bodied, acidic, and bitter, and containing fruity, oak, and smoky flavours.
There was consistency in describing wine aromas for both blends and single varietal wines. It was discovered that both wine types contain similar floral, oak, and fruity aromas, and based on overall strength, it can be suggested that single varietal red wines smell stronger and sharper than NS red wine blends. The terms generated provide a good framework for the development of a wine wheel for NS. Further research should be conducted to investigate descriptors for other styles of NS wines such as white, rosé, and sparkling wines. Future research can also begin investigating specific attributes of each red wine grape variety in depth, investigating the intensities of specific flavours and aromas.
43 Table 3.1 Geographical Location and Grape Varieties of Wines Assessed in the First Mapping Trial Wine Geographical Location Grape Varieties WB1 Annapolis Valley Leon Millot, Marechal Foch WB2 Gaspereau Valley Lucie Kuhlmann, Castel, Marechal Foch, Leon Millot WB3 Gaspereau Valley Marechal Foch, Marquette, Triomphe D’Alsace, Lucie Kuhlmann WB4 Malagash Peninsula Marechal Foch, Leon Millot, Castel, Lucie Khulmann WB5 Annapolis Valley Lucie Kuhlmann, Castel WB6 Cape Breton Baco Noir, Regent, Lucie Kuhlmann, Marquette, Vidal, Leon Millot, Cabernet Foch
44 Table 3.2 Geographical Location and Grape Varieties of Wines Assessed in the Second Mapping Trial Wine Geographical Location Grape Varieties SV1 Avon River Valley Leon Millot SV2 Malagash Peninsula Marechal Foch SV3 Annapolis Valley Castel SV4 Gaspereau Valley Lucie Khulmann SV5 Gaspereau Valley Triomphe D’Alsace SV6 Annapolis Valley Baco Noir
45 Table 3.3 Eigenvalues and Percent of Variance for each Dimension of the Multiple Factor Analysis of the Global Mapping and Partial Mapping of Blends and Single Varietal Wines F1 F2 F3 F4 Global Mapping for Blends Eigenvalue 26.336 19.143 16.533 14.733 Variability (%) 29.263 21.270 18.370 16.370 Cumulative % 29.263 50.532 68.902 85.272 Partial Mapping for Blends Eigenvalue 21.581 18.581 16.279 15.536 Variability (%) 25.390 21.860 19.152 18.277 Cumulative % 25.390 47.249 66.401 84.679 Global Mapping for Single Varietal Eigenvalue 19.824 17.366 15.969 13.380 Variability (%) 25.415 22.264 20.473 17.154 Cumulative % 25.415 47.679 68.152 85.306 Partial Mapping for Single Varietal Eigenvalue 21.444 17.370 16.032 14.126 Variability (%) 26.475 21.445 19.793 17.440 Cumulative % 26.475 47.920 67.713 85.152
46 Table 3.4 Correlation of attributes with the first four dimensions of MFA for Global PM of Nova Scotia red wine blends and the frequency of terms Correlation with dimensions* Attribute Frequency F1 F2 F3 F4 Slightly Bitter 2 0.567 -0.542 0.541 -0.244 Bitter 14 -0.624 -0.720 -0.292 0.082 Bitter Aftertaste 2 -0.371 -0.102 -0.750 0.141 Medium Body 5 0.543 -0.209 0.674 -0.422 Heavy/Full Body 12 0.150 0.185 -0.255 0.073 Light Taste 12 -0.518 0.721 0.105 0.008 Semi Sweet 5 0.028 0.179 -0.351 0.917 Sweet 31 0.197 0.927 0.266 -0.116 Very Sweet 4 -0.168 0.861 0.261 -0.227 Semi Dry 4 0.567 -0.542 0.541 -0.244 Dry 10 0.654 -0.301 -0.599 -0.269 Very Dry 4 -0.523 -0.657 0.533 0.084 Mild 2 0.606 -0.230 -0.092 0.136 Sugary 2 0.603 0.501 0.103 -0.600 Fruity 13 -0.134 0.952 0.189 -0.175 Astringent 3 0.543 0.110 -0.438 0.452 Peppery 4 -0.603 -0.501 -0.103 0.600 Smoky 8 0.485 0.005 0.180 0.461 Cranberry 7 -0.469 -0.565 0.344 -0.572 Lingering 3 0.922 -0.118 -0.311 -0.036 Musty 2 -0.371 -0.102 -0.750 0.141 Tobacco 2 0.112 0.231 -0.387 0.642 Black Cherry 10 -0.356 -0.119 -0.465 0.619 Sour Cherry 4 -0.498 -0.460 0.133 0.323 Black currant 3 0.655 -0.045 -0.375 0.607 Vanilla 2 0.603 0.501 0.103 -0.600 Blackberry 4 0.048 0.173 -0.334 -0.548 Red Fruit 10 0.556 0.328 0.437 -0.053 Black Fruit 8 0.360 -0.805 0.219 0.311 Dried Fruit 4 -0.502 0.465 0.379 -0.607 Raisin 2 -0.195 0.644 0.209 0.102 Berry 2 0.888 -0.236 -0.125 -0.358 Citrus - Lime 2 0.791 -0.004 -0.405 0.224 Citrus 4 -0.270 0.155 0.541 0.355 Sharp 3 -0.652 -0.644 0.191 0.087 Sour 4 0.559 -0.403 0.242 0.683 Mild Acidity 2 -0.556 -0.328 -0.437 0.053 Acidic 8 -0.537 0.082 0.790 0.023 Tangy 2 0.243 -0.471 -0.543 -0.650 Floral 6 0.237 0.915 -0.043 -0.089
47 Blueberry 2 0.112 0.231 -0.387 0.642 Balsamic Vinegar 2 -0.595 -0.640 0.196 -0.327 Coffee 2 -0.559 0.403 -0.242 -0.683 Black Tea 2 -0.595 -0.640 0.196 -0.327 Spicy 6 0.673 -0.365 0.087 0.473 Blackberry 4 -0.559 0.403 -0.242 -0.683 Tart 2 0.567 -0.542 0.541 -0.244 Tart Aftertaste 2 -0.556 -0.328 -0.437 0.053 Rounded 2 -0.595 -0.640 0.196 -0.327 Pineapple 2 0.791 -0.004 -0.405 0.224 Oak 3 0.808 -0.257 -0.118 -0.091 Raspberry 2 0.567 -0.542 0.541 -0.244 Earthy 4 0.654 -0.301 -0.599 -0.269 *Correlations >0.6 are highlighted in bold. Correlations just under 0.6 are italicized
48 Table 3.5 Correlation of Attributes with the First Four Dimensions of MFA for Partial PM of Nova Scotia Red Wine Blends and the Frequency of Terms Correlation with dimensions* Attribute Frequency F1 F2 F3 F4 Tart 5 -0.757 -0.221 0.113 -0.519 Astringent 4 -0.522 0.716 0.057 0.273 Light 18 -0.814 -0.350 -0.081 -0.435 Dry 6 -0.352 0.553 0.260 -0.524 Fruity 14 -0.217 -0.608 -0.341 -0.506 Smoky 5 0.485 0.353 0.403 -0.314 Pepper 2 0.201 0.253 0.625 -0.184 Spicy 6 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Medium 3 0.805 -0.282 -0.244 0.416 Strong 10 0.582 0.619 -0.481 0.158 fSour 8 0.748 -0.387 -0.473 -0.248 Sweet 26 0.373 -0.585 -0.396 -0.178 Raspberry 7 0.466 -0.601 0.373 0.412 Fig 2 -0.572 -0.230 -0.514 0.578 Floral 11 -0.679 -0.341 -0.345 0.521 Rose 2 -0.121 0.643 0.204 0.709 Lilac 2 -0.121 0.643 0.204 0.709 Perfumey 2 0.526 0.130 -0.581 0.552 Earthy 3 -0.173 0.619 -0.563 -0.478 Apricot 2 -0.730 -0.243 -0.527 -0.258 Citrus 5 -0.209 0.891 -0.269 0.139 Blackberry 4 -0.263 0.186 0.646 -0.248 Black Currant 3 0.060 0.296 0.357 -0.399 Oaky 9 0.845 -0.058 -0.397 -0.352 Black Fruit 4 0.572 0.230 0.514 -0.578 Acidic 12 -0.421 -0.489 0.549 0.012 Vinegar 3 -0.805 0.282 0.244 -0.416 Cranberry 4 0.572 0.230 0.514 -0.578 Cherry 12 0.487 -0.328 -0.054 0.773 Tomato 3 0.255 -0.427 -0.544 -0.513 Strawberry 2 -0.704 0.489 -0.114 -0.277 Blueberry 3 -0.680 -0.396 -0.134 0.390 Cigar Box 2 0.414 -0.542 0.408 -0.140 Pear 2 0.394 0.849 -0.180 -0.303 Pomegranate 2 0.178 -0.618 0.695 -0.275 Pineapple 2 -0.727 -0.382 -0.044 -0.368 Rain 2 -0.704 0.489 -0.114 -0.277 Plum 2 0.178 -0.618 0.695 -0.275 Alcohol 4 -0.251 0.717 0.556 0.298 Dried Fruit 2 0.394 0.849 -0.180 -0.303
49 aseptic/hospital/chemical 3 0.007 -0.048 -0.124 0.989 Musty 2 -0.730 -0.243 -0.527 -0.258 Berry 5 -0.659 -0.212 0.611 0.290 Rotting Fruit 3 0.659 0.212 -0.611 -0.290 *Correlations >0.6 are highlighted in bold. Correlations just under 0.6 are italicized
50 Table 3.6. Correlation of Attributes with the First Four Dimensions of MFA for Global PM of Nova Scotia Single Varietal Red Wines and the Frequency of Terms Correlation with dimensions* Attribute Frequency F1 F2 F3 F4 Semi Sweet 3 0.518 0.581 0.601 0.088 Sweet 16 0.476 -0.298 -0.216 -0.501 Slightly Dry 2 -0.594 0.655 0.022 -0.215 Dry 5 -0.532 -0.466 0.669 -0.104 Very Dry 2 -0.119 -0.527 -0.703 0.305 Light 10 0.275 -0.745 -0.575 0.156 Mild 2 0.556 0.794 -0.030 0.122 Slightly Astringent 2 -0.438 -0.266 0.733 -0.427 Floral 3 -0.541 0.455 -0.461 -0.534 Slightly Fruity 3 -0.567 0.450 0.650 -0.230 Fruity 7 -0.099 0.967 0.055 -0.152 Acidic 11 -0.309 -0.470 0.469 0.654 Acidic aftertaste 2 0.740 -0.121 -0.498 -0.412 Heavy 3 -0.292 0.197 0.408 0.764 Strong Aftertaste 2 -0.119 -0.527 -0.703 0.305 Bold 3 -0.207 0.807 0.359 0.208 Rich 5 -0.081 -0.253 0.777 -0.480 Harsh 2 0.713 -0.127 0.681 -0.089 Strong 3 -0.394 -0.413 0.209 -0.733 Sharp 2 -0.144 0.571 -0.554 -0.168 Lingering 3 -0.518 -0.581 -0.601 -0.088 Tart 3 0.788 0.521 -0.011 0.038 Slightly Bitter 3 -0.541 0.455 -0.461 -0.534 Bitter 12 -0.692 -0.601 0.018 -0.213 Cherry 9 0.642 0.419 -0.589 -0.129 Sour 13 -0.336 0.306 0.650 -0.207 Smoky 2 0.713 -0.127 0.681 -0.089 Oak 2 0.713 -0.127 0.681 -0.089 Warm 2 -0.594 0.655 0.022 -0.215 Soft/Velvet mouthfeel 2 0.740 -0.121 -0.498 -0.412 Mushroom 2 -0.411 -0.260 -0.446 -0.749 Earthy 2 -0.569 -0.444 -0.127 0.258 Fuzzy Mouthfeel 2 0.556 0.794 -0.030 0.122 Pepper 2 -0.302 0.387 -0.235 0.839 Cranberry 3 0.541 -0.455 0.461 0.534 Spice 3 -0.143 0.371 0.107 -0.185 Smooth 6 -0.128 0.752 -0.581 0.172 Alcohol 2 0.740 -0.121 -0.498 -0.412 Tangy 4 0.594 -0.655 -0.022 0.215 *Correlations >0.6 are highlighted in bold. Correlations just under 0.6 are italicized
51
Table 3.7. Correlation of Attributes with the First Four Dimensions of MFA for Partial PM of Nova Scotia Single Varietal Red Wines and the Frequency of Terms Correlation with dimensions* Attribute Frequency F1 F2 F3 F4 Semi Sweet 4 -0.516 -0.688 0.343 0.367 Sweet 22 0.167 0.725 -0.464 -0.344 Light 3 0.815 -0.282 0.438 0.158 Soft 2 0.882 -0.154 -0.073 -0.394 Weak 4 0.726 0.180 -0.403 -0.121 Mild 3 0.033 -0.792 -0.122 0.537 Fruity 7 -0.012 0.598 0.794 -0.022 Floral 4 -0.784 0.049 -0.286 -0.194 Slightly Astringent 2 -0.580 -0.292 -0.373 -0.168 Astringent 2 -0.301 0.445 0.445 0.561 Heavy 2 -0.366 0.841 -0.270 0.027 Strong 7 0.254 -0.154 0.619 -0.699 Sharp 2 -0.580 -0.292 -0.373 -0.168 Neutral 2 -0.784 0.049 -0.286 -0.194 Acidic 3 -0.196 0.185 0.606 0.693 Oak 4 0.366 -0.841 0.270 -0.027 Rose 2 0.470 0.098 -0.651 0.229 Mushroom 3 -0.071 -0.025 0.553 0.709 Cherry 3 -0.276 -0.763 -0.531 -0.115 Sour Cherry 2 0.882 -0.154 -0.073 -0.394 Pepper 2 0.882 -0.154 -0.073 -0.394 Blackcurrant 5 -0.551 -0.608 -0.159 -0.509 Strawberry 2 0.046 0.590 0.309 -0.596 Tart 2 -0.784 0.049 -0.286 -0.194 Sweettart 2 -0.366 0.841 -0.270 0.027 Truffle 2 0.535 -0.298 0.064 0.764 Earth 2 -0.516 -0.688 0.343 0.367 Balsamic 3 0.175 0.649 -0.701 0.216 Raisin 2 0.535 -0.298 0.064 0.764 Red Fruit 3 0.175 0.649 -0.701 0.216 Cat Pee 2 -0.021 -0.184 0.679 0.710 Spice 2 -0.098 0.105 0.358 0.588 Smooth 2 0.882 -0.154 -0.073 -0.394 Bitter 3 0.755 0.091 -0.237 -0.346 Alcohol 4 0.008 0.189 0.874 0.333 Rotten Fruit 2 0.314 -0.146 0.937 -0.035 Potent 2 -0.784 0.049 -0.286 -0.194 *Correlations >0.6 are highlighted in bold. Correlations just under 0.6 are italicized
52
Figure 3.3 Product map of global projective mapping of red wine blends
53
Figure 3.4 Product map of partial projective mapping of red wine blends
54
Figure 3.5 Product map of global projective mapping of single varietal red wines
55
Figure 3.6 Product map of partial projective mapping of single varietal red wines
56 CHAPTER 4: Determining the effect of geographic origin on the acceptability of
wines
4.1 Introduction There are many factors involved in the acceptance of a food product by consumers. Expectation of a product’s attributes are an important part of whether or not the product is accepted. Consumers expectations are formed by previous knowledge about the product (Kälviäinen, Schlich, & Tuorila, 2000), whether it be from personal experience or collected information. In the case of wines they have not tasted before, consumers must rely on external cues, such as the wine region, to make a purchasing decision (Chrea et al., 2011).
Consumers may develop their own expectations for wines based on the region they originate from; for example, because California has warm weather year-round, a consumer may assume that the region can produce better quality wines compared to a region with a cooler climate. Nova Scotia is a region with a shorter growing season than other parts of the world and most of the grape varieties grown are hybrids. Due to its cool climate, NS has become known to produce quality white wine with a fresh and acidic character, so much so, that NS has created its own trademark white wine blend called
Tidal Bay. The success of NS’s white wine has led many consumers to assume that the province is unable to produce quality red wines as the region is not warm enough; however, winemakers are beginning to understand NS’s environment and are producing higher quality red wines.
Buying local products has become an increasing trend not only in NS, but also across Canada and around the world (Knight, 2013). Food choice studies worldwide
57 have shown that consumers are willing to pay a premium for local food as they perceive local foods to be of higher quality (Feldmann & Hamm, 2015). Consumers also associate local foods as being fresh, nutritious, and safe (Aprile, Caputo, & Jr, 2016). Social features also play an important part in local food purchasing as consumers view local food as a means to support and build relationships with local farmers (Zepeda & Leviten-
Reid, 2004), as well as benefitting the environment (Tregear & Ness, 2005). Provincial governments have even begun launching initiatives that promote the buying and selling of local products in response to consumers’ demand (Knight, 2013). This trend is reflective in NS wines as well. Among different segments of wine tourists in NS, from curious consumers to wine lovers, people expressed high opinions of NS wines; furthermore, all tourists thought buying local wine was a significant motivator for choosing NS wines (Laceby & Sears, 2014).
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of geographic origin on consumers’ acceptance of red wines and to evaluate whether consumers prefer red wines produced locally (within NS).
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.2.1 Participants All participants for the consumer analysis were recruited via email or word of mouth. Participants were screened for age (19 years of age or older) and whether they were red wine consumers. Most of the assessors were students or faculty from Acadia
University with some participants from the Wolfville community. A total of 99 people participated in the study.
58 4.2.2 Products Consumers evaluated three red wines that were classified as 100% Nova Scotian.
A fourth sample was also assessed which was a replicate of one of the three samples.
Wines were selected based on winemaker and location produced. Each wine came from a different winery in different geographical locations of NS. All wines selected were also used in the PM study. As seen in Table 4.1, a brief description of each wine’s geographical location was given to the assessors, and a false description, stating the wine was made in California, was given for the replicate wine.
All wines were purchased at the NSLC in Wolfville, NS, Canada. These wines are exclusively available in NS and are not available for purchase elsewhere in Canada.
4.2.3 Testing Environment This study took place in the Centre for the Sensory Research of Food at Acadia
University. The testing was conducted in individual sensory booths. The survey was administered on a computer using Compusense® Five Software (Guelph, Ontario,
Canada). Participants responded to the survey using a computer mouse. All testing took place under florescent lighting in a temperature controlled environment at 25° Celsius.
4.2.4 Sample Preparation and Presentation The bottles were opened approximately 15 minutes before the panelist arrived and
30 mL of each wine was poured into clear standard ISO wine glasses. All wine bottles were stored at room temperature (23°C). Samples were labelled using a placemat system on each tray. The placemat had four circles with random 3 digit codes and each sample was assigned to each code. Samples were presented one at a time to assessors in random order. Trays also contained three soda crackers and filtered water served at room temperature for palate cleansing.
59 4.2.5 Experimental Design Ethics approval for the study was received from the Acadia University Research
Ethics Board (REB 16-25). Participants completed testing in the sensory booths where they were presented with each sample one at a time in random order. Within each booth, a piece of paper outlined a location description for each sample. Three of the wines were described as produced in NS, and the other was as being produced in California. The wine being described as from California was a repeat of one of the NS samples.
Assessors were asked to assess their liking of aroma, flavour, and the overall liking of each wine on a 9-point hedonic scale where 1=dislike very much to 9=like very much on a computer. A comment section was provided for each sample. Between samples, the screen set a timer of 30 seconds for the assessors to take a sip of water and cleanse their palate with soda crackers.
4.2.6 Statistical Analysis All data were collected using Compusense® Five Software on the computers within each sensory booth. The scores obtained from the consumer trial (n=99) were analyzed using a one way ANOVA and then a Tukey Honest Significant Difference
(HSD) test. The ANOVA was conducted using R version 3.2.2 (Vienna, Austria) at a
0.05 confidence level (α=0.05). The mean liking scores and standard deviation were calculated and the results are summarized in Table 4.2.
4.3 Results and Discussion
In this trial, panelists drank three NS red wines that were given descriptions as being from NS, and a fourth NS red wine sample that was described as being from California.
As seen in Table 4.2, there is no difference between liking of wine aroma, flavour, and
60 overall liking between the NS descriptions and the California description. All liking scores were very similar, ranging from 5.5 to 6.1. On the 9-point hedonic scale, these numbers fall under the ratings of neither like or dislike to like slightly. The only significant difference in the results was between the liking of aromas between the red wine with the NS2 description having an average liking of 5.5 ± 1.9 whereas the wine with the NS3 description had an averaging liking of 6.3 ± 1.5. Nova Scotia wine consumers did not favour the wine that was being described as from California and therefore the external factor of wine location description, did not affect the liking of the wine.
The results are significant due to the reputation of California wines. California is the fourth largest producer of wine in the world and is home to the single largest wine producer in the world (wineinstitute.org, 2016; winefolly.com, 2013). Furthermore,
Canada is the largest export market for California wines (wineinstitute.org, 2015).
Quality is subjective in all levels of wine drinkers (Charters & Pettigrew, 2007), but average consumers will use reputation as an external factor in liking wine (Schamel,
2002). However, in this study the external cue of location (and reputation of the location) did not affect the liking between the two wines and panelists relied on the intrinsic ques, the wine itself, to determine degree of liking. The results may differ if they were given a bottle of wine including the label, instead of just a sample of it.
This is a positive discovery for NS wineries; locality is important to consumers and the results from this study may be the beginnings to disproving the theory of NS being unable to produce quality red wines over other wine regions of the world.
61 The major limitation in this research is the use of only one other wine region description in comparison to NS wine region descriptions. Including more than one wine region description and comparing them to the NS descriptors would have provided more information on the effect of locality on red wine consumers in NS. Furthermore, the number of samples in this study was limited to only three wine products. Including more
NS red wine products in the trial may have been more representative of degree of liking or disliking of the product. By adding more descriptions and including both local descriptions and descriptions of other wine regions would have been a better representation of the dilemma red wine consumers face when purchasing products from the NSLC. Another limitation in this study is the use of paper to provide wine descriptions, and the computer to provide answers. Ease of use to conduct the study may be improved if descriptions were displayed on the computer along with the liking scales, as well as providing the reader with a continuous reminder of the regional description of the sample they are assessing. Lastly, assessors were not asked about their level of wine knowledge when conducting the experiment. Knowing the level of experience or knowledge about wine could help illustrate the testing population’s representativeness of average consumers.
4.4 Conclusion In summary, the degree of liking among all samples was very similar ranging from neither like or dislike to liking slightly. There was no difference between liking across all attributes between wines described as from NS and the NS wine given the California description. The results illustrate that the region of a wine may not be a significant external factor and that local wines are important to consumers in NS. Future research
62 should investigate the degree of liking of white wines to other regions, as well as include descriptions from other wine regions of the world.
63 Table 4.1 Geographical Location and Grape Varieties of Wines Assessed in Consumer Acceptance Trial Wine Description Given to Assessors NS1 This red wine was produced solely from grapes grown on the hillside of the Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia, where the unique tidal airflow from the Bay of Fundy provides mild temperatures year-round. NS2 This red wine was produced from 100% Nova Scotia grapes grown on gently sloping hills overlooking the Avon River Valley, one of the warmest vineyard regions in all of Nova Scotia. NS3 This red wine was produced exclusively from Nova Scotia grapes grown in gentle hills and sheltered coastal inlets of the Northumberland shores, sharing the same latitude as renowned grape growing regions of Europe. Replicate Wine This red wine was produced on the North Coast of California, the coolest region in the state, from grapes grown entirely from the bottom of the Napa Valley where vines bask in abundant sunlight.
64 Table 4.2 Means and Standard Deviations of Aroma, Flavour, and Overall Liking of Wines Described as Being from Nova Scotia and California NS1 NS2 NS3 Replicate Wine Aroma Liking Mean1 6.0ab2, 3 5.5a 6.3b 5.9ab Standard Deviation 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.8 Flavour Liking Mean 6.0a 5.6a 6.2a 6.1a Standard Deviation 1.8 2.2 1.8 1.9 Overall Liking Mean 6.0a 5.5a 6.1a 6.1a Standard Deviation 1.6 2.1 1.7 1.8 1. n=99 2. Means within the same row with the same letter are not significantly different at the 95% confidence interval 3. Testing was done using a 9-point Hedonic scale where 1=extremely dislike and 9=extremely like
65 CHAPTER 5: Conclusion
The outcome of this research provided broad differences and descriptions for
Nova Scotia red wines, as well as a projection of their acceptability and degree of liking among consumers. PM and UFP were successful in identifying the terms consumers use to describe NS red wine. Based on these results, it was found that there are significant differences between red wine blends and single varietal red wines. Blends can be divided into two main categories: those that are sweet and fruity and those that are dry, peppery, and balsamic in taste. Single varietal wines were described based on their body, from light to full, as well as acidic and bitter characteristics. It was found that single varietal wines contain fruity, oak, and smoky flavours. Although there was some discrepancy among consumers to describe NS wine aromas, there were many similarities between blends and single varietal wines. Both were described as having floral, oak, and fruity aromas, and it was suggested that single varietal wines have a stronger aroma than blends.
These results allow for a preliminary description of NS red wines to be created and the terms generated in this research will be used as a basis for the development of a wine wheel specific to NS.
The results of the consumer trial indicate that NS wine consumers were not affected by the geographic origin of red wine. There was no difference in the degree of liking for the sample described as from California to those that were from NS. These results illustrate that NS wine consumers may not be using region as an external factor for wine expectations. This is valuable to the growing NS wine industry, as this research may prove that NS wine consumers rely on intrinsic properties instead of geographic origin.
66 There have been very few studies conducted on the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance of NS wines and further research is necessary to construct a NS wine wheel. To further investigate wine attributes of NS wines, sensory trials need to be conducted on white, rosé, and sparkling wines. Furthermore, this research revealed many differences between blends and single varietal red wines. Research could also investigate specific wine blend attributes analyzing quantities of each grape variety, as well as looking at attributes associated with specific red grape varietals. Future consumer acceptance trials should also investigate other NS wine styles, as well as including other wine region descriptors to show a larger representation of the liking of NS wines and importance of locality to NS wine consumers.
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77 APPENDIX
Appendix I: Consent Form
Project title: Projective Mapping of Nova Scotia Wines A sensory evaluation project conducted by: • Matthew McSweeney, Acadia University Centre for Sensory Research of Food (Principal Investigator) • Heather Jantzi, Acadia University Centre for Sensory Research of Food (Collaborator)
Project is funded by the Centre for the Sensory Research of Food.
Study intent You are being asked to participate as a participant in a sensory study for wine. The purpose of this study is to evaluate flavours and aromas of select wines. This consent form is intended to help you understand exactly what we are asking of you so that you may decide whether you want to participate in the study. Please read the form carefully and ask any questions you like before deciding to participate. Your participation is completely voluntary and you are free to withdraw from the testing at any time, without penalty.
The procedure
If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you to do the following things:
1) Screening questionnaire: You will be provided with a questionnaire regarding your food habits and any allergies/sensitivities you may have. During the study, you will be describing the tastes and flavours of food products. Your answers to the food habits and allergies/sensitivities sections will assist us in knowing how well you can complete the study.
2) Projective Mapping Sessions: If you are selected, you will be invited to participate in projective mapping sessions. You will be asked to evaluate wine for perception of various flavour, aroma and texture properties.
The projective mapping is expected to take 2 sessions of approximately 45 minutes. The time for the sessions will be confirmed with you after screening has taken place.
78 Projective mapping involves meeting at a scheduled time to taste and describe the tastes/flavours of wine. You will place samples on a piece of paper with those you think are similar closer together, and those you think are less similar further apart based on your own discrimination criteria. You will then write descriptors next to each sample you placed. We will assist you with vocabulary if needed.
During each session day, you will be provided with an ingredient list of the food products that you will be tasting. Please let us know if you are allergic to any of the ingredients or if you feel uncomfortable eating any of the products. You will not receive a large amount of any of the food products but if you feel that you are getting full, you can stop eating at any point during training.
We will reimburse you $15.00 for each tasting session that you attend. If you cannot make a tasting session, please contact us to let us know.
Confidentiality and use of data. Confidentiality will be respected. Each participant is given a code number for use in the study. Data files and all personal information that could identify you, such as name and address is confidential and held separately in a locked file at Acadia University. Risks If you have any allergies or sensitivities to wine, sulfites, alcohol or unsalted soda crackers you should not participate in this study.
A complete list of ingredients for the food products being tested will be provided before each tasting session.
Thank you gift for participating To thank you for your time all participants will be offered a $15.00 for each one- hour session you participate in.
Agreement and signature
I, ______, agree to participate in the study described above. (Please print name)
I have read this consent form and understand the risks and the information provided. All my questions have been answered to my satisfaction. I understand that participation is voluntary and that I may withdraw at any time without penalty. Consenting to participate does not waive any rights that I have to legal recourse in the event of research related harm. I understand that the consumption of alcohol by pregnant women has been shown to have substantial negative effects on the fetus. I understand that if I am driving, I will take a breathalyzer test upon conclusion of the trial and will remain at the facility until my blood alcohol concentration is below 0.05%. I understand that
79 I have 30 days following my participation to withdraw my responses, after which it will be no longer possible.
I voluntarily consent to participate in this study.
______Date: ______(Signature of Participant)
Please indicate your e-mail address and/or phone number so you can be contacted at the completion of the study to reveal the company involved.
E-mail: ______Phone: ______
For additional information contact Matt McSweeney, Acadia University Centre for Sensory Research of Food, 902-585-1230, [email protected]. ______(Signature of Researcher)
This study has been reviewed and approved by Acadia University’s Research Ethics Board (date of approval June 4, 2016). For more information, contact Dr. Stephen Maitzen, Chair, Research Ethics Board, 902-585-1498 or [email protected]
80 Appendix II- Questionnaire for Consumer Panel * Was shown on a computer screen (Compusense Five Software)
In front of you is a sample of wine. The sample is labeled with a 3 digit code. Please sip sample 123
How much do you like or dislike the aroma of this product?
Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Neither Like Like Like Like Extremely Very much Moderately Slightly like nor dislike Slightly Moderately Very much Extremely
How much do you like or dislike the flavour of this product?
Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Neither Like Like Like Like Extremely Very much Moderately Slightly like nor dislike Slightly Moderately Very much Extremely
How much do you like or dislike this product?
Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Neither Like Like Like Like Extremely Very much Moderately Slightly like nor dislike Slightly Moderately Very much Extremely
What attributes do you like/dislike about sample 123? Please write below.
Thank you very much for your time!
81