Art, Economics and Politics in Modern Turkey Edited by William Sayers

ART, ECONOMICS AND POLITICS IN MODERN TURKEY EDITED BY WILLIAM SAYERS

AGP SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE • Prof. Dr. Giles Chemla (Imperial College London) • Prof. Dr. Gustavo Araújo Batista (University of Uberaba) • Prof. Dr. Douglas E. Angus (University of Ottawa) • Prof. Dr. Kâzım Yetiş (Istanbul Aydın University) • Prof. Dr. Larissa Clare Pochmann da Silva (Candido Mendes University) • Prof. Dr. Luisa Maria Arvide Cambra (University of Almeria) • Prof. Dr. Norbert Pap (University of Pec) • Prof. Dr. Sueli Teresinha de Abreu Bernardes (University of Uberaba) • Prof. Dr. Babak Rahimi (UC San Diego) • Prof. Dr. Sabit Oymael (Istanbul Arel University) • Prof. Dr. Nurhodja Akbulaev (Azerbaycan State University) • Prof. Dr. Richard Smiths (London Goldsmiths) • Prof. Dr. Richard Davis (Durham) • Prof. Dr. Şakir Gözütok (Van Yüzüncü Yıl) • Prof. Dr. Zeki Taştan (Van Yüzüncü Yıl)

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Art, Economics and Politics in Modern Turkey

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An Example of Traditional Handicrafts in Midyat: Production of Filigree

Adnan Alkan Siirt University, Department of Geography *Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The culture, which is formed by the material and the spiritual values of a community acquired throughout history, is no doubt the basic element of society reflecting the lifestyle and level of development. One of the important cultural entities is handicraft that transfers thousands of years of cultural heritage to next generations. It is also one of the most important bridges linking the past with the future. As has been the most meaningful and significant document, handicrafts gained traditional qualifications by reflecting the community’s sense and cultural identity. Anatolia has a cultural diversity, which forms a mosaic. Therefore, in terms of folk culture products and traditional crafts Anatolia has a great wealth. Midyat has also a great wealth of cultural diversity and mosaics as well as traditional handicrafts that can be described as a small cameo of Anatolia. As being one of the most important places of the ancient cultures of Anatolia and Mesopotamia, people from different races and religions lived together for thousands of years in Midyat. Mainly, including the production of filigree and stone masonry, the traditional handicrafts have become the most concrete way that reflects the ancient culture of the city of Midyat. In this work as being most important examples of Anatolian and Midyat culture, filigree production is discussed. Like other traditional crafts in Turkey, filigree loses its significance and the interest in the art of filigree as a profession decreases steadily. Especially, filigree cannot resist against casting silver produced with modern techniques and industrialization. Approximately 25 filigree processing workshop located in Midyat today and the products are sold in these shops or jewelry store. Syrian artisans run the vast majority of these workshops which are decreasing day by day. The filigree produced with modern machines and casting silver in a much shorter time and sold lower prices affect negatively professional craftsmen uses traditional methods and it eliminates their competitiveness. In this context, filigree workshop using traditional methods and reflecting thousands of years of artistic and aesthetic knowledge, need to be supported. In addition, it is necessary to ensure the survival of this art master. In this study, the emergence, development, production, production methods of the filigree, which has an important place in Midyat culture, were studied. In addition, what needs to be done to keep alive the craft of filigree was examined. A literature review was made by investigating previous studies on the subject. Then, filigree workshop was examined by conducting a field research. The information obtained by making the interview with filigree masters, the people who sell filigree products and reflect the cultural identity of the city. This information was analyzed according to the principles of geography.

Keywords: Midyat, Telkari, Handicrafts, Traditional, Culture

1. Introduction feelings, artistic admirations and cultural characteristics of the source society. Handicrafts are works of art and craft, which Production of traditional handicrafts with daily are fostered to satisfy the human needs, use purpose or artistic value is gradually undergo a change depending on natural and gaining importance as a cultural indicator for environmental conditions, and reflect the

1 developing as well as developed countries, settlement for many civilizations through its which reflects the beauty of art against deep history where many communities led a spreading industrial design products that life in which people belonging to different threaten the grace and quality of life [1]. languages and religions lived in peace (Figure Traditional handicrafts works, bearing the trace 1). Midyat, an ancient city, hosted a raft of of cultural ruins, habits, morals and conducts peoples, religions and cultures. In particular which are revered and handed down inasmuch Sumerians, Assyrians, Urartians, Macedonians, as they are considered ancient works in Persians and Romans reigned over the modern-day society, are disappearing territory, and Syriac Christians, Armenians, depending on notably industrialization, and Yezidis, Kurds, Turks and Arabs managed to changing living conditions and value maintain their own languages, faiths and judgments. Yet, handicrafts works rise in value cultures until today. With this aspect, Midyat, a and have a rich potential with regard to ever- multi-ethnic, multi-faith, multi-identity and increasing tourism activities and art economy multi-culture town, is an attractive location. [2]. With a history of ancient culture and civilisation, the town composes a structure in As a material culture element, traditional which a great number of material and moral handicrafts play a crucial role in reflecting cultural elements create an expansive cultural cultural structures of societies [3]. Bringing the harmony. past into the present, traditional handicrafts are among documents that best describe social, cultural and economic life-styles of the society. Handicrafts play utmost role in handing down our customs and traditions and forms of life. From this point of view, handicrafts serve as a bridge between generations, being positioned as culture treasury from the past to the present. Handicrafts are a rich treasury that have all features of different cultures [4]. Handicrafts, one of the essential branches of popular culture made with basic hand tools via minimum or no utilization of machine, are works that come from the past in master- apprentice relationship. In this context, among Figure 1: Location Map of Midyat the longstanding handicrafts in Anatolia are coppersmith, cutlery, walking stick making, Undoubtedly, filigree, together with spoon making, saddle making, pottery, filigree stonework, is the leading cultural richness and rug and carpet weaving crafts. Today some which is discussed here. Having helped the art of these (saddle making) are facing extinction of filigree, which has been kept on for while some are being conserved by a limited centuries by particularly Syriac jewellers, number of jewellers in different regions of our spread to Anatolia, Asia and many other country [5]. Beyond doubt, filigree is one of regions, the town Midyat today maintains its the most important longstanding handicrafts in importance as the paramount filigree centre. Anatolia. ‘Telkari’, meaning filigree (to be Highly cultural and aesthetic filigree works, referred as filigree henceforth), is made by produced through great hand-work and labour, soldering together small motifs created with are considerably important with regards to twisted silver moulded into the shape of wire. tourism and economy. Among the common products made through filigree, an entirely hand-made craft, are While works that were created through the necklaces, rings, wristlets, humidors, cigarette art of mining which emerged during the first holders, mirrors, trays, belts, earrings, key periods of history of civilization aimed at holders, name badges, buttons and vases. satisfying needs in the earlier stages, subsequent periods saw a production with The centre of filigree in Anatolia is Midyat, purpose of adding extra beauties under a town of Mardin Province in Turkey, a aesthetic concerns. In Anatolia, highly

2 precious works were produced in which immemorial. The first jewellery samples in aesthetic concern and labour were in the Anatolia were found during 7000-6000 B.C. in forefront within the branch of filigree using various forms made from phiales, bones and silver and gold. This fact takes an important animal teeth as well as sea and mollusc shells place in the art of filigree, which is a form of that were available among Çayönü and ornament [6]. Çatalhöyük findings [7]. Ornaments and jewelleries had a disparate aesthetic value soon Filigree works convert jewelleries, used in after mankind entered into the Bronze Age and daily life, into unique ornaments in the hands learned how to produce jewellery pieces for of jewellers from Midyat. However, as a result which they used precious metals including of advance of technology at an out-of-reach gold and silver. During this period, among the and unprecedented pace, far and wide spread ornamentation techniques in the art of of popular culture and loss in importance of jewellery and ornament were granulation, traditions and handicrafts with each passing niello, damask, hemstitch, gilding, stamping, day, most handicrafts in Anatolia, notably enamelling, hammering, filigree, engraving, filigree which reflects the ancient culture, are hammer-hardening and küftgani [8]. rapidly disappearing nowadays. Archaeological findings indicate that 2. Objective and Methodology among these techniques the filigree was This paper has been dealt with to register incorporated into jewellery since 3000 B.C. in the brand Telkari of Midyat and geographical Egypt and Mesopotamia and in Anatolia (Troy, indication of filigree production, one of the Eskiyapar, Tombs of the Kings in Alacaböyük) handicrafts identified with Midyat, and to hand after 2500 B.C. [6]. During the prehistoric ages down the next generations this handicraft, one filigree was mostly applied in form of twisted of the material cultural values of the town. wires and beads in which decorations were made with additions to the metal or wire The study includes deep-rooted and th longstanding filigree’s historical development, soldered over the surfaces. During the 4 present-day condition, way of production, its century B.C., jewellers had the opportunity to easily make any decoration through these wires contribution to the town, production stages, problems and relevant solution offers. In this after they discovered the way to produce wire context, a literature review has been given with the wire mill. In this period, beads were along with a compilation of related previous mainly used in rims. As twisted wires were laid together reversely, reciprocating saw studies. The study has been completed through analysis of data obtained through on-site purported a chain. interviews with filigree jewellers as a part of Turkish mining art got on mainly outside of the research in accordance with geographical Anatolia. Having primarily developed in Iran principles. and Mesopotamia, Turkish mining art Filigree is a field of art with features and illustrated unique pieces in this period, most of which have survived until today. In particular, structure that is applicable in a great number of fields. The main objectives of the study, Mosul and its neighbourhood were the central through an investigation of tools and locations where Turkish mining and jewellery techniques used during this art, are to help prospered most [9]. During the reign of Great Seljuk Empire, Mosul gained importance and train creative and productive crafts required for the art of filigree, to support development and so was home to a plethora of jewellery sustainability of this art with local workshops and jewellers. Highly artistic and aesthetic pieces emerged in Mosul and spread characteristics and to create resource for trainees, related participants and next to the other regions. In this period, filigree was generations within the field. one of the essential metal arts that were practised around Mosul. 3. History of Filigree In particular during the 12th century, Mosul It is evident from antiques, wall-paintings, was the art centre of filigree together with murals, statues and relieves obtained from Khurasan where the art spread considerably. archaeological excavations made that With an ancient history, the filigree is shown Anatolian men have used ornaments and in sources to have been brought to Anatolia jewelleries in various shapes since time

3 from Mosul and Khurasan and to have melting of silver placed on crucibles in the developed primarily in Marin and Midyat melting furnace. The silver melted on the towns during Artuqids. Yet another town as the crucible is moulded to obtain silver plate and centre of jewellery under Seljuk Empire was rod. After being passed through the cylinder, Konya apart from Khurasan and Herat. the silver rods are turned into fineness enough Mardin, Şanlıurfa and Diyarbakır, prominent to slip through the rolling mill. Recently, jewellery centres during Artuqids Principality, ready-to-use silver wires have been supplied in were known for their master jewellers. Metal satisfactory fineness, which allows better and working and damask techniques in gold and higher quality pieces and more time for silver cases through bronze engraving and production. Just as pieces are produced based embossing were prominent among the on observation of earlier silverwork samples, Artuqids pieces of 13th century [10]. new designs are carried out to manufacture pieces during the operations. Assumed to have spread to Anatolia by Ahi Production stages of pieces through filigree communities, regarded as the originators of have been analysed under the following three present-day chambers of merchants and stages. th craftsmen that emerged in 13 century, the - Framing through formation of the frame and filigree was further developed by Seljuk filler wire, jewellers and subsequent Ottoman jewellers. - Preparation of the filler and placement of Jewellers of Seljuk and Ottoman Empires proper motifs, believed that Prophet David was the profession - Final processes. expert of jewellery and with this in mind they attached utmost importance to the art of 4.1. Preparation of frame and filler wire mining. The first step is to prepare the frame and Filigree was further fostered in the wake of filler wires. Silver and copper are being used th century, Ottomans. In particular as of 15 as raw materials while raw or waste silver is filigree has blossomed out among Turks in used in the process of preparation of wire. Mardin and Midyat as well as provinces When using raw silver, jewellers add copper including Sivas, Elazığ, Trabzon, Beypazarı, depending on the piece into the silver. 950 and Bursa, and Edirne. The town Beypazarı, which 975 carats are preferred in the region in became familiar with the art of filigree by general. The proper silver is placed on crucible means of Ahi Community, was the forefront and melted in the melting furnace at high location along with Mardin and Midyat. temperature. The melting process is conducted Filigree spread from Edirne to Balkans, having in a sealed crucible where it is also being reached to Europe along with Ottomans [10]. blended during melting. The molten silver is On the other hand, the profession of filigree casted over the mold through fire iron and was practised and developed by Syriac before the silver is casted, the bottom of the Christians, who contributed much to the spread mold is greased to run the silver smoothly. The of filigree during Ottomans, in Anatolia and silver cooling down in the mold is soaked notably Midyat. Though Mesopotamia and under cool water after being taken out with fire Midyat have been majorly populated by Arabs iron to cool down (Figure 2). throughout the history, they have been engaged Silver rod is fined down in drawing in trade and military rather than art [9]. Local machine to obtain 15 meters of wire, which is Non-Muslims were interested in art and made up of 1 cm thick and 30 cm long silver schooled highly good craftsmen. On the top of rod. Being fined down enough in drawing these arts was silver making (filigree). machine, the wire is winded in coils placed on

amianth plate and annealed with welding torch. 4. Production Stages, Tools and Models of After being annealed, the silver wire is sopped Filigree into the beewax and prepared to be finer enough to slip through the rolling mill. The Filigree is produced with metal wires soldered wire that has been passed through the rolling together in different forms. The silver metal mill is measured with micrometre. The final goes through many phases until it becomes a stage during the process of frame preparation usable object. The first process starts with

4 is to slip the wire through the cylinder again filler gaps are loosened or tightened and finalize the frame. The filler wire is symmetrically (Figure 3). twisted by means of the two wires passing through the rolling mill and cylinder, a roller and a dynamo. This process is repeated twice to generate the filler wire [9].

Figure 3: Images of Stages for Filler Making in Filigree The filler and frame are welded with welding machine. Filigree requires sufficient Figure 2: Preparation of Frame ad Filler Wire amount of welding. When welded Images of Stages insufficiently, some parts are not welded. The Following the preparation of frame and filigree and frame may not fuse. Yet, if welded filler wire, next stage is the construction of the more than adequate, all gaps in the filigree are main frame. During this process, the wire to be filled with welding, leading to an unfavourable used as frame is annealed again with welding motif. The motif would seem improper torch, and the outer frame is made ready structurally. There are two types of welding through a silver wire mold. Molds made by during filigree process, rod welding and local jeweller are used to make the outer powder welding. In rod welding, ready- frame. The wire retrieved form the mold is prepared and slabbed weld is transformed into softened being annealed with welding torch rod with cuts. These rods are sopped into the and flattened through peen hammer. Joints of borax and welded to the spot to be welded with the piece are squeezed with pliers and flattened fire pair, and heat by the welding torch. In the with metal pairs. Frame leaves are flattened powder welding process, welding alloy metal with pairs and welded with welding torch in form of plate or rod is filed and pulverised. placing a piece on the middle. What is Ready-prepared frame is steeped to make important here is to put welding torch directly pulverised weld cling. It is waited till surplus over welding piece as otherwise the frame wire water removes. Then, prepared powder is may melt. After the piece is casted onto the sprinkled over the welding piece to cleanse the mold, it is fined down in cylinder and made surplus welding. After sufficient amount of ready to use with cuts in strips and pieces. welding is sprinkled, welding is completed through melting. Powder welding is practised 4.2. Preparation of Filler and Placement of in filigree most [10]. Proper Motifs

Upon making the frame ready, the next step is to proceed to the core filler. To fill the inside of the frame, filler wires, which are finer than the outer frame, are used. Filler models called as drop, shuttle (kahke in locals), round (wheel in locals), vav, tenuous, tight and silver are used depending on the model of the piece (Figure 4). Fillers proceed as the wire is twisted inwards through pairs, and a round formation and pointed filler on one end occur.

Fillers are placed one by one through pairs and Figure 4: Samples of Filigree Models

5 Micrometre: is a tool used to measure thickness. It is used for measurement of plates 4.3. Final processes in filigree and wires. Scissors: are hand-operated

shearing tools used for wires and flat plates. To remove the stain from the top of the piece, Cylinder: is an engine that measures up the bleaching bath process is applied to the wires and plates pulverising them by means of compounded and welded filigree. During reciprocating rolls. bleaching applied in order for the product to Pair: is a pointed tool made from steel used to take its natural vivid colour, models are placed shape wires and grapple parts. into a copper cover. Then, 2 drops of sulphuric Welding torch: is a material that functions as acid and 1 dessert spoon of salt are added into a firing tool in heating and welding the metal a tea glass of water and heated at high in filigree. temperature. Till the stains are removed from File: is a case hardened steel tool with many the piece, it is steeped in the acidic water for 2- teeth used to fine amounts of sawdust from the 3 minutes and washed with fresh water (Figure metal to shape. 5). Pliers and Needle-nose Pliers: are tools used to give the wire flat and solid shapes (Figure 6).

Figure 5: Images of Bleaching Bath and Cleansing Processes in Filigree (Kamiloğlu, Figure 6: Various Tools Used in Filigree 2009) Making (A: Welding Torch, B: Cylinder, C: Polishing of silver piece is conducted in the Scissors and Pliers, D: Pair) polishing cabinet; however, to run the cabinet 5. Present-day State of Filigree Production at least half kilogram of silver piece is needed. in Midyat When using the polishing cabinet, the pieces placed in the cabinets are waited in the The centre of filigree in Turkey, Midyat is electrically-powered cabinet for 20 minutes, home to extremely gracious and precious and a dessert spoon of polishing medicine is pieces through fine handwork. Apart from added. In addition to this, another method Midyat, filigree has developed in Beypazarı, practised by jewellers for polishing is to add a İstanbul, Trabzon, Sivas, Edirne, Şanlıurfa and tea glass of liquorice to 1 litre of water and to Diyarbakır provinces of Turkey. However, forth it up and finally to brush the piece with a Midyat has the utmost importance in emerging wire-brush in the prepared water [9]. The piece and spreading of filigree at these centres. is taken out of the water and dried in sawdust. Besides, this art of filigree is not only practised Polished piece is finally flattened with a steel in Midyat but also outside the country by pen in between a clean and soft cloth. Thus, master jewellers. As a matter of fact, jewellers the filigree is made ready to use. from Midyat visit various European and other During the production phase of the filigree, a countries to promote the art. Although it is a range of tools and materials are being used. renowned centre for filigree both in the Main tools and materials are as follows: country and the world over, failure to have officially registered this brand with

6 geographical indications causes it to be As mentioned before, the number of underrated and underestimated. jewellers that keeps the art of filigree in the region has decreased considerably. Having In the vicinity, filigree has been been carried out by a lot more Syriac jewellers, traditionalized labouringly by Syriac Christians this profession has faded down due to the fact in majority from the very beginning of its that jewellers have immigrated to other regions emergence up to present day. Syriac jewellers and the traditional master-apprentice have for centuries produced highly precious relationship has been on the wane, causing a and artistic pieces and pioneered this scarcity in amount of newly-trained jewellers. profession under a master-apprentice Apart from erosion in this tradition, rising relationship. Yet, in the wake of Foundation of generations are not keen on keeping the Republic the tradition has gradually faded tradition alive. Notwithstanding this situation, down due to socio-economic reasons, terror though limited, there are still a number of incidents as well as immigration of Syriac jewellers who maintain the existence of this people to other cities in or outside the country. handicraft. Today, about 10 jewellers, who Thus, there were no more trained profession have learned this profession with conventional experts. In particular, jewellers turned their techniques, strive to keep working. The steps towards centres where economic number rises to 50 together with the conditions and marketing facilities were apprentices and foremen in production stages. sophisticated and Syriac community was densely populated and comfortable, leading to Having learned from previous Syriac a declination in this art. This situation is a huge jewellers, prominent modern-day filigree problem with regards to keeping the tradition jewellers in Midyat are comprised of Syriac, alive and handing it down. Arabic and Kurdish jewellers. Among them are Gabriel Irak, Nurettin Ayyıldız, Kerim Arslan Most of the filigree production workshops and Mustafa Yıldız (Figure 7). A Syriac and stores in today’s Midyat are located at jeweller, Gabriel Irak learned from his father silversmiths bazaar and its neighbourhood in and has been engaged in filigree for about 25 the district of Akçakaya, which is the core of years. Producing filigree pieces in Akçakaya the town called old Midyat. Populated by district, he states that he has difficulty in mainly Syriac community and immigrant sustaining the profession due to lack of Kurds, this historical region is the core of apprentices, sale of pieces from outside under filigree in the vicinity. There are five silver the name of Midyat filigree, insufficient making workshops and about fifteen stores financial support for the producers and terror where filigree pieces are sold. In addition to incidents. Yet another Syriac jeweller Kerim this, 2-3 more workshops and 5-6 stores are Arslan has been involved in this occupation for active in the remaining neighbourhoods of the about 20 years, stating that he learned it from town. In this context, there are about 8 his elder brother. He goes along with jeweller workshops and 20 stores in the town. Given Gabriel and raises the same problems. Spread the number of the jewellers and sales assistants and low-cost sale of machine (casting) system- in the field of filigree in Midyat, according to originated pieces instead of highly aesthetic the findings obtained from field work and and artistic pieces have caused the art of interviews, the number of active jewellers and filigree to be on the verge of extinction apprentices is 30 to 35 while that of those disappearance. working in sales and marketing is 55 to 60. Yearly sale rates of workshops and stores Arabic and Kurdish jewellers are among the differ from each other in reality. jewellers that work with and learn from Syriac Approximately 20 to 100 kg of pieces are sold jewellers in Midyat. Leading figures are in a year both at workshops and stores. Yearly Mustafa Duman with 25 years of experience sales amount of pieces is around 30 kg in total. and Nurettin Ayyıldız with 14 years of The fundamental factor that determines the experience. These jewellers mention similar amount in the region is inflow of domestic and problems including lack of interest, international tourists. During the high seasons mechanisation and inadequate support. and years of tourism the sales amount is high while less inflow means less sales amount.

7 The art of filigree is one of the most important material cultural properties as it reflects the culture and history of the town Midyat. To protect such crucial cultural and artistic values, one of the essential things is to practise a geographical indication. To do this, registration process of Midyat Telkarisi (Filigree) as a brand with geographical indication should be embarked by local authorities and non-governmental organizations as soon as possible. In this way, marking high quality pieces made by filigree jewellers working with conventional methods with logos or official seals will make them be Figure 7: Images of Filigree Jewellers distinguished from those of manufacturing and As stated by jewellers during interviews, imitation in domestic and international there are some problems related to filigree and markets, and will allow them to compete with its production. Lack of sufficient amount of related pieces and be sold as authentic Midyat jewellers, courses to train them and insufficient filigree pieces. Furthermore, spread of local and central organizations to promote imitation and manufacturing pieces will be them are the main problems. Moreover, there hindered through employment of original logos are problems such as decrease in competitive or marks, and advertisements and promotions power in the wake of advance in casting and of these to the consumers. manufacturing pieces, negative conditions due To keep the filigree alive, jewellers should to terror incidents in the vicinity and lack of certainly be supported. For, local people are tourist inflow. In particular, domestic and engaged in the profession as a means of living international tourists demand the pieces of and cannot make enough income to make ends filigree during visits. Decrease in the number meet. Therefore, various loan incentives and of tourists has negative impact on the sales financial contributions should be made by local amount. and central authorities to the jewellers and 6. Conclusion managements running this business. In this respect, establishments like Municipalities, The art of filigree is one of the fundamental Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ministry of and significant works that reflects the culture Development and Association of Chambers of archaic Midyat town for centuries. can contribute to those that keep the profession Therefore, this should be regarded as not only alive. an art that generates economic value but also a highly important cultural heritage that must be It is observed that the local workshops protected. However, in the wake of advancing produce pieces under primitive conditions and technology and industrialization, just like other low-capacity. Besides, based on observation of handicrafts the art of filigree has been affected production stages it is evident that there is the badly. The fact that handicrafts require an problem of design and model diversity. With intense labour and are produced in limited this aspect, satisfying the conditions to numbers makes it costly and valuable. Due to increase the production capacity at workshops low-cost manufacturing pieces coming from and provide them with production under Far East in great amounts, traditional filigree is modern conditions will contribute much to the on the verge of extinction. Having emerged development of the profession. Artisans with artistic and cultural concerns, the art is should be provided with practices including not produced in these senses anymore which support of low interest loan, long term and have become of secondary importance and grant supports. Thus, a potential increase in the been replaced by concerns for a living with production along with a rise in capacity and the regard to jewellers. As a result, spread of employment of technology will bring about imported and imitation pieces put the jewellers more economic revenues, resulting in on the spot, who strive to maintain the resuscitation of the interest for the profession. profession with conventional methods.

8 Handworks require an intense labour force. Ekonomik Etkileri ve Katkıları (Ordu ili Those engaged in handicrafts suffer mainly örneği), “Uluslararası Katılımlı Sanat from lack of trained people whom they can Ekonomisi Sempozyumu, Çanakkale, work with or teach to carry the tradition into Aralık, (2006). future. In company with the immigration of [2] most jewellers of Syriac origin due to a range Omur, O., Geleneksel El Sanatlarının of reasons, the relationship between the master Çağdaş Eğitim İçindeki Yeri, Ülke and apprentice has come to a halt. In this Gereksinimleri Açısından Güzel Sanatlar sense, it is necessary to back the jewellers, Fakültesi ve Eğitim Programları arrange vocational courses and take Sempozyumu, 15-27 Mayıs, (1995) precautions with regards to maintenance of the [3] Tümertekin, E., Özgüç, N. Beşeri Coğrafya master-apprentice relationship. This is a (İnsan, Kültür, Mekan), Çantay Kitapevi, question that may be ironed out on the (2012), İstanbul. condition that successful trainees of vocational [4] courses by Public Education Centres and Hünerel, S. Z., Er, B. Halk Kültürünün Employment Agency jointly are taken into the Tanıtılmasında El Sanatlarının Yeri ve service of master filigree jewellers for future. Önemi, Batman University International Moreover, such projects as ‘One Master a participated Science and Culture Thousand Masters’ conducted by Ministry of Symposium, 18-20 April, Batman, (2012) Culture may pave the way for reviving of [5] relevant disappearing occupations. A range of Birinci, S., Camcı, A. Korunması courses and seminars may be held in Gereken Geleneksel El Sanatlarına Bir cooperation between Department of Silver Örnek: Sivas Bıçağı Üretimi, Marmara Filigree of Mardin Artuklu University and Coğrafya Dergisi Sayı: 33, Ocak relevant corporates. (2016), S.493-509 The pieces of filigree are mostly demanded [6] Yeşilmen, N., Dünden Bugüne Midyat’ta by domestic and international tourists in the Telkari Sanatı, Uluslar arası Midyat region, which makes the tourism activities Sempozyumu, 7-9 Ekim, (2011), 983-988 functional in this sense. Yet recent terror [7] incidents and security problems have declined Bingöl, I., Anadolu Medeniyetler Müzesi the tourist inflow to the region and shrunk the Antik Takıları, Anadolu Medeniyetler market, having led to further problems, which Müzesi Yayınları, Ankara, (1999) are already suffered by the artisans in this [8] profession. To re-establish the peace and trust Özdemir, M., Dudaş, N., Eskişehir İli Alpu in the area and to reinstate the tourist inflow, İlçesinde Savat Gümüş İşleme Sanatı, both domestic and international promotions Akademik Bakış Dergisi, Sayı: 37, (2013), should be mobilised. 1-19 [9] As a conclusion, in spite of all the problems Kamiloğlu, E., İ., Mardin İli Gümüş encountered today, Midyat filigree has cultural İşlemeciliği Ve Yörede Yapılan Ürünlerin and economic potential. If problems faced in Bazı Özellikleri, Ankara Üniversitesi Fen the art are resolved in short and medium terms, Bilimleri Enstitüsü Doktora Tezi, Ankara, this art is potent to help the region develop and (2009). create more job openings. However, this [10] requires a strong local occupational Fırat, Y., Mardin İli Gümüş Telkari Kadın organization that can find solutions for the Takıları, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri problems encountered. Thus, not only Enstitüsü Geleneksel Türk El Sanatları domestic problems will be eradicated but also Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, low-cost manufacturing pieces from abroad (2010) will be precluded.

References [1] Özcüre, G., Yavuz, C. El Sanatları Ürünlerinin Bulunduğu Yöreye Sosyo-

9 Street Art in Sivas in the Context of Relationship between City and Street Art

Assist. Prof. Bora Özen Cumhuriyet University Faculty of Fine Arts Department of Graphic Design

*Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: As a form of settlement and a sort of community, “City” is a product of contemporary ages within the developmental period of human societies and of a certain progress. According to sociological measures, city of Lois Wirt have been defined as “The settlement that is formed by individuals who do not share a similarity from a sociological perspective, that is relatively wide, densely populated and with a quality of continuity in location.” As we can observe the proofs of the positive effects of street art on the city and on the environment that can occur through art, in many cities in the world, we can also see the best example of this within Turkey in “Yel değirmeni”, Kadıköy, a district of Istanbul. Street Art has just started to show itself within the city culture of Sivas. We hope that the positive effects of street art on the cities will be seen in a larger scale in the near future.

Keywords: City, Street Art, Sivas

Relationship Between City and Street Art where people with different traditions, from different cultural backgrounds, live together within the rules of manners and politeness As a form of settlement and a sort of specific to the city they are living in, while community “City” is a product of comprehending their personal rights and contemporary ages within the developmental responsibilities. On top of the factors affecting period of human societies and of a certain the city culture comes the city's physical, progress. sociological-economical, cultural and historical According to sociological measures, city of characteristics. Lois Wirt have been defined as “The settlement that is formed by individuals who When we approach the city aesthetics as a do not share a similarity from a sociological philosophical subject, we come across three perspective, that is relatively wide, densely elements related to each other. One of which populated and with a quality of continuity in is the quality of physical elements, another is location.”1 the meaning they bear and how are they perceived and the most important one is What is important here is the formation of a people's sense of belonging. collective memory regarding the city and the fact that the produced cultural outputs are In our country, since the Ottoman Empire, gaining meaning via urban people. According people have not been expected to bear a sense to another opinion, city culture is a culture of responsibility or ownership for their urban

10 environment apart from the limited graffiti origins. They often include a political neighborhood scale. All other areas outside of or social statement, many street artists’ door step are under the initiative of the central objective is to give a clear message to the authority. 2 society. They present the society with nontraditional ideas and influence the In fact, city is a cultural area open and majority.3 belonging to everyone in different but equal ways, in this context, street art, born in the city As we can observe the proofs of the positive culture, is an important indicator regarding the effects of street art on the city and on the city, people and the culture. environment that can occur through art, in many cities in the world, we can also see the Street art refers to the anti-disciplinary art best example of this within Turkey in “Yel originated from controversy, it contains every değirmeni”, Kadıköy, a district of İstanbul. art form performed in public places meaning Street Art has just started to show itself within the streets. This definition has gained the city culture of Sivas. We hope that the popularity at the beginning of the eighties. positive effects of street art on the cities will be Mural, graffiti, stencil, sticker, street signs, seen in a larger scale in the near future. video projection, street installations, sculptures and audio installations are the forms and techniques in the scope of street art. During the classes I give at Cumhuriyet University Faculty of Fine Arts, I sometimes Street art means the art that grows in the street. ask my students to perform the street art So, even in the literal meaning of the term, related practices in public places in the city, in something illegal is in question. doing so, my objective is to introduce the art to Street art culture has become a global act in the city and its inhabitants more directly and in the past 20-30 years developing from its firsthand and to have an interaction.

To expand the idea that art is not something Every year, by organizing now traditional that can only be seen in exhibitions or Street Festival (Mural İst), they make artists museums but can also be present in daily life whom they invite from abroad, to leave their and to familiarize urban people to street art are immense work on facades of buildings in the main objectives of this project. Kadıköy. Usually mural paintings are made illegally but now in many cities in the world, First examples I will show you today on the municipalities support this art. Kadıköy is on interaction of city and street art are from its way to become the Brick Lane of England, district of “Yel değirmeni” from Kadıköy, Kreuzberg of Berlin. Municipality of Kadıköy İstanbul. I will try to pass on to you the who contracted with international street artists, change and transformation the district had has started to fill the walls of the buildings in gone through in relation to the broad Kadıköy with pieces of art by initiating performance of street art in this district. Muralist event. Kadıköy Municipality is pioneering and setting an example to really good and beautiful work in this area.

Picture 1: Kadıköy, Yeldeğirmeni, Artist: Pixel Pancho, 2012 Picture 2: Kadıköy, Yel değirmeni, Artist:Sepe & Chazme, 2014

Picture 3: Kadıköy, Yeldeğirmeni, Artist: City 2014

12 While choosing the artists who will participate Yel değirmeni Neighborhood, and the project in the festival, municipality takes into is supported by Yel değirmeni Revival consideration whether the artist is bonding Foundation and Çekül Foundation. with local details. Because, it is of great importance that the work within a local project The project aims to create a more livable should relate to the inhabitants. It presents a district in sociological- economical and different situation than the work of art cultural and physical sense. The effects of exhibited at a biennial or a museum of modern these projects developed along with art which arts. Artists who have worked in such projects cause the change in a positive sense, in the are preferred. All of the works are located in structure and the face of the district are visible and perceivable.

Picture 4: Kadıköy, Yel değirmeni, Artist: Pixel Pancho, 2012

Picture 5: Kadıköy, Yel değirmeni, Artist: Jazz, 2013

Kadıköy municipality is pioneering and setting the world, municipalities support this art. an example to really good and beautiful work Kadıköy is on its way to become the Brick in this area. Every year, by organizing now Lane of England, Kreuzberg of Berlin. traditional Street Festival (Mural İst), they Municipality of Kadıköy who contracted with make artists whom they invite from abroad, to international street artists, has started to fill the leave their immense work on facades of walls of the buildings in Kadıköy with pieces buildings in Kadıköy. Usually mural paintings of art by initiating “Muralist” event. are made illegally but now in many cities in

Picture 6: Kadıköy, Yel değirmeni, Artist: İnti, 2013

14 Coloring the facades that look wide, empty and In short, Yel değirmeni is a district that is mostly ugly via art and carrying the art into the evolving and transforming via art but this streets becomes a modifying and beautifying transformation is setting an example for the element firstly for the district then for the city. possibility that a district can change for the And because I am closely acquainted with the better and more beautiful through art and street district, I am able to make comparison between art without the intrusion of dozers and heavy its outlook from the past and today, this district equipment under the name of urban that was once filled with neglected deserted transformation and it is giving hope for the buildings has begun to silently transform with future. Muralist, first of all more work of mural, graffiti, sticker and stencil begun to show up Street Art in Sivas other than during the festival but transformation was not only limited to the With the courage and hope that this example of walls, artists started to come along with the transformation in our own land provides, we changing face of the district, artists of painting, too have been working on increasing the sculpture, ceramics one by one moved their interaction and relation between city-citizen studios to the district, the fact that art was this and art and street art. Now, I will share with present on the streets and in daily life, made you some examples of the work. the district attractive for producers of art.

Picture 7: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 8-9: Sivas, 2016

Picture 10: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 11-12: Sivas, 2016

Picture 13: Sivas, 2016

Picture 14: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 15-16-17: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 18-19: Sivas, 2016

18 All of the street art works that are shown here, of students of Cumhuriyet University, Faculty have been executed in Sivas and are the works of Fine Arts, Art Department.

Picture 20: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 21-22-23: Sivas, 2016

Picture 24: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 25-26: Sivas, 2017

Picture 27: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 28-29-30: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 31-32: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 33-34: Sivas, 2017

Picture 35: Sivas, 2016

22 I also perform my own work from time to time accordance with what I am teaching in theory, on the streets and in the campus to set an I am also a practitioner of street art, power and example for my students and to inspire them. vitality of which I believe in and to give them My objective in doing so, is to show that in courage.

Pictures 36-37: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 38-39: Sivas, 2016

Picture 40: Sivas, 2017

Pictures 41-42: Sivas, 2016

Pictures 43-44: Sivas, 2016

Picture 45: Sivas, 2016

Picture 46: Sivas, 2016

25 Conclusion Some of the artists performing street art may earn more money today than many In conclusion, street art is one of the most contemporary artists, Banksy with his effective methods to form a bond in terms of popularity and secret identity, is a good the relation of city and art. To increase the example. visibility of art in Anatolian cities like Sivas apart from metropolises, to change the face of In the light of all these inputs, these studies the cities, to strengthen the bond between city specific to Sivas, are promising even though and the citizens via art, street art is increasing they are at the initial and crawling phase yet, in in importance day by day. terms of bringing the city together with art in the streets and in the living spaces of the There were political themed murals earlier on citizens. 1980. There was not a connection between these murals and graffiti. And the reason why We are sure that as long as the studies continue we come across graffiti and murals in and widen, face of the city will change and the metropolises like İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, perception of street art and of the works it Bursa and Antalya more often is that this art produces will change as well, my hope and form needs an urban atmosphere to grow and wish is to realize a international mural festival become more prevalent. Street art, now in Sivas in the following years and to keep it recognized throughout the world, is in a vital continuous. place as an element that increases a city’s recognition and popularity.

References

(1) http://sociologyturkey.wixsite.com/parya/tutoring

(2) ERZEN Jale N. Üç Habitus Yeryüzü, Kent, Yapı, YKY, s. 106, İstanbul, 2015.

(3) GÜNEŞ Şinasi, Sokak Sanatı, Artes Publishing, s. 6, İstanbul, 2009.

Bibliography of the Pictures

Pictures 1-2-3-4-5 Photographs; Bora Özen.

Picture 6 http://www.mimdap.org/?p=127573

Pictures 7-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-16-17-18-19-20-21-22-23-24-25-26-27-28-29-30-31-32-33-34-35-36-37-38- 39-40-42-42-43-44-45-46 Photographs; Bora Özen.

26 Figure, Body, Object Relationship In The Con- temporary Art

Elif Fatma Tolun Çankaya University, Inter-Curricular Courses Department *Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Human body has been an essential concept for the art since the beginning of art history. Taking body as an image starts with the history of humanity and the art goes on with changes until today. Ideal bodies of Ancient Greek, Jesus Christ’s suffering body in Christian Art, Picasso’s geometrically fragmented bodies, contemporary artists’ body images which are expressed by using their own bodies and thousands more examples presents that we have been related to human body for ages. In fact body is an object of desire in the flesh. It tells different stories in every different age as sometimes being a symbol of innocence or holiness. We testify the changing of the sense of body during the passing of time. Today it is possible to attribute different meanings to body through the genetic or aesthetic surgery, or it can be defined as Baudrillard says; body turns to a simulation and objectivized digitally. This study aims to presenting the expression of body in artworks starting from the Turkish Miniatures to contemporary paintings. It questions the sense and the expression of body of contemporary artists. Keywords: Figure, body, object, contemporary art, painting

1. Introduction res to the contemporary Turkish Painting. In addition, extraordinary examples of Western art are exemplified to represent the end points in the The figure means the material part of living form of representation of the body. This study is beings, while the figure in the art of painting and an open invitation to question the analysis of the sculpture conveys the meaning of being in the given examples and the contemporary artists' image or the form in the sculpture. Today's ar- perception of the body and its form of represen- tists use the definition of body rather than figure. tation. Despite the fact that the body refers to a material fact, the fact that it is the cause of choice is in fact the search for the body. In this context, the 2. Early representations of the female body body is handled by the artists in a philosophical sense and not physically. This article deals with how to change from day to day, beginning with The female image is the symbol of reproduc- the early representations of the female body. The tion and productivity as the expression of eterni- change of social life over time has created chan- ty in prehistoric times. The woman's body is ex- ges in the form of women's perception and pressed in the sense of fertility symbol or god- expression. Instead of a chronological study, a dess. Because of the status of women in social method of analysis and comparison of selected life, and because of the reproductive ability that samples is preferred. Changes in body represen- can not be understood at that time and perceived tation were questioned with examples from Tur- as a superior power, it carries value. The value kish and Western art. This article aims to exami- attributed to women is taken from fertility and ne the form of representation of the body thro- the motherhood role they assume (Figure 1). ugh the works starting from the Turkish miniatu-

27 Motherhood has been at the forefront of the In the Medieval Ages, people do not have a most important missions that have been commit- value. The body is a means to reach God. The ted to women as they travel from patriarchate to Renaissance period, which is described as a re- patriarchal structure. Through the reproductive birth, is a period centered on the human being. act, the woman has maintained the continuity of Burckhardt, who conducted research on the Re- life, and she has maintained the role of maternity naissance period at Wikipedia in the Renais- burdened throughout her history. The woman sance chapter [1]. He says 'Renaissance is the has come up with different roles in social life, discovery of man.' social change and modernization. Starting with the Renaissance everything is human centered. This interest in humanism has led to the development of the anatomy. Science, technology, philosophy, art have been developed with human focus. We can say that in art, religion-centered tendency is removed. After the middle of the 19th century, the picture survived the restrictive rules of academic tradition. Naciye Derin Işıkören in her essay The Wom- an image and the Changing of it Through the History[2] expresses the changing process ideal women image. Manet's Olympia (1832‒83) is a good example of the change in content seen in ideal woman image during this period. Olympia, unlike the past examples, is a prostitute. The ideal female image is no longer sacred or ideal in size and perspective, even though it is often Figure 1. Venus of Willendorf found in the nakedness of Venus depictions https://ka-perseus- (Figure 2). images.s3.amazonaws.com/bf529d52b9b565bc264ae949634bbc14e4f b9f1f.jpg

The female figures in the paintings with mythological background depicts that the form of woman is constantly changing within society. Again, the woman has been portrayed as fertile and productive. For example: While Venus was a goddess of vegetation in Roman religion and mythology, over time, it turned into a beauty goddess. Then the ideal woman began to be symbolized by the Greek goddess Aphrodite. Ancient Greek gods have perfected human bodies. Now a period of representation has begun to emphasize the beauty of the woman in the field of art. Figure 2. Olympia In the Roman period, with the development of https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Edouard_M anet_-_Olympia_-_Google_Art_Project_3.jpg Christianity, the mother goddess figure is replaced by Virgin Mary figures and religious sto- Beral Madra in her essay Woman as an Image ry depictions. in Art [3], summarizes the place of woman age

28 in the historical process; “Woman to be wor- shipped in the prehistoric period”, “woman who is remembered with the Renaissance”, “woman in the modern era and consumer culture.” While Western art continues its path in the light of these developments, the Turkish art in the 17th century has just the miniatures.

Miniatures describe the events, ceremonies, daily life stories of the period with hand-drawn and painted pictures. While some miniature artists are known, most of the artwork produced are anonymous. Ali Asker Bal [4] in his essay Body Presentations as the Image Pattern Context in Contemporary Turkish Painting compares Nak- kaş Kalender and Dürer. When two separate works belonging to one of Albrecht Dürer and the other of Ottoman Nakkaş Kalender belong to the same religious story are examined side by side, the difference in representation can be seen. The fact that the Ottoman nakkaş treats the human body not with a naturalist / naturalist tendency but with a kind of conceptual painter and Dürer is far from the concerns such as volume, Figure 3. Nakkaş shadow, depth, which can be clearly seen (Fig- (http://www.deyim.com.tr/img/product/5355e2c8a86c9.jpg) ure 3-4).

Figure 4. Dürer https://resimbiterken.files.wordpress.com/2014/05/display_image- 4.jpg

29 These two works are the product of two totally different visual traditions in terms of size and exhibition practice. While one requires a wide field of view in the vertical axis and the other horizontal axial handwriting a book is stored in one of the inner pages of the skin.

3. Body representation in search of identity

Turkish painting art, which does not have a rooted tradition of art, did not work with western Figure 5. Neşet Günal art, and then went into search for an identity. http://www.turkishpaintings.com/content/mod_images/painters/wo rks/large/z7_23.jpg Thus, a tendency has begun in which Turkish folkloric values are appreciated in the art of In Erol Akyavaş's figures, there is a question painting. By setting out from the traditional texts, of existence questioned by his time grasp. These the folk art became the subject of the landscape. figures are formed between the death and the life In fact, this tendency can also be interpreted as by means of the concepts of skin and tin. an attempt to create a unique Turkish picture in a Neşe Erdok, on the other hand, carries the or- sense. Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu, Turgut Zaim can dinary people he chooses from everyday life be examined in this context. dramatically on the canvas with a socially realistic approach. Although these figures depict ordinary people, bodies are expressed by an artist- 4. Conceptual representation of the body in specific deformation. Turkish Art Cihat Aral's paintings include violence, tor- Even after the Ottoman tradition, even in the ture, demolished bodies for various reasons. presence of abstract tendencies under Western With the spatial and dramatic effect, the objec- influence in the Turkish painting, a return to the tion of the artist was objectified in the human figure picture took place. figures which also contain political displays Nowadays, in Western art, Turkish art can al- (Figure 6). so be understood as an artistic language concept which is integrated with the idea of the body in the search for identity and personality. Now, not only the beautiful figures, but the structurally distorted bodies conceptually becoming entities take their place in the art In the body context, Neşet Günal, Erol Akya- vaş, Neşe Erdok, Cihat Aral, Ergin İnan, Musta- fa Ata, Mithat Sen, Azat Yeman can be examined. Neşet Günal took the natural state of the Ana- tolian people in a monumental measure with a dramatic effect. The figures emphasize the difficult living conditions and the fighting given Figure 6. Cihat Aral (Figure 5). http://www.turkishpaintings.com/content/mod_images/painters/wo rks/large/work_419.jpg

30 The bodies of Mustafa Ata’s paintings are The bodies in Mithat Şen's paintings are bod- animated figures that have been thrown into the ies that have been fragmented, taken apart in distance. In fact, he emphasizes the loneliness of consideration of the anatomy, reproduced re- man. Canan Beykal [5] puts it as follows: “Eve- peatedly, and reconstructed from the beginning. ry color we hold is a strip of fiber that leads us They are non-sexual identities, distant bodies. It to the destiny of one of the limbs or bodies.” is a rebuilding of the broken body (Figure 9). (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Mustafa Ata http://www.besiktascagdas.com/images/MustafaAta/c_pak_m_ata_ 011.jpg Figure 9. Mithat Şen http://egoistokur.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/mithat-sen1.jpg

Ergin İnan, creates a fantastic world by com- The figures in Azat Yeman's paintings are bining bodily images and bugs in his paintings. The artist builds images of his own world using exhausted and consumed body representations. It creates a feeling of uneasiness in the audience. insect images. The symbolism of the disappear- His figures are limited bodies imprisoned in the ance of the insect and man in the pictures is the void (Figure 10). disappearance ( Figure 8).

. Figure 10 Azat Yeman http://markaworld.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/01/galeri_eksen_5.jpg

Figure8. Ergin İnan http://www.turkishculture.org/images/people/example-437-3- As Foucault emphasizes in his book Disci- 73801959.jpg pline and Punish [6], the individual becomes a

31 surveillance object that is watched, monitored, disciplined and coded, and the bodies of power shape his bodies in accordance with his own desires, and the bodies are bounded and form an individual prison cell.

Baudrillard in his book Simulacra and Simu- lation [7] argues that in modern societies everything is now coming to life from the imagina- tions and that the bodies are having difficulties with the media or other means of consumption. Changing images, identities, powers, beauty sense is the aim and means of body Figure 11. Nur Koçak http://habervesaire.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/cagdas- sanatta-yeni-diller_420x303_original.jpg

5. Body representation in the media Mustafa Ayaz, Sezai Kara can be given as an example of artists who conceptually transformed In today's media, feminine is used both as a a woman into a meta object / images by putting consumer and as an object of consumption. John the woman's body into a consumption object, Berger [8] said, "Men watch women. Women just like the media presents it (Figure 12). watch their watching. Thus the woman transformed herself into an object, especially a visual object, a viewing object. " Media and popular culture In the 1950s, artistry began to reflect. Pop art has become the voice of American consumer society in this context Pop art is the current that is fed from the ready-made images of popular cultures consumed objects. It is not ordinary, but ordinary and everyday. Andy Warhol commemorates Marlin Monroe, a famous movie star, by multiplying soup boxes, like an object of consumer society, by multiplying boxes of coke. Nur Koçak explored the use of women as objects and the use of women as objects by using images taken from mass media such as an extension of Pop Art in Turkish art. The presentation of the female body as a pleasure object together with all the elements contained in the photo- Figure 12. Mustafa Ayaz http://www.ikincielesyaci.net/wp- graphs in the media reveals that the woman's content/uploads/2014/08/mustafa-ayaz-duygu- social perception is both directed and directly s%C4%B1z%C4%B1nt%C4%B1lar%C4%B1.jpg expressed (Figure 11). 6. Body as an object of art

Today we also encounter artists who shape the body as technology and surgery and the object of art. Orlan and Sterlac can be considered in this context. Orlan rests on the surgery table

32 without any fear, and with a series of surgeries 5. Conclusion he stays on the transition and change of the body with a different body sense. At the same time, The body can also be expressed as an object the stereo-type female image that society bene- of desire created from bone, actually. From time fits is also opposed to its own body. Her body is to time, the body is innocent, occasionally the now an art object (Figure 13). symbol of sanctity, and each period has described different stories. With the passage of time, we are witnessing the change of body perception. As Baudrillard put it, it can be said that the body has turned into simulation and digitized and objectified. It is evident that not only those figures in which the physical beauty is now the forerunner in the field of art, but the structurally distorted, conceptually winning bodies have gained importance in art. In today's art, the figure becomes the body and the body becomes the object.

Figure 13. Orlan References http://www.veniceperformanceart.org/files/ORLAN_Omnipresenc e.b.jpg [1] https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6nesa ns Sterlac disables his body's auto-control via ar- [2] N. D. Işıkören, Kadın İmgesi ve Tarih Boyu tificial intelligence. It makes the body that it Değişimi (The Woman image and the Chang- connects to the computer a hollow object that is ing of it Through the History), Gazi Üniver- dedicated to both a pain object and technology. sitesi Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, (2015 Ar- It also includes a viewer for its performance. It alık), 115-131. creates a marked uneasiness and dismay on the [3] B. Madra, Sanatta İmge Olarak Kadın spectator (Figure 14). (Woman as an Image in Art), Radikal Kültür Sanat,(19/01/2006) ,

[4] A.A.Bal, Çağdaş Türk Resminde İmge Örüntüsü Bağlamında Beden Temsilleri (Presentations as the Image Pattern Context in Contemporary Turkish Painting, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Dergisi Yedi, sayı 2, (2009), 39-45 [5] C. Beykal, Mustafa Ata, Bilim ve Sanat Ga- lerisi Yayınları, İstanbul, 1993, s. 138. [6] M. Foucault, Hapishanenin Doğuşu (Disci- Figure 14. Sterlac pline and Punish), çev. M. A. Kılıçbay, İmge http://www.apocrifa.com.mx/wp- con- tent/uploads/2014/08/sterlac.jpg Kitabevi, (2015) [7] J. Baudrillard, Simülakrlar ve Simülasyon (Simulacra and Simulation), Doğu Batı Yayınları,(2014).

33 [8] J. Berger, S. Blomberg, C. Fox, M.l Dibb, and R. Hollis. Görme Biçimleri (Ways of See- ing). London, England: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1973.

Reflection on the Depiction of Terror Events in the Drawings of Children

. Gökhan Eken, (Assist. Prof) Cumhuriyet University Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Painting *Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Art, without a doubt, is an important source The contribution of art is quite significant on for understanding people and society. Most of the mental development of children. Hence, the time, it is possible to read and follow an classes that stimulate creativity such as emotion or a thought, which cannot be painting, music etc. are given to children expressed otherwise, through artwork. Art is an depending on their characteristics. Today, the effective way to set the subconscious free. "Art art related development of children is monitored is a spiritual activity that arises from people's and directed in educational institutions starting attempt to express their emotions and thoughts from the pre-school period. before nature, through tools such as lines, Moreover, painting has even more of a colors, forms, sounds, words and rhythms, in a special place in the field of art. Painting is a beautiful and effective manner with a personal concrete expression that enables people to style." (Artut, 2002) Art is one of the greatest easily perceive the world and him/herself and to achievements of a functioning society. express what he/she sees or feels. A child, who Therefore, the civilized countries place great reproduces everything that he / she sees in the importance on the teaching of art for child outside world, after harmonizing with his / her development. Schools, in this respect, are the own thoughts and ideas, tells us how he / she most important places, where all development sees the world through drawings. "Paintings and of a child is followed, nurtured and improved. drawings can be considered as a way of "The school, after the family, is one of the most explaining the complex inner world of the important institutions which increases the individual, who tries to sort it out, thus they can adaptation process of an individual to the also be considered an indicator of mental institutions of the wider society and which is development. The spontaneously-drawn responsible for the socialization of the pictures, since they reflect an individual’s inner individual. According to Yavuzer, the school, world, reveal to us children and their while attempting to render a person to be useful development (if analyzed thoroughly). (...) The and self-sufficient via education, also aims to main importance of child drawings is that they educate that person to become an individual reflect a child's way and content of thinking. with advanced social awareness, who is useful (...) The pictures are considered an indicator of for the society that he / she lives in and for a child's perception of the outer world. entire humanity" (Cited: Teyfur, 2014). (Yavuzer, 1992, p.11).

Each child shows different characteristics in 2. The Purpose of the Project his / her drawings with regard to the necessities of his / her age. This difference in children's During the second term of the academic year drawings is discussed by Yavuzer in five 2015 – 2016, 20 village schools associated with phases: the Sivas Central Area were visited, one by one, within the scope of the Cumhuriyet University 1. Scribbling period (ages of 2-4) Scientific Research Project (CUBAP). The 2. Pre-sketching period (ages of 4-7) project was aimed at secondary school students. 3. Sketching Period (ages of 7-9) The purpose of the project was to reveal the 4. Realism Period (Grouping) (Ages 9-12) interests and capabilities of the students, who 5. Seemingly Naturalist Period (Ages 12- were from those village schools that were 14) deprived of in-field teachers that teach in the arts; and also to guide those students who are The child drawings that are the subject of our skilled in this matter. To this end, a total of 430 study entitled "Reflection of Terror Events in students were met as participants. Drawing the Drawings of Children" were the work of paper (size: 35x35cm) and crayon sets were children aged 11-14. According to Yavuzer, the delivered to the children and they were asked to following developments are experienced: produce drawings, in any subject of their own choice, for an hour. The students also wrote a During the realism (grouping) period, that is descriptive text regarding the work they did at defined between the ages of 9-12, the child is the back of the paper. aware that he / she is a member of a society and this awareness begins showing up in the lines When the resulting pictures were evaluated, it that he / she draws. It can be observed in this was revealed that some certain tendencies were phase, that children draw rather detailed present, especially in the selection of the sketches, with a more realistic approach, subject. When a distribution was made based on compared to their earlier drawings. In this the subjects; the drawings were listed as period, one of the most important needs of follows; children is to be able to find their own personality, to discover their own strengths and to develop their own inter-group relations. (…) SUBJECT OF THE DRAWING no % During this period, the weak, but free style, of Realist pictures that depict village 195 48,38 children disappears and the concern for life conforming to some of the criterion for the Fictional scenes regarding a place 95 23,57 that they do not know and have not appreciation of society and culture that the child seen (Space, under the sea, tales etc.) lives within, begins to reign. (…) Differences Drawings with themes like terror, 63 15,63 start appearing between girls and boys violence, death. regarding topic selection: Boys begin drawing School Life 13 3,22 boats, planes, trains, sports and scenes of war, Decorative and Abstract Drawings 9 2,2 Animal pictures 8 1,9 while the girls begin drawing female faces, Pictures that depict a sports activity. 8 1,9 dresses, houses, flowers, animals. (…) During Fashion, care and beauty themed 7 1,7 the so-called seemingly ‘Naturalist Period’ that pictures is used to define children’s drawings between Cars 5 1,2 the age range 12-14, the child gradually begins Total 403 to become aware of his natural environment and Table 1: Subject-based distribution of the surroundings. S/he pays attention to the ratio student drawings. and proportion of objects. Children also begin discovering colors and differences of objects and seek for ways to use color in their drawings in a better way. Aside from this, those children, who are becoming aware of their own sexual transformation, add elements to their drawings that reflect this transformation. (Yavuzer, Female Male 1992). Drawings with themes 22 41

36 like terror, violence, (%34,92) (% 65,07) by a rather more calm approach and the concern death. to prettify the drawing. Total 63 Table 2: The gender based distribution of the Another significant feature that comes to the drawings with themes like terror, violence, fore is that these pictures have a nationalistic death. sense. While terror and the terrorists are condemned in such drawings, elements such as As seen in Table 1, the most popular subject the soldiers, the police, the flag and mosques, is their observations regarding village life. The which symbolize nationalistic and religious drawings with themes of terror, violence and feelings, are frequently used and canonized. death come as the third most popular subject. Without a doubt, the fact that the villages, in When drawings of this subject were classified which this pilot study was conducted, are based on gender, it can be seen that the number significantly dominated by nationalistic and of male students were twice the number of religious fervor becomes an important factor female students who chose this subject (Table – here. "The studies, conducted through social 1). science, have revealed that there is a correlation between the characteristics of the environment Analyzing the data obtained from the two and violence. The studies also indicate that tables above, and searching for their causes, there is a relationship between poverty, ethnic requires expert knowledge. In our study, we background, and family structure; also the shall instead aim to discuss the general intensity of settlement around the area, characteristics of the pictures (of the population exchange and violation" (cited by aforementioned theme) and attempt to analyze Teyfur.) However, in particular, the sense of them with a plastic point of view. patriotism, fed to the students by the state education system, is also a strong factor as well.

3. The general characteristics of the drawings 4. Examples of drawings with a terror theme Virtually all of the scenes depicted in the resulting drawings are based on events depicted on TV; and the subjects are discussed in their social environment. “It is said that various factors such as biological, socio–cultural, psychological and environmental, play an important role in the emergence and the shaping of violence. (Yalçın, 2012). Various studies suggest that the media, families, peers and school, (Seven, 2013) which constitute the social powers, also play pivotal roles in the Image 1: H.T. (13 Male) formation of the concept of violence (cited by Hiçyılmaz, İnci, Seven, 2015) The funerals of Student's Explanation: the fallen ones, suicide bombers, aircraft making bombing runs, cemeteries, clashes and "In my picture, I drew the terrorists that came the national flag, are the most common themes. to fight. They came to Ankara and hit our capital right at its heart. There were at least 30 When compared to other types of drawings, dead. Almost 70 people died and there were 30 there is no attempt by the children to make the casualties." pictures prettier in the drawings with terror themes. Mostly, a sense of excitement, an In the picture, two buildings are seen in the aggressive style, which is reflected in the lines background. The cracks formed after the and the colors and a sense of impetuosity, is terrorist attack are visible on the walls of the witnessed. On the other hand, in the drawings buildings. The terrorists that actually carried out which depict other themes, they are dominated the attack are not featured in the drawing. However, five police officers with their blue

37 uniforms and guns are guarding the area in the "I wanted to depict a martyr’s funeral in the wings. Some governmental vehicles are also picture." seen in the picture, but the officers are depicted as larger than the vehicles. The flag in the In this drawing, the martyr’s funeral casket, background of the drawing has a symbolic carried by four people, is striking. A mosque is effect. In the picture, in which there has been no visible right behind the group of figures. There attempt at a detailed painting, a simple and is no clear indication regarding where the linear style catches the eye. stairway next to the mosque leads to, or who the figures on the stairs are. The orange color of the coffin (the vibrant flag) as well as the yellow color of the sun, placed at the upper right corner, is the only warmth in the drawing. As seen in other similar drawings, a hasty approach is also apparent here.

Image 2: Ö.D. (13 Male)

Student's Explanation:

“In this picture, I depicted a scene of a war, raging at a place. I found this (the war) quite emotional. I wanted to express that Turkey is the strongest in the war.” Image 4: S.C. (13 Female)

In the picture, two groups are engaged in Student's Explanation: animated battle. The group, shown by the mountains at the back of the picture, states the "While I was drawing this, I got very angry at probable enemy. The group in the foreground people who allowed others to die by dropping of the picture, right behind the trenches, with bombs on them. I don’t want people to die their backs turned towards us depicts the anymore." Turkish Army. We also get this sense from the flag planted right by the group. The child, by In this picture, the planes drop bombs on the positioning the audience and himself behind the people and houses below. From the perspective Turkish soldiers, in a sense, wanted to create an of our student, the bombs do not only destroy ambience/setting of support and trust. The houses and people but also decimate the trees. picture shows a high-tension action scene. Although the figures, houses and trees are lined up side by side, there is nothing to indicate the ground. The student, who focused only on the subject at this state, chose to communicate all forms with simple geometrical shapes and lines.

Image 3: H.Ö. (13 Male) Student's Explanation:

38 love forests. I hope you will like my drawing. Thanks for coming."

In this drawing, yet another funeral scene catches the eye. This time, our student enriches the subject and the depiction by using different gender characters at the funeral. While a figure in the picture depicts a sad woman reaching out to the casket, another figure moves to blow up the explosive bag in front of him. The student Image 5: M.Y. (13 Female) also tried to make the subject more understandable through the use of writing. As Student's Explanation: indicated in her remarks, her sensitivity towards nature, shows itself in the picture. "No more wars please. Let us live in peace together. Please let everybody work for peace and respect each other. No more blood to be spilled in vain. Of course, death is also a reality in this world, but we die with no sins and we die while praying to Allah. Please let the wars stop."

A funeral is depicted in the drawing. The forested mountains in the background and the mosque are the most prominent shapes. The crowd, mourning at a funeral, appear as black dots. On the right side of the drawing, a green mosque and its minaret are visible. The figures Image 7: M.C. (12 Male) are once again interpreted in a simplistic way without too much detail. Student's Explanation:

"A death every day. The country is in turmoil. No more deaths. Let there be peace. Lock the gates of the cemeteries for the fallen."

Our student, who views the area from a commanding viewpoint, exhibits a discordant perception by switching viewpoints, for the gate and the trees from a frontal position. By repeating depictions of the cemetery that look like each other, he creates a feeling of rhythm, in a sense. The fountain at the forefront and the Image 6: H.D. (13 Female) bushy saplings can be interpreted as a message of hope and abundance. As our student Student's Explanation: indicates, the gates of the cemetery are locked. Therefore, the idea of no more funerals for "What I wanted to say in this picture is that the martyrs is given as well. enemy carries out yet another attack even before the funeral of our fallen ones is held. They constantly place bombs in bags everywhere. Always smoke, always fire. Now I am beginning to get sick of it at this early age. I am afraid that there won’t even be any trees left around us. And I also drew a forest because I

39 fear. Our student, who carefully placed all kinds of detail into the drawing including the comforting presence of the security forces, did not omit to surround the front side of the outpost with the sea.

Image 8: A.A. (12 Male)

Student's Explanation:

"I am very sad because of the war and I also heard a lot about the funerals for the fallen ones in recent years. My older brother is a soldier himself. I hope that he comes back in one piece. I also extend my condolences to the families of the martyrs."

Image 10: Ö.K. (13 Male) In this drawing, a scene from a battle strikes the eye. The soldiers are pitted against the Student's Explanation: terrorists. While the soldiers hold the stronger position with a tank and planes, the terrorists "I want to be a soldier when I grow up. I will look rather pacified. Through the lines of the fight the terrorists." drawing and the style of painting, it is possible to feel the tension that the student felt while In this work, which is one of the most drawing this work. extraordinary examples of sketching in the study, the place is completely ambiguous. Two figures, seemingly floating in the air, are locked in combat with each other. In this drawing, which is isolated from the space, the emphasis is placed completely on these two figures and on the action. The figure on the left, wearing green military fatigues featuring a star and crescent, fights against the terrorist. The expression on the face of the soldier suggests that he is very happy. On the other hand, the figure on the right (the terrorist), has a messy appearance with his stubble and an air of

Image 9: Y.K. (13 Male) desperation. The rain, pouring down in this scene, is expressed by little touches of blue Student's Explanation: crayon. These blue lines create a feeling that increases the intensity of the action. "I drew the outpost in Sivas in the picture. I also placed six bunker beds inside for the soldiers to sleep at night. I also drew three police cars; I placed a gate and added two police officers in front of the gates as guards."

The drawing shows that the sense of security of our student is heightened. We can also interpret this as a reflection of the feeling of anxiety or

40 Image 13: M.K. (12 Male)

Student's Explanation:

"In this picture, I depicted the killing of a rattlesnake on a tree by a soldier."

This drawing is more symbolic in image and message. A strong arm, popping out from the right side of the drawing, kills the black, fearsome snake, with the knife that it holds. The

fact that the arm belongs to a soldier supports the likelihood that the snake is, in fact, the enemy.

Image 11: B.D. (13 Male) Image 12: S.Ç. (13 Male)

Student's Explanation for Image 11: Image 14: A.D. (12 Male)

"I wanted to make a picture that commemorates Student's Explanation: our martyrs." "The mothers, fathers and children of our Student's Explanation for Image 12: martyrs are in so much sorrow that I wonder, am I the only one to notice? I drew this picture "My biggest dream is to raise our flag at the top for other people to realize this as well." of a mountain." In this image of a funeral, depicted by our A highly minimalist approach can be seen in student, a standing mass of people and a child these drawings. By placing the flag, which crying out for his father, strikes the eye. We feature heavily in these drawings, on top of a also read in the speech bubble the child’s cry of high hill, the sense of Turkishness is canonized. “Fatheeer!” Although the scene depicts a highly dramatic moment, the happiness on the faces of the figures is ironic. The funeral service and the flag on the coffin emphasize the heightened religious and nationalistic feelings.

5. Conclusion

Despite the fact that the results obtained through art are not sufficient alone for understanding an individual, for offering a diagnosis of that individual and for offering guidance, it is, without a doubt, an important way for understanding how human concerns are

41 reflected through art. It is already known that the lives of children would render them more art-based therapies can sometimes provide protected against unwanted/negative relief for individuals and groups as well. environmental effects. In addition to providing the right role models, the controlled use of the Children are, without a doubt, the most media (in order to decrease its negative effects), unfortunate victims of the terror attacks that should also be ensured.” (Hiçyılmaz, İnci, have recently occurred in our country. When Seven, 2015). children who are affected by the events in some way, try to make sense of the events in their Ensuring children are affected by acts of minds, they have a hard time doing so. The violence as little as possible, placing sense of rush and excitement that we see in the importance on effective rehabilitation processes pictures in general, is a solid indicator of the against possible traumatic situations, and taking tension that the children feel when they think the significance of art very seriously in this about the subject of terror. It shows/suggests regard, are highly important in terms of the that when concepts of terror, violence, health and development of the children. For the bombing, suicide bomber etc. are introduced future of our children, is the future of our into the child’s world, some children feel the world. fear of death and depict defensive scenes in their drawings while others sketch peaceful References images and an end to war, (for example, images 4, 6, 7, 9, 14); Others depicted themselves as [1] HİÇYILMAZ, Yahya. İNCİ, Mehmet Akif. actual soldiers, fighting in the field (for SEVEN, Serdal. “7-10 Yaş Grubu Çocukların example, images 2, 8, 10 ,13) It is certain that Şiddet Algılarının Resimler Aracılığı ile Sosyal both scenarios pose some risk to healthy child Güçler Bağlamında İncelenmesi” 2015 http://www.turkishstudies.net/Makaleler/139155881 development. 3_28%C4%B0nciMehmetAkif-vd-egt-503-518.pdf Erişim Tarihi: 11.07.2016 We can also add that the students highlighted some certain, primal symbolic forms (such as [2] TEYFUR, Mehmet. “Basında Yer Alan mosques, flags, soldiers etc.) in their pictures. It Okullarda Şiddet İle İlgili Olayların can be deduced from the pictures that the Değerlendirilmesi” children who canonize Turkishness with the http://dergipark.ulakbim.gov.tr/ilkonline/article/view flag and Islam with the mosque, are unable to /5000075277 Cilt 13, Sayı 4, 2014. interpret terror and violence without the Erişim Tarihi: 09.08.2016 presence of these two concepts. At this point, [3]ARTUT, Kazım. “Sanat Eğitimi Kuramları ve the impact of the social environment of the Yöntemleri”. (2. Baskı). Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. child, the media, the influences he/she gets (2002). from school and his ethnic and religious culture, are naturally also important. These [4] İNAL, Kemal. “Paternalist Politikanın İdeal symbols may be replaced with different ones Türk Çocuğu” across different regions and cultures. http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/40/127/878.pdf Cilt: 32 Sayı: , 1999, Erişim Tarihi: 02.07.2016 Studying the effects of the incidents of terror and violence which have occurred across the [5] YAVUZER, Haluk. “Resimleriyle Çocuk”. nation and initiating counter measures and İstanbul. Remzi Kitabevi 1992. rehabilitation procedures are now of the utmost importance for sustaining healthy future generations. The lack of specialist teachers in the fields of art (such as painting and music), in the village schools that were visited within the scope of the study, and ignorance of this need during hiring of teachers, only deepen the issue.

“We can conclude that families and teachers play pivotal roles on children developing the right behaviors. Having the right role models in

42 Relationship Between Art and Psychology

M.A. Student, Ayşenur Özdemir Marmara University Education Faculty /Education of Fine Arts ABD E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Although psychology and art are distinctive disciplines, both of them are actually two crucial disciplines which are connected for enrich each other. We can observe the effects of the artist's inspirations that are formed by the expressions of the artist's psychology. The artist protects himself from potential damages which are formed by accumulations of the artist's all visual, auditory and sensual perceptions, and after all he creates a new, unique artwork. Be- cause of the fact that the work is totally created by all psychological components of the artist who has sensitive personality, the art work reflects the cases and situations that the artist is affected. As for that the effects of art on psychology are totally discussed as a therapy method. That is to say any of art disciplines are used as a medium for psychological patients to relax and express themselves originally. Because scientists proved that humankind has a healthy psychology if they express themselves in the best way. Consequently, the effects of art on psychology and the effects of psychology on art are, although, discussed, both of them actually merge on a common point. Keywords: Art, Psychology, Psychology of Art, Psychology of artist, Art Therapy.

1. Introduction actually two important disciplines connected in terms of form and content development. But the Art, which has been in search of a beautiful, effects of psychology on art are evident in the aesthetic thing in everything in the nature, has work of art that emerges as a reflection of the become an integral part of our life from ancient psychological state of the same artist. Here, each times. In the formation of art throughout the art works is as a mirror. The effects of art on centuries, psychology, sociology, anthropology, psychology can be seen in the effects of archeology, art history, etc. many different sub- psychological patients who receive art therapy disciplines have become important factors. by using art as a therapeutic tool, and in the art Psychology, one of these sub-disciplines, has products that are emerged in this process. enabled deeply influenced art to evolve in a Art, which is the means of self-expression of a different way, especially after the emergence of person, allows the person to freely share his romanticism in the 18th century and as an feelings and thoughts in the frame of aesthetic ingredient in the works of artists as a content to concern through the active use of creative their own emotions and to be reproduced with a powers. From the very beginning of art, for new technique. In this context, although art and centuries we have been questioned why we want psychology are two different disciplines, each is to make art. In order to express ourselves, to

43 relax and to have fun, Abraham Maslow tion, 2- familiarity, 3-knowledge, 4-assimilation expresses that we need to create artistic and and 5-disposal. aesthetic aspects of everything around us because of our need for aesthetic anxiety and We see the effects of psychology on the art, in creative activity in the top layer of the hierarchy the work that the artist creates by expressing it of necessities pyramid. through the psychological state in which his impressions are embedded. By expressing all of his visual, auditory and sensual perceptions with a catharsis effect, the artist purifies his mind from possible psychological harmful effects and presents a new, original, work. The work is a clearing that reflects the events and situations influenced by the artist as it is formed by the gathering of all the psychological elements belonging to the artist who has a perfectly sensitive character. The effects of art on psychology are treated as a therapy. So, any art form is used as a tool for psychological patients to relax and express themselves in a unique way. Because it is scientifically proven that human beings have a healthy psychology to the extent that they can best express themselves. Creativity Abraham Maslow, The pyrimad of needs is one of the most important elements for an art

work. Using both artist and art as a means of

therapy, the artist creates an original art work Psychology, which is a science that studies that prepares all his creative powers in the feelings, thoughts and behaviors, is an important process of creation and contains the element in terms of the development of art as it psychological traces he or she has conveyed is the most important field that provides our consciously and unconsciously. ‘’In an existence and affects many different disciplines environment where there is no creativite activity, and fields. Art psychology is a scientific it is impossible to talk about a real artwork. discipline that systematically studies art works Artistic creative activity can manifest itself fully in the context of artists, viewers and in normal and as free conditions as possible. commentators as a result of creative impulses, Creativity in artifacts that have emerged during takes place within the framework of 5 cases. the course of history in challenging conditions These cases; 1- relationship between artist and and under pressure has been adversely affect- subject, 2- The interaction of an artwork with an ed.’’(Akkaya, T., p.19). Alfred Adler, one of the artist when the content is created as a content, 3- most important elements that allows the creation a sign of consumption by the artist that created of the artwork, sees the person as an effort to the artist, 4- conscious and unconscious complete the physical, spiritual, and lack of any encounter of the artist and the recipient, 5- the subject. But Rollo May contends that this view traces, dreams and judgments of the buyer of Adler is entirely opposed, arguing that it is formed on the artist by virtue of a work of art. only a shaping process and that the act of Supervisor of a Jung school, psychiatrist, and creation here can explain the process of creation, supervisor in a private institution in the Rutland that it is not an attempt to complete it. area of England, Joy Schaverien expresses a Dr. Süleyman Velioğlu, who is one of the picture has to be created in five stages; 1- defini- people who used art psychiatry for the first time in Turkey, has been evaluating art works

44 produced by mental patients since the 1960's and historians should focus on what they think rather has identified art and creation concepts with the than what they see. At around the same time, following words; “…Art is the unfolding of the around 1950, Gestalt Psychology enriched art psyche into the outside world in an aesthetic psychology. Between 1950 and 1970, the order and form, with conscious efforts of popularity of art museums and art history unconscious materials. Human is an opening. increased the importance of art psychology, but Creation in the place where biological life is not from 1970 onwards, art psychology began to enough to express life leads to narcissistic lose its academic significance. pleasure because of the success of man's self- Schizophrenia, various trauma, depression, assurance and his failure to resist biological autism, extreme personality disorder, etc. Art closeness. Art is the work of establishing an Therapy was used as a treatment on patients order based on the unifying instinct. The layout with psychological disorders such as psychiatric allows people to acquire the integrity and disorders between 1876 and 1888 on the clinical recognize the unity. Even on its own, even in the depression of art studies on the subject by absence of support, man strengthens the ego French psychiatrist Max Simon and Italian through creation and arrangement… The criminal expert Cesare Lombroso began to anxiety that the birth of human liberation has investigate. Simon and Lombroso analyze given birth to the responsibility that has been patients 'work by evaluating patients' artwork on caused by the abandonment can become the symbolization and stylization issues. As a result, power to make the psychic integrity of creation. they first use the term "monomania", which Art is an escaping from chaos.’’ (10). means an idea or subject and a pathological. Between 1880 and 1950, Heinrich Wölfflin Between 1906 and 1907, Wanda K. Mohr and Wilhelm Worringer performed important analyzed the similarities between artistic work work in the field of art psychology. Wölfflin of manic depressive and catatonic (petrified) brings together art and psychology in his work patients. Hans Prinzhorn was working on the titled "Prolegomena to a psychology of development of the patients. architecture (Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie In the 1920s, with the emergence of Cubism and der Architektur)" published in 1886 that the Expressionism, artists were interested in the architect can only be understood by his artwork of psychotic patients. But in the light of psychological view point. Worringer has all these developments after II World War, art identified the most important elements for the was first used as a treatment in the 1930s. In this expressionist art. Artists such as Naum Gabo, process, the concept of art therapy gradually Paul Klee, and Wassily Kandinsky were began to form and art was applied as a treatment influenced by the psychological rhetoric of the method of suffering trauma in this period. In 20th century. Sigmund Freud, known as the father of In the process from 1950 to the present day, psychoanalysis, he was investigating the the basic disciplines of art psychology first artworks inspired by the patients' dreams, but appeared in Germany, and later in the United Freud used art rather than treatment as a method Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR), in Britain, of treatment. Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler and Clive Bell and Herbert Read performed Carl Gustav Jung, the three great founders of important work on this area, while in France, analytical psychology, also used psychotherapy André Malraux and Jean-Paul Weber as an analytical tool in the treatment of contributed to the study. When we looked at a psychotic patients. Jung developed his field of broader geography, they tried to improve the study on the symbols of these studies by field of art psychology in the United States with examining the artworks of the patients during the thought of John Dewey's work "Art as the treatment process. Experience, 1934" and Erwin Panofsky strived Jung was interested in the dreams as Freud. He to improve art psychology, arguing that the art argued that all the secrets of human being lying

45 under his consciousness were revealed through given. If each of these artists deeply grasps the dreams. works of art, it is observed that canvas, walls, The traces of Jung's argument are particularly papers on paper, the colors they use, the inner evident in the work of Surrealist artists. worlds, and all the secrets lying under the Carl Gustav Jung mentions how important consciousness are struck out with symbolic the dreams are in terms of human psychology in expressions. his book "People and Symbols’’; ‘’... There are Margaret Naumburg, one of the forerunners of unconscious sides of our perception of reality. art therapy, used art as a tool in Therapeutic First, even when our senses react to real relations in the 1940s. phenomena, images and voices, they are Method is the path followed by a plan to somehow transferred from the field of reality to achieve a certain result in science. Scientists use the field of mind.’’ (C.G.Jung:2016,s.17). Jung induction and deduction methods to find the notes that everything that is perceived by these truth. At the same time, each science has its own words is recorded unconsciously or method. The Methods are; unconsciously, and they argue that these A- Descriptive methods records were brought to life through dreams. 1- Natural observation Here Subliminal expressions come into play. In 2- Systematic observation dreams, the subliminal subconscious that they 3- Test development want to decipher is revealed by some hidden 4- Clinical Methods symbols. B- Experimental Methods ‘’…. Subliminal material can consist of all the C- Statistical Methods. impulses that come to mind, intense desire, intention, perception and intuitive, rational and While Art Psychology is investigating the irrational thought, judgment, inference, effects of psychology on art and the effects of art preliminary and all kinds of emotion. Each or all on psychology, both artistic psychology and art of these can be partially, temporarily, and therapy use a few methods. These methods are; sometimes permanently unconscious. Such 1- Survey, 2- Face-to-face interview, 3- Case materials - in a sense - are often left Study, 4-Empirical research. Face-to-face unconscious because they can not find a place in interviews and case study methods are more their conscious. Some of our thoughts become objective and often provide real data than survey subliminal by losing their emotional energy (in and empirical research. However, face-to-face other words, they no longer cognize our interviews, case studies, and surveys are conscious attention), because they are out of the frequently used to conduct arts psychology question and interesting, or there are some effectively. These methods are sufficient reasons why we do not want to get them out of elements for an artist to create a new art work by our sight... Many artists, philosophers, and using the mental state, thoughts, and the artist's even scientists are indebted to such inspirations creative ability in the light. Survey and face-to- that suddenly come out of their unconscious best face interviews were conducted with 10 artists of their best ideas. Finding a vessel containing on behalf of this research topic. After the such a rich material and effectively transmitting responses of the artists to the questions they it to philosophy, literature, music, or scientific were asked were compared, it was determined discoveries is a feature of what is generally that they had generally gone through the same called genius.’’ (C.G.Jung,2016,s.33-34). psychological stages before entering the creation process. It was found that the artists entered a These fixations of Jung include Salvador Dali, manic depressive turn before they actively Kafka, Frida Kahlo, Edward Munch, Odd participated in the creation process, and that they Nerdrum, Rene Magritte, Max Ernst, Giorgio de were extremely talkative, extremely energetic, Chirico, etc. Examples of such artists can be thoughtful and distracted during this period.

46 After the manic period, people became intensely The interaction process, which plays an depressed and during this period they can not important role in the existence of art, also causes have a close relationship, food, sex, etc. They the reshaping of art in different dimensions. This avoid many social and personal needs. They try shaping is, of course, not only the art itself but to do everything in balanced, but if people get also the dialectic between art and audience. support from existential psychotherapists, they In the process of existence of art, we are can get through this process more easily. talking about human being serving the physical- Existential therapists do not like to use social environment and understanding of him. In techniques because they argue that the technique fact, we can talk about the fact that the artist, can vary from patient to patient and at every that is, the artist, has transferred some stage of treatment. Rollo May mentions this psychological elements on the product he has therapy heavily in his book ''The Courage of tried. Although the artist tries to abstract himself Creation''. According to May, the from a number of interactions, he reflects on the representatives of existentialist analysis accept work the psychological state he is in when he the extreme hindrance that has been devised as has a work. And the audience we offer the one of the greatest obstacles to human artwork interacts with its own psychological understanding in Western culture. Because, if state and perception frame and examines the western understanding comes after technique artifact with a much different eye than the artist's and if the correct technique is found, the mood. At this time Art Psychology, which is one patient's problem will be solved. But the of the art sciences that help in understanding the existentialist approach argues that the western art, comes into play. idea is the opposite that the technique comes Different scientists living in many parts of the after it. At the same time in the existentialist world have explored the link between art and approach, the usefulness of the technique is psychology. One of these scientists, Sigmund tested only by the high quality of the description. Freud, the father of Psychoanalysis, has an These methods are not effective in the important place in the enlightenment of art psychological process in which an artist psychology in art psychoanalytic work. The develops a new work, but also affect the art work of psychoanalysis of two great therapy treatment process of patients who have Renaissance artists, Leonardo da Vinci and various psychological disorders at the same time. Michelangelo, on Freud's work titled "On Art and Artists" is very valuable. Both master artists The Effects of Psychology on Art have been solved their works very finely in terms of art psychology by Freud. For example, We can clearly see all the psychological it is surprising that some of the objects that phenomena in the work of art where the Leonardo da Vinci saw in his dreams turned to influence of psychology on art is assessed in the his homosexuality because of the anger of his context of the psychology of the artist and the mother when he was laid in his childhood, and end result of the psychological situation of the how his influence reflected his work. Leonardo artist is. Since the artist has a sensitive structure, da Vinci wrote in his diary that he stuck a tail of he is impressed by the situations he is in and he a vulture in his mouth. Freud analyzed this shoots out all the images he holds in his mind dream and in fact states that the vulture here under the influence of a catharsis by producing corresponds to the Mutter (mother) word of the an artwork. In this outburst process, the artist Goddess "Mut" in Egyptian mythology. In short, enters into a severe depressive episode, Freud has confronted her sexual identity with deliberately or unconsciously creating an her mother and associated her tail with the penis imagination in the mind of whatever is of the male sexual organ. And ultimately happening around him, and revealing the image Leonardo da Vinci is inclined towards that causes it to feel uncomfortable. homosexuality by Freud. At the same time

47 Leonardo notes in his memoirs that he Alican LEBLEBİCİ sometimes conveyed the negative emotions he had nourished against his mother in a neurotic spirit conflict and reflected in his works which he did not desire. In short, Freud expresses Leonardo's stance as follows: ‘’ Here this sexual relationship against mother made me gay.’’(S.Freud, On Art and Artist, 2016, s.61). It is observed in Leonardo's pictures of this neurotic and mysterious mood. In particular, Mona Lisa's laugh, which has been trying to solve for centuries in the Mona Lisa painting, but still preserves its mystery, clearly shows its end. At the same time, Leonardo compared the relationship of a child with his mother to his relationship with his mother and is seen in many of his paintings of Jesus and Mary together. Alican LEBLEBİCİ, In short, it reflects on the work that Freud made in the direction of the researches and How do you feel and appreciate in before you examinations that the artist lived and produced begin to make an art work? everything hidden in the open space in a way ‘’I am usually so stressfull in the creation that could lead to his reaction. process. I can not eat anything. I increase the amount of drinking coffee, tea and smoking As a result of face-to-face interviews with cigarette. I usually isolate myself from the world. many artists working in different styles, most of But, however after this stressfull period, I sit in the artists were found to have experienced the front of my work and I start to paint.’’ same psychological conditions before entering the process of creating. Artists are entering an intense concentration situation and become more How do you feel while you are in creation and open than when they are in the process of painting process? creating consciousness. ‘’I question to everything in my life, yesterday and today. I am definitely sure what I Some Interviews of the Artists am creating, I am usually so upset and even I do not want to talk with anybody.’’ A number of painters gave almost close answers to the questions that were asked by the interviewer. As a result, it was understood that How do you feel after you finish your work? the artists were generally feeling the same things ‘’I am usually glad to create a new art work. and behaving in the same way during the I feel as if to be purified.’’ preparation process before the creation of a new artwork, during the creation process, and after the artwork emerged.

48 Serdar ORUÇ Aras YAZICI

Aras Yazıcı

Serdar Oruç How do you feel before you begin to create an art work? How mood do you participate in? ‘’I usually feel very energetic, talkative and How do you feel before you begin to create an sometimes very agressive, but after this period I art work? How mood do you participate in? create and feel free and like I am in a real ‘’Traumatic cases ,that hide in daily and world.’’ ordinary lives, stimulate my creativity. The process of image is painful. Before I begin a new How do you feel while you are creating? art work, I usually appreciate in intense ‘’ I enter a hypnotic state and disclose the depression. I generally feel I am in a grave.’’ energy which has been in my body so far. I mostly realize that in my brain there is a dark How do you feel while you are creating an art world that feed my creativity.’’ work? ‘’My depression and rough mood causes me Ayşenur ÖZDEMİR to create a new art work. This mood is like a fired house that a happy family lives in. I have to finish the work before the fire is put out. While I am painting, I feel I am fired like the house. If the pain, which I feel in this process, is severe, the art work is always good.’’

How do you feel after the work is finished? ‘’I usually feel I am useless. And I immediately prepare myself for the next art work.‘’

Chaos, Ayşenur Özdemir, 80/120 cm, Tuval Üzerine Akrilik, 2012

49 How do you feel before you begin to create an consciousness that will enable one to cross art work? How mood do you participate in? himself as a person, a person who lives that Before creating process, my mind is usually phenomenon, or a person who comes to that confused and I am so nervous, energetic, phenomenon. The world in which the individual talkative and distracted by everything. lives is his own world. (R. May, The Courage of Creation, s.15). With this process, Rollo May How do you feel while you are creating? does not express the patient's situation with the I feel I am in the real world and am prufied word of the relationship, which it is a from everything that cause me to be anxious. confrontation. According to existential therapies, if the patient encounters this situation, he argues that he / she can be more comfortable with the The Effects of Art on Psychology condition and situation. Existential therapy helps the patient to realize his latent powers. To Although art psychology is newly emerging accomplish this, the therapist should consider in our country, art psychology in developed neurosis as a creative adaptation of one's own countries has been used effectively since ancient self, against the danger of being centered. The times. The effects of art on psychology are used result that therapy will bring is an endless as an aid in the treatment of psychological process of loneliness in the long, short, and last. patients by art therapy. One of the most ‘’ Therapy gives a reliable and understandable important reasons for the use of art therapy as a world where the person can confront, but the method for the treatment of many different therapist can not protect the patient from the psychological disorders such as traumatic, loneliness he will fall into.’’ (R. May, The depression, schizophrenia, extreme personality Courage of Creation, s. 16) disorder and autism is to enable patients to Otto Rank ignores the similarity psychology express themselves in the best way. and advocates for differences, and explains the Psychological researches have proved that if the emergence of the neurotic character or the type person is healthy enough to express himself , he called the schizoid; ‘’ The person first perceives will have a well and balanced psychology. that his / her own willingness is different from Otherwise they will be restricted and can not the others by reaching consciousness of his / her express themselves and will have to suppress own will, then interprets the difference as their feelings and thoughts, so, as a result some something inferior, which in turn results in psychological disorders will arise. According to moral wear... The loss of the power of will in the Rollo May, ‘’Neurosis is nothing more than an face of another will is nothing more than a individual's own center, a method he uses to comparison of the claims and a consciousness of preserve his own existence. At the same time, the difference.’’ (R. May, The Courage of Nevroz is a creative activity in which the Creation, s.19). The bad thing is that a schizoid creative secret of the individual is hidden. At this type is created by trying to avoid this desire. point, psychotherapy's purpose is to reveal the This schizoid type is inherently destructive. constructive potentialities of neurosis.’’ (R.May, Rollo May mentions the same situation; The Courage of Creation, s.13). If the neurotic ‘’Neurotic and the artist both show the situation person is too afraid of losing his contradictory that will lead us to the whole society because the center, he refuses to lie down and withdraws human race lives unconsciously. Neurotics, like himself from his muscles, stopping the growth artists, have the same contradictions that arise and development of the world's field and from their nihilistic and alienated experiences, reactions. This creates neurotic suppressions and but they can not make sense of this inner life. repetitions that are common in Freud's time. The contradictions lie between the inability to According to May, the purpose and method of cast creative products and the impossibility of psychotherapy should be to create self-

50 rejecting them.’’ (R. May, The Courage of Spontaneous (Freely) Creative Process’ Creation, s.20). The artist acts in the neurotic inspiration source is intrinsic and is fed primary totally destructive dimension, while performing urge, fantasies, and is applied to neurotic people. the ability to integrate the two basic components Structured Creative Process is previously of creation, the making and destroying. prepared, and the therapist decreases the Art therapy is carried out by people who have probability of regression with primary been trained professionally in Turkey as well as intructions. In the Structured Creative Process, in other countries. Asisstant Proffesor Nurhan the source of ego’s functions is therapist, and Eren, who is one of the founders of Art this approach is proper treatment on Theraphy Association in Istanbul, has been schizophrenia, psychotic disorders, extreme practicing art therapy as a disease treatment personality disorders. method in the Department of Psychology at the As a result, although art and psychology are Faculty of Medicine of Istanbul University with two different sciences, they actually unite in an his professional team for about 30 years. It was art work. The effects of art on psychology are determined that the results obtained positively manifested by artistic products, which are contributed to the development of the treatment reflections of an artist's inner reactions, feelings, of the patients. Art therapy has made it possible thoughts. Here the psychology of the artist is the for patients to recognize the actions they have most important element that shapes the art work. been exposed unconsciously and have increased The artist has a different psychology in the their awareness. Art therapy is performed in creation process. The art work, which is many different areas of art, but when the art of different from the usual way of thinking and painting is used as a therapy, it is revealed by the acting, emerges after a period of heavy and catharsis effect of the same artist as the painful depression. This process is a proof that expression of an idea and factor, lines, colors the artist is exposed to emotional perception that cause the patients to fall into their more than before. Art therapy is also the process subconscious and become ill. So, it is a of the emergence of an art work as a result of a confrontation with the things that the patient severe, painful psychological illness. Because, does not accept. psychological patients who are receiving art Patients are treated under the influence of therapy become more sensitive to everything in creative thinking, emotional state, aesthetic their surroundings by increasing their awareness consciousness and spiritual awareness when they during this process. This awareness and sensitive see art therapy. The American art therapies attitude helps them to outlive all phenomena section has been found to result in positive lying under the unconscious with an art product. developments in art therapy through the So that, everything that patients are afraid of treatment of asthma, cancer, diabetes, kidney confronting and disturbing is revealed by art failure, trauma, child abuse and dissociated therapy. As a result of many findings, it has been discomfort. proven that patients who have art therapy show The art therapy, which is actively formed improvement every day. So, the art works that between the therapist, the art work, and the are made by artists and patients are the common client, is used as a means of expressing the point and evidence of the relationship between patients themselves during therapy and as a art and psychology. treatment method on the patients. Art therapy is practiced effectively in speech inadequacy, personal and social trauma, depression, anxiety disorders and communication problems. There are two basic approaches that allow to therapist study on the patients; 1- Spontaneous (Freely)

Creative Process, 2- Structured Creative Process.

51 References

[1] C.G. Jung, Man and His Symbols, H.M.İlgün ed., [11] N. Eren, S. Karaca, (2014). The Use of Kabalcı Publication, Istanbul, 2016. Creative Art as a Strategy for Case Formulation [2] E. H. Gombrich, The History of Art, Remzi in Psychotherapy: A Case Study, Journal of Publication, China, 2007 Clinical Art Therapy, (3), (1-8) [3] E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion, A.Cemal, ed., [12] R. Arnheim, Visual Thinking, R. Öğdül, ed., Yapı Kredi Yayınları, İstanbul, 2015 Metis Publication, İstanbul, 2015 [4] E. H. Gombrich, The Image and The Eye, Yapı [13] R. May, The Courage to Create, A. Oysal, Kredi Yayınları, Istanbul, 2015 ed., Metis Publication, İstanbul, 2005, pp. [5] D. L. Watson, Psychology, Brooks/Cole Publish- [14] S. Freud, The İnterpretation of Dreams, ing Company, California, 1992. Wordsworth Classics of World Literature, Hert- [6] J. Berger, Ways of Seeing, Y. Salman, ed., Metis fordshire, 1997. Publication, İstanbul, 2004. [15] S. Freud, On Art and Artists, K.Şipal, ed., [7] J. Crary, Observer Techniques, E.Daldeniz, ed., Yapı Kredi Publication, Istanbul, 2016. Metis Publication, İstanbul, 2004, pp. [16] S. M. Erinç, Introduction to Art Psychology, [8] N. Andreasen, Creative Brain, K. Güney, ed., Ütopya Publication, Ankara,2011. Akılçelen Publication, Ankara, 2015, pp. [17] T. Akkaya, Academic and Interdisciplinary [9] N. Eren, D. Şahin, M. B. Saydam, Evaluation of New Art Criticism Theory, (2014), 19. Psychotherapy Process in Working Groups [18] W. Kandinsky, Concerning the Spiritual in Through Interaction with Pictures and Music, Art, G. Ekinci, ed., Altıkırkbeş Publication, Archives of Neuropsychiatry, Turkey, 1996, (33), İstanbul, 2015. (3), 156-162. [19] http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.h [10] N. Eren, Analysis of Art Psychotherapy tml (15.01.2017) Process in Psychotic and Borderline Patient Groups, Ph.D. Dissertation, Istanbul University, 1998.

52 Osman Hamdi and The ‘Genesis’

Teaching Assistant Nida Anıl Kazanç Cumhuriyet University Faculty of Fine Arts Department of Painting [email protected]

Abstract

The female body is undoubtedly one of the most important inspirational sources of art history. From the cult of Kybele seen in primitive societies to the womanhoods of important masterpieces in contemporary art, the woman, both body and soul, and the world of the male world And it has become an indispensable source of art. The female figure identified with the fertility of the earth, especially because of its fertile identity, is not only a biological reflection of life, but also a symbolic reflection of the emergence of a new age, a new climate, a new mindset. Turkish culture has become a source of inspiration for some works of art that have been idealized in the recent times of the Ottoman Empire, where the figure of women, the contemporary art in western sense, begins to bloom. Osman Hamdi Bey's 1901 history is the work "Creation". The work deserves to be the most prominent example of the period, with the sense that it expresses its critical structure, and in this critical narrative it imposes on the female body. He will also interpret the work "Creation" of the Ottoman Hamdi Bey.

Key words: Osman Hamdi Bey, Creation, Woman, Kybele, Rebirth.

When the subject is discussed from the standpoint of Turkish art, the outcome is no Genesis different. The number of art works in Turkish Art that were regarded as objectionable from The world of art is full of sensational works. past to present is significant as well. Such works always led to controversies in the Sometimes political pressure, other times the era that they emerged and even caused social common and widespread sensitivities of uproars that might have resulted in hostile society, caused some artists and their works to actions. ‘The raft of Medusa’ from Theodore be deemed censorable. Gericault, ‘The Fountain’ by Marcel Duchamp, "Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe" by Monet and the Yet there is one work where there is still no ‘Piss Christ’ by Andres Serrano are some such clear information regarding its eventual fate. controversial works. The work belongs to Osman Hamdi, the forerunner of Turkish Art in regards to The aforementioned expressions of art that westernization, the founder of the Istanbul contradicts the religious, ethnic and moral Academy of Fine Arts and the Turkish values of their respective societies, are museology. The name of the work is ‘the considered the most valuable examples of the Genesis’, also known as ‘Mihrab’. history of art, even though they were not immediately accepted in the period from Although there are various explanations which they emerged. regarding the origin of the name, Prof. Edhem Eldem, the grandson of Osman Hamdi, puts forward the clearest indication that the

53 work was, in fact, named ‘The Genesis’ meet the eyes of the audience. A large candle (“Yaradılış” in Turkish). According to Eldem, is present on the right side of the woman (on the painting was first displayed in Berlin in the left of the painting). It can be speculated 1901 and further displayed in London in 1903 that the handwritten books scattered around on for a second time. The name of the work was the floor have religious content in them. A featured as ‘Genèse’ 1 (therefore Genesis), in thin wreath of smoke rises from the brass both exhibition catalogues. incense burner in the foreground.

The place featured in the work has a mihrab, What does this painting, which is highly ornamented with glazed tiles and calligraphy. successful in details and technique, want to It is known that this place is the ‘mihrab’, say? What is the real reason behind the artist which was created by means of a colored bringing objects of such great value together, enamel method, located in the Çinili Kiosk in coupled with a female body? Did this painting Istanbul (Inventory No: 136); and which was really cause uproar in the community or was it brought to the Museum from the cultivation of all a storm in a teacup? Ibrahim Bey of Konya, Karaman, in 1907. Considering the production date of the Who is Osman Hamdi? painting, it can be safely concluded that Osman Before searching for answers to these Hamdi had seen and painted the Mihrab 6 questions, it is pertinent to take a brief look at years before it was brought to Istanbul. 2 the life of the artist. Osman Hamdi, born in 1842 in Istanbul, received his education in Europe due to the influence of his father the Grand Vizer Ibrahim Ethem Pasha. 3

Osman Hamdi, who was producing charcoal drawings at the age of 16, got the chance to visit museums and exhibitions in Vienna, where he traveled with his father. The artist, who was sent to Paris for law studies, during his 12 year stay in Paris, was trained at the workshops of Gérôme and Boulanger, who were famous painters of the day. He remained married to wife Marie for 10 years, whom he met and married in Paris. After returning stateside, he took tenures at different levels of the state. Osman Hamdi, who also took the office of deputy manager of Protocol Affairs of The Mihrab, located in the Tiled Kiosk the Court, attended the International Exhibition held in Vienna, as a commissar. There is an image of a bareheaded woman in a His second marriage was to French national bright yellow décolleté dress, who sits on a Marie (Mrs. Naile in Turkish) whom he met in rather large lectern in front of the mihrab 1 Küçükyıldırım Vienna. Four children resulted from the 2 Wikipedia marriage: Melek, Leyla, Ethem and Nazlı. . Osman Hamdi, who left the civil service after with her shapely curves highly visible. The the Ottoman – Russo War, was appointed woman holds both sides of the lectern and sits Director of Müze-i Hümayun (The Imperial in an upright position. The stare of the woman, Museum) in 1881, after the death of Director who has quite an austere expression, does not Anton Dether and at the personal decree of the

54 Sultan. Later he was assigned the role of Ingres “Turkish Bath (Hamam)” 1863 Director at the first Fine Arts institute in Turkey the Sanayi-i Nefise Mektebi (The Institute of Fine Arts.) He reinstated the 1874 Charter for “Asar-ı Atika” (The Collection of Antiquities) which was still in effect, and reactivated it. With this new charter in place, he prevented the smuggling of antiquities from Ottoman lands to western countries. He conducted various archeological excavations at Mount Nemrut, Lagina (Mugla, Yatağan) and Saida (Lebanon) where he unearthed countless priceless artifacts. Osman Hamdi ‘Girl Reciting Quran’, 1880

The artist, who was also a very successful Osman Hamdi frequently featured the same painter, in addition to all of these objects in his art: Candles, lecterns, Quran achievements, created a unique style of his dustjackets, books, candlesticks, calligraphy own with his figurative compositions. He boards, carpets, guns, musical instruments, focused on images of reading, debating, literate sarcophagus incense burners, flowers and and modern women that he wished for. He vases are items which repeatedly stand out used historical objects and locations as the amongst his objects of choice. 4 venues in his works. Although producing orientalist 3 works, as distinct from those of Reading, books and figures, which have a his western contemporaries, he aimed to special place in his works, in a sense, canonize the enlightenment, reading, equality symbolize the longing for truth and and the mind. However, the orientalist works, knowledge. The Turkish women, who had no emerging from the west during that era, active role within Ottoman social life, are, in his works, the reflection of a society that is 3 Osman Hamdi Bey ve ikonografisi equal and enlightened. This was because, during his years in France, the artist saw and stood out with their fantastic compositions, experienced women as productive, thinking and heavy emphasis on sexual aspects, and educated entities. especially in locations like Hamams (Turkish Baths) and Harems.

55 not creation at the hands of a God, it is the creation of a life by a woman. My interpretation, in simple terms, is that Osman Hamdi seeks to place femininity as motherhood, above religion and dogma.

Osman Hamdi afforded a special place to books in many of his paintings. For the artist, who was also an educated and enlightened individual, scattering books all over the floor, as in this painting, is, by no means, usual/common. According to some, these scattered books are religious books, including the holy Quran. How much these views reflect the truth, is a matter of debate. It is not clear whether the indicated books are religious ones or other types of manuscripts with religious contents. Arriving at the conclusion that the artist is an enemy of religion solely on the basis of this painting, would be unfair to the artist, as it would mean disregarding his other works with religious themes. (The Man reciting the Quran, The Girl reciting the Quran, The fountain of Life, Preachers in front of the Mosque Gate, Man in front of children's tombs (in a ‘türbe’), the Doorsteps of a Mosque). However, it is not hard to imagine Osman Hamdi, ‘The Genesis’ 1901, (Lost) that Osman Hamdi, who was a modern and enlightened person of art and ideas, sometimes 4 Osman Hamdi Bey ve İkonografisi had intense clashes with the ‘Ulema’ (the Religious Scholars) that were close to the Symbolic Analysis of the Painting palace, but not close to Islam itself. Therefore, placing the painting at the center of a Much comment has been made on the perspective that is battling Islam, prevents us unknown identity of the woman, whose back is from seeing the hardships that Osman Hamdi turned on the Mihrab (hence the Kaaba). encountered; (especially the corrupt According to Cemal Sait Bark, the grandson organization that spread to the Palace, of the artist, the model is an Armenian girl, damaging Islam itself during the final stages of who was tasked with the role of housekeeper the Ottoman Empire) and also the place of of the manor. Debate regarding the identity of women within society. the girl contributes little to the universal message that the painting wants to express: Naming the art piece ‘Genesis’ as the title of The figure in the painting is woman, the source the painting, is naturally helpful in of life, and yet a figure who has no influence understanding the work much better. Woman within the Ottoman social order. According to is the most important part of creation. It is in Eldem, “Fertility is placed above religion. her womb, that a being comes into creation. Nature, motherhood, the ability of humans to The prominence of the breast and belly of the reproduce, the Genesis… The genesis here is female figure is chosen to emphasize her

56 fertile body, rather than to emphasise her sexuality and sexual attraction. The large, burnt-out and partially-melted candle placed next to the female figure is, without doubt, a phallic symbol and coalesces with the woman’s figure.

The Cult of Cybele

Humanity, which has evolved into an agricultural society, where the rain falls and waters seeds for them to grow into crops, and the nurturing of those crops by the sun. , Later this presence began to come into existence in the shape of simple forms and then got/received its name: Cybele. ‘Kybele’, Çatalhöyük The archeological excavations, conducted in

Anatolia, revealed that the Mother Goddess figure dates back to 6500 - 7000 BC. These goddesses symbolize procreation, femininity, and the cycle of life and thus fertility. While the female figures in mother goddess beliefs, which are not only seen in Anatolia, but also seen in many other geographic areas; they are depicted as sitting, or in standing position and sometimes even while giving birth. Next to the 5 Edhem Eldem Röportajından goddess, symbolic animals such as a lion or a 6 bull, which reflects power, can also be found Edhem Eldem Röportajından in his works.

‘Genesis’

57 Feminine physical characteristics such as wide The Fate of the Piece hips, large, round breasts in depiction of the mother goddess are nods to the femininity and Who currently owns the painting, which has fertility of the goddess. The primitive works changed hands three times thus far, is still a that parallel the work of Osman Hamdi, mystery. A book by Mustafa Cezar, entitled overlap in terms of both composition and ‘Exposure to the West in Art and Osman theme. In a sense, the work of Osman Hamdi is Hamdi’ indicates that the artwork is in the a modern depiction of Cybele. 5 Demirbank Collection. Famous auctioneer Raffi Portakal, tells the story of the painting, Eldem points out that the ‘Tanagra’ from once owned by his father - Aret Portakal. He Gérôme was the inspiration for Osman says, “The painting was revealed by my father Hamdi’s masterpiece. “The pose of the woman in 1964 at the auction of the Consulate Behcet is the same as the pose of the statue of Cybele. Bey. However, it was not sold at that auction. A few years ago when I was speaking on The painting was then bought by the Attorney Osman Hamdi at a Gérôme conference in Mesut Hakülgen. Later it was owned by Paris, I showed ‘Genesis’ and a curator, who Çiğdem Simavi. About 4-5 years ago, it was was an expert on Gérôme said: “That’s bought by someone, whose name cannot be Tanagra.” There was an exhibition, we went disclosed, for 1 million USD.” Experts suggest there and looked around. Yes, the very same that the value of the painting, which was 1 pose. I then looked back at the letters that I had million USD 4-5 years ago, has already and found a letter written by Gérôme in 1890, jumped threefold. to Osman Hamdi. The letter says that he went to Paris and liked the Tanagra. 6 Having many photographs of the painting, which have survived to this day, really help gaining information about the work. Eldem: “Although the ‘Genesis’ remains lost, there are very high-quality replicas out there. Therefore, for me, as a historian, it is not lost.” The disappearance of the painting is a significant loss for the audience, in terms of Turkish Art. Keeping such a valuable and controversial artwork with so much prestige, in private ownership, is detrimental for Turkish Art.

Ensuring the protection of such pieces of art by the state, does not only mean a belated respect for the work of the artist, which she already deserves, but also provides the impetus for our country - to place us in the global arena of art, in terms of prestige.

Gérôme, ‘Tanagra’, 1890

58 References

KUM, Burhan. “Türkiye’de Resim Sanatı” Erişim Adresi: http://sanatonline.net/guncel- sanat/turkiyede-resim-sanati Erişim Tarihi: 10.12.2016

“Osman Hamdi Bey ve İkonografisi” Erişim Adresi: http://www.sanalmuze.org/arastirarakogrenme k/osmanhamdi.htm Erişim Tarihi: 07.12.2016

KÜÇÜKYILDIRIM, Pınar “Osman Hamdi Bey'in Ölümünün 100. Yıldönümünde Prof.Dr. Edhem Eldem ile Söyleşi” Erişim Adresi: http://www.lebriz.com/pages/lsd.aspx?lang=T R§ionID=0&articleID=832&bhcp=1 Erişim Tarihi: 01.01.2017

CANİDAR, Sonat. “Mihrabı Alan Yaşadı” Erişim Adresi: http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2004/12/14/gnd113.ht ml Erişim Tarihi: 21.12.2016

“Mihrap (Tablo)” https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihrap_(tablo)

59 The Linguistic Representamen and Metaphoric Structures Depicting the Depressive Mood in the Dokuzuncu Hariciye Koğuşu (The Ninth External Ward) by Peyami Safa

Çelikel, Sibel Eratik Trakya University, Department of Turkish Language and Literature [email protected]

Abstract. Is there a correlation between language and psyche? How does individual language use relate to the utterer’s psyche and mood? A change in ways of reading and reception seems necessary as a departure from the language-psyche interplay. A literary text, despite being an aesthetic artifact at the outset, is composed of linguistic signs that can provide us valuable clues about the characteristics of the language in which it is written. Along with the recent trend of integrating sociological and psychological research into author/poet biographies, new ways of reading and (re)interpretation have emerged. Lay people as well as novelists and poets tend to use metaphoric language to express emotions.

The well-known novel Dokuzuncu Hariceyi Koğuşu (The Ninth External Ward) by Peyami Safa, a preeminent Turkish novelist, known for his remarkable insights into human psychology, is the narration of the inner life of its depressed protagonist. Safa’s psychological analyses are very realistic. This paper describes the linguistic representamen and metaphoric structures depicting the depressive mood in the above-mentioned novel. The aim is to reinterpret the statements (énoncés) of the writer and to determine whether the novelist prefers certain metaphoric structures to express specific psychological contexts.

Keywords: Depression, metaphor, representamen, Peyami Safa

1. Introduction ess of ascribing meaning to utterances that individuals want to produce; the interpretation What is the correlation between the lan- process of the produced utterances; the sharing guage and individual uses and the psyche? In of linguistic information and encyclopedic in- which ways do the psyche and mood affect lan- formation in the interpretation process; the for- guage? Are major metaphoric structures chosen mation of the existence of lingual elements in to express a certain state of original emotion or the memory; the language acquisition process could there be associations between individuals of children from birth through their develop- using the said language? ment; the manner in which multilingual speak- Psycholinguistic studies have concentrated ers store these various languages in their memo- especially in the following areas: Production ries; and correlations between language disor- process of utterances by individuals; the proc-

60 ders, mental disorders, and lesions in the struc- regarded as signs. Ch. S. Peirce, who wished to ture of the brain. make a complete classification of the phenomena of The discipline of psycholinguistics, being semiology, constructs a system of signs based on a relatively new discipline, has been accepted as trinities, and defines the notion of signs as: “A sign an independent discipline since 1954, and seeks or representamen is something that stands for somebody, for something, in some respect or capac- answers to the following questions about the ity. It addresses somebody, that is, creates in the production of utterances. How is it that a mind of that person an equivalent sign or perhaps a speaker, by producing a series of voices, trans- more developed sign. That sign which it creates is forms these into an intentional meaning or writ- dependent on three things: ground, object and in- ten signs? Does it start from the syntax, or does terpretant [2]. it start from some words? While doing so, how The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure, the fore- does it control the message it generates? These runner of contemporary semiotics in Europe, says, issues inevitably lead to debates about the rela- “Language is a system of signs that expresses ideas, tionship between human language and thought. and is therefore comparable to a system of writing, Is there a thought outside the language? [1] the alphabet of deaf-mutes, symbolic rites, polite If this question was expanded, based on formulas, military signals, etc. But it is the most the connection of sings of the used language important of all these systems.” with emotions, it is necessary to question the A science that studies the life of signs relationship between the language and emo- within society is conceivable; it would be a part of tional states. What is the relationship between social psychology and consequently of general psy- language and the world of emotion? chology, called ‘semiology’. To determine the exact It is also necessary to change the way we place of semiology is the task of the psychologist. read and perceive fiction, based on the relation- The task of the linguist is to determine what makes ship between the language and the emotional language a special system within the mass of semi- world. Although a literary text in any given ological data. (…)” [3] Signs are in every area of our lives. We constantly language is written for an aesthetic purpose, it use, consciously or unconsciously, social signs and will give us valuable information about the natural signs to express ourselves and to put our characteristics of the language in terms of the lives in order. Nevertheless, language signs have an language signs it contains. In recent years, important place in communication. When it comes autobiographical studies have been widespread, to emotions, language signs come into play, and with in-depth studies on writers and poets. In especially if this emotional state is experienced line with these works, new readings have been unlike the usual, a special and complex emotional developed, benefiting from the knowledge of state that needs to be aided by language signs be- sociology and psychology. Accordingly, liter- comes even more important. This study examined ary works are re-interpreted from a more scien- what particular language signs were used by an author intending to express a particular emotion state tific point of view. in a literary text. This study was conducted by considering the relationship between the world of language and thought, the world of language and spirit. 1.2. What is psychological breakdown? The language usages of individuals vary in their purposes. Of course, the words and sentence The concept of breakdown in the Turkish sequences chosen by an individual who desires Dictionary, prepared by the Turkish Language to express himself in daily life will show differ- Association, is defined as: “a mental disorder ences with the preferences of a writer of fic- caused by an increase of despair emerging as a tional texts. The tendencies of the authors who result of decreased sensitivity to stimuli, ability describe the inner world of the individual in a to do work, and self-confidence, and depression” certain state of emotion are the subject of this [4]. study. Another description of psychological breakdown, or in other words “depression”, is as fol- 1.1. What is a sign? lows: it is an emotional state that becomes evident with intense sadness, anxiety, guilt and All types of forms, objects, and phenomena, worthlessness, estrangement from others, loss which represent anything other than themselves, and thus can take the place of what they represent, are of sleep, appetite, sexual desire, or indifference generally called signs in language-related sciences. to everyday activities.” [5]. In this respect, words, symbols, and markings are

61 In daily language, we use the word depres- expressions can be much higher in number than sion to describe the convergence of many emo- other signs [8]. tions (sadness, frustration, and perhaps pessi- Narrative impressiveness is also achieved, mism). Depression is so prevalent that some- particularly in literary works, through the simi- times it is defined as the “common cold” of the larity established between the notions that lead psychiatric field. We all experience some de- to the birth of certain figures of speech (such as gree of depression at some point in our lives, analogy, metaphor, allusion). Aksan describes a even if only slightly. Napoleon, Churchill, simile as: “In order to intensify the narrative, it Abraham Lincoln, and other well-known people is the tendency of the mankind to make a menin history are also said to have experienced de- tion of one while talking about the other, by pression. As far as it is understood from ancient taking advantage of the closeness and similari- scriptures, it can be said that the depression has ties between some objects and concepts.” Giv- been present since the human beings began to ing “white like salt,” “heavy like a train” as ex- keep written record. Furthermore, in the future, amples of such similes, Aksan states that these without distinction of any moment or place, types of similes are similes formed by the men- race, or nation, 20% of the population will ex- tal capacity of the individual and that they re- perience some symptoms of depression that are main personal. Apart from these, he mentions not merely sadness [6]. that similes such as “like milk” (white), “like This study aimed to highlight how the con- stone” (hard, heavy), “like honey” (sweet or cept of psychological breakdown is treated in a knowing/understanding) are not personal, but literary text. block phrases [9]. İsa Kocakaplan states that similes, which are also called analogies, are an 1.3. What is a metaphor? art form based on enthusiasm and that “the art of likening the weak one to the strong one of Wierzbicka and Harkins state that there are the two entities which have similarities in vari- different ways of expressing feelings to others, ous aspects is called a simile.” [10]. which can be summarized under three main The metaphor, expressed as the next phase of headings: 1: One may tell others if they are the simile, (9, 11) is defined as the use of only feeling good or bad: “I feel great,” or “I feel one of its similar elements and assimilated ele- terrible.”; 2: One may tell others that they are ments in the literary arts [10]. Istiare is a word feeling how someone else feels in a certain in Arabic and the real meaning is “to borrow, to situation: “I feel like an orphaned child,” “I feel get something in a casual temporary way.” The like a lost person,” or “I feel abandoned.”; 3. word origin of this concept consists of the One may tell others what seems to have hap- words meta (beyond) and phoros (transfer) in pened to his or her body: “My heart is breaking Greek [12]. into pieces,” or “My heart feels heavy.” [7] The concept of the metaphor differs within it- Kövecses, on the other hand, emphasizes which self, in terms of its characteristics: conceptual, signs the emotions are met in language and di- ontological, and orientational. Conceptual vides the emotional expressions into two: Ex- metaphors show a characteristic mostly spread plicit and Descriptive. Kövecses interprets ex- within the abstract system of the language. It is pressions from which we would understand the usually a reflection of an upper, common cul- emotional state from exclamations, such as “oh ture directly related to the way that people who dear” (for the notion of pity), “puff” (for the use a common language system perceive the notion of tedium, ennui), from the words of the world. This experience motion is called map- speaker, from the sentence, from the tone of ping. Conceptual metaphors are forms created their voices, and from their emphasis within in cognition of unique experiences of a society ‘expression emotion words’. At the same time, shaped by the people [13]. They are proverbs he approaches words which are in the vocabu- and idioms, and even sometimes starting with lary to express emotions such as anger, sadness, slang, they have a wide range of uses that carry joy and the notions related to these emotions as all the colors of a nationalized language. An “descriptive emotion words.” Kövecses argues orientational metaphor is a metaphor type in that metaphorically meaningful signs are one of which concepts are spatially related to each a variety of expressions that correspond to emo- other. Abstract concepts, usually called image tions in a language, and that these metaphoric schemata, are mechanisms that facilitate com- prehension through our physical experiences. In

62 this transfer, which can be called concretism, is to bring abstract concepts closer to our lives abstract emotions and thoughts remain loyal to and make them concrete [14]. the moral values they carry and to the general This study attempted to determine with perceptions, realized through environmental which linguistic signs the “physical breakdown” orientations such as downwards↔upwards, in- was encountered in a fictional text written in ward↔outward, and frontward↔backward. Turkey Turkish. Especially approaches of cog- “Furthermore, hereinabove” is an example of nitive linguists to the concept of emotion, and one of the most common orientational meta- their ways of handling the subject have in- phors. An ontological metaphor is a metaphor formed this study. Cognitive linguistics, which that represents a non-physical entity as a physi- manifested in studies in the 1970s and has de- cal entity or substance. In ontological meta- veloped very rapidly since the 1980s, is concen- phors, the ontological status of something trated on the relationship between language and changes. concepts at the core of the human mind. When In contemporary perception, metaphor theory the work of Lakoff et al. is studied, one can un- emphasizes that the metaphor is not a mere fig- derstand that they attempted to conceive how ure of speech, but one of the most basic and concepts are formed, how they reflect on lan- widespread forms of an element of language guage, and how people perceive the world and the human mind. At the same time, lan- [15,16]. guages have concentrated on the process of They utilized the materials of language in conceptualizing nature and the world in a meta- that study. Metaphors are one of the most dis- phorical dimension. Languages, rather than the cussed topics in cognitive linguistics. They are one that exists, manifest themselves in the way especially important to reveal how society of understanding, transmitting that existence. looks at the outer world. Accordingly, we at- Since the word is a functional building stone, tempted to examine metaphorical structures as which is solely centered on communications; the most preferred language material in literary the difference between languages can only be texts produced by a society, and to determine explained by their metaphorical building ele- the metaphors that express the psychological ments. This, in a sense, is the emergence of breakdown in the selected novel. language as a metalanguage in a harmonic structure with all kinds of cultural structures. Metaphorical meaning is a symbolic language structure in which two different ideas and con- 2. The Study of the Novel 9 - Hariciye Koğuşu cepts are linked with the purpose of transition- The Ninth External Ward: ing to one living space from another or for comparison to understand and experience some- When it comes to emotions, writers and poets thing from another point of view of something also tend to use similes and metaphorical ex- else. Though it does seem like a complicated pression. This study examined which language means at first sight, its underlying concept of signs were used in which metaphorical struc- experience is an image merely adding new tures in case of a certain emotion in a literary richness to the language. Language itself is al- text. ready metaphoric. Every word does not appear The autobiographical novel 9. Hariciye as its pure meaning. This may be the case only Koğuşu – The Ninth External Ward by Peyami for the languages of primitive tribes. All lan- Safa, a writer known for his successful psycho- guages that have created culture or are influ- logical analysis in Turkish literature, was enced by culture have created new images and deemed appropriate example to study. All the phenomena with their own symbolic expansions narrative techniques, language, and stylistic over time. Hence, the concept of the contempo- excellence used in the novel, puts The Ninth rary metaphor aims to systematize these image External Ward in a different category of Turk- levels. It deals with the words and strives to ish fiction. An interesting aspect of the novel is decipher them with whys and hows. A meta- that the name of the “sick child,” the novel’s phor can be described as seeing one thing protagonist, is not even mentioned once. The through the eyes of another, or configuring or reason for that is said to be that the protagonist understanding a concept domain with regards to is actually the author himself. The author is another. It can also be said that the main pur- known to have had a bone disease in his child- pose of mental connections through metaphors hood. Since the illness the “sick child’ suffers

63 in the novel and the illness Peyami Safa had “Fakat bu ışığa bakamıyordum, bu güneş when he was a child shows similarities, and bile gözlerimden içeriye girince, kendimden since the author endured the same psychologi- daha büyük bir karanlık denizine düşmüş gibi cal situations personally, these facts contributed derhal sönüyor ve içimin rengini alıyordu.” immensely to the study. This is because the [19] secondary purpose of this study (with or with- The “sick child” stays in the mansion of a Pa- out the concern for literary style) is to observe sha, who is a distant relative who lives in Er- whether a certain emotional state inflicts the enköy. Pasha’s daughter Nüzhet and the hero of emergence of certain metaphoric structures the novel are childhood friends. There is an while conveying emotions. At the end of the emotional affinity between them. During his study, we hope to find an answer to the ques- stay at the mansion, the hero enjoys his time tion: “Do language signs originate from emo- with Nüzhet and feels attached to her even more. tional states and do the metaphorical structures In the meantime, a rich gentleman called Ragıp in which these language signs occur show simi- Bey, asks for Nüzhet’s hand in marriage. This larities in all languages or not?” event is hidden from the child for a few days at In Peyami Safa’s novel, The Ninth External home. However, the situation then becomes Ward, the psychology of death experienced by clear. Pasha asks the child what he thinks. The the protagonist, the “sick child,” is materialized destruction and helplessness the hero of the by the words “cold and dark.” novel felt when he heard this news is described The novel starts with a hospital depiction. as follows: During the detailed description of the corridors “Ruhumun üstünde bir ağırlık duymaya ba- of the hospital, the “sick child’s” attention fo- şladım” [20] cuses on “dark and cold.” The hero sees the Sadness and sorrow are expressed by “heavi- hospital not as a place of salvation, but as a ness” in another section: dark and feared place: “Yatağa girince vücudumun her vaktinden “Karanlık dehliz. Kapalı kapıların mustatil fazla ağırlaştığını zannettim. Istırap ağırlığıma buzlu camlarından gelen soğuk ışıkların buğusu, bir şeyler katıyordu.” [21] yüksek ve çıplak ışıkların buğusu, yüksek ve Anguish and grief are known to leave the çıplak duvarlara vurarak donuyor.” [17] human being weak, to slow down their bodily This darkness is far more than an external functions. To portray this state as temporary darkness. It is the epitome of the psychological blindness and deafness in the novel is also very depression, hopelessness and helplessness the interesting: sick child is in. So much so that sometimes the “Havuzun başında Nüzhet’le geceleyin otur- “sick child” is disturbed by the light. duğumuz demir kanepeye oturdum. Fakat ba- “Yalnız başıma demir parmaklıklı kapıdan hçeyi göremiyordum, o yaşımda kuvvetli içeriye girerdim, dokuzuncu hariciye koğuşuna acıların bana verdiği geçici sağırlık ve körlük doğru ağaçların bile sıhhatine imrenerek içinde idim; o acılardan biri ki, saniyeler içinde yürürdüm, camlı kapıların garip bir beyazlıkla artıyor, azamiye çıkıyor, gözlerimin arkasında gözlerime vuran ve içimde korku ile karışarak bir karanlık ve kulaklarımda bir uğultu yapıyor, yuvarlanan parıltıları arasında o dehlize girer- kendimi taşıyamayacak kadar dermanımı kesiy- dim, ve yalnız başıma bir köşeye ilişirdim, kı- ordu”. [22] mıldamazdım, susardım, beklerdim, korkudan Although the event of Nüzhet’s marriage to büzülürdüm, rengimin uçtuğunu hissederdim.” Ragıp is kept secret from the “sick child,” he [18] senses it and therefore he starts suffering. In the “Bu zavallı uzvumun talihine ait hiçbir şey novel, this complex mood is expressed by the düşünmek istemiyordum, şuurumun hastalığının metaphor of “drowning/suffocating”: üstüne boşaltacağını aydınlıktan kaçmak için “Bazan etrafımızda o kadar esrarlı bir ruhumun daha karanlık ve izbe hatlarına hâdise olur ki ince teferruatına kadar bunu sez- kendimi atıyor, daha korkunç ve karışık ha- eriz, fakat hiçbir şey idrak etmeyiz; ruhumuzun yallere dalıyordum.” [19] içinde ikinci bir ruh her şeyi anlar, fakat bize The “sick child” does not find solace from anlatmaz, böyle korkunç işaretlerle bizi muam- any light, but in contrast, light reminds him his manın derinliklerine atar ve boğar.” [22] own misery because he himself is integrated The author re-emphasizes the “drown- into darkness: ing/suffocating” metaphor at the beginning of the next chapter:

64 “Boğuluyorum. Kurtulmak için başımı kendi into pulmonary tuberculosis. This possibility derinliklerimden çıkarıyorum, bahçeye bakıy- creates a complete psychological breakdown in orum.” [22] the “sick child”; the thought of losing his leg The “sick child” gets very upset when he re- almost brings him to attach personality to this ceives the news of Nüzhet’s marriage but he organ: knows that he should not betray any emotions; “Giyinip soyunurken, pansuman yapılırken, he expresses the complex mental state he is in minderin üstünde uzanırken, dakikalarca, with the word “whirlpool”: mahkûm uzvuma bakıyorum; her parçası, her “Onu o kadar kıskanıyorum ki saadetinin hareketi, her yeni aldığı şekil bana birçok içine daha fazla giremiyorum, kendime dönüy- düşünceler veriyor, canlanıyor, ehemmiyet ka- orum, fakat içimde ne kargaşalık! Bana tâbi zanıyor, şahsiyet sahibi oluyor ve öteki sağlam olmayan binlerce hayaller ve hâtıralar, şiddetli uzuvlar arasında idama mahkûm bir kardeş bir anafor içinde savruluyorlar.” [23] gibi, endişeli bir hareketsizlikle susuyor. The aunt, disturbed by the child’s thoughts, Cellâdın bıçağına teslim olacak olduktan sonra understands his interest in Nüzhet and a lie that senelerce bu işkenceyi niçin çekti? Niçin kan the child’s illness is contagious to keep Nüzhet ağladı?” [26] away from him. The child, who eavesdrops his The fear and sadness the “sick child” felt aunt’s conversations, gets very upset of what he with the thought of losing his leg, brings forth hears and immediately decides to return home the “darkness” metaphor again: that night. But the arrival of his mother the next “Feci karardan sonra bana bakan gözlerin morning forces him to stay in Erenköy. At this hepsi ne kadar derinleşti. Bütün bu gözlerde point, the “sick child’s” future anxiety, hope- ruhumun akislerini görüyorum, hepsi tâ içime lessness, and loneliness are expressed by the bakıyorlar ve içimi aksettiren birer küçük ayna metaphor of a “deserted island.” The deserted gibi esrarlı bir karanlık, parıltıyla kamaşıyor, island follows the concept of “distancing one’s oyuluyor, derinleşiyorlar.” [27] self from one’s own borders.” The distance here The hero is now an in-patent at the ninth ex- symbolizes being distant from one’s self, being ternal ward. Having to stay there for a long time, away from everything he loved and was used to, the boy falls into a deep depression. The loneli- and loneliness: ness he suffers in his room drags him into a “İstikbalime dair içimden fena işaretler al- complete mental breakdown and here again the maya başladım. Üstüme devamlı bir melankoli metaphors of “darkness” and “emptiness çöktü, her an susturan ve sarartan o derin emerge. Moreover, he likens the delusions he elemlerden biri ki, beni kendi içimden de uzak- cannot expressly describe as ghosts. Also, in laştırıyor, ruhumu haritasını bilmediğim ıssız this section, words related to the same concep- adalara götürüyor, beni kendi hudutlarımın tual domain as the word “darkness,” such as dışına sürüyordu.” [24] “dark silhouette/indistinct dark figure” and In the meantime, Nüzhet changes quite a lot “shadow” were used: and turns against him with her mother’s incul- “Gittikçe artan karanlık, iki parça eşyayı da cations. Everything comes to an end so sud- benden uzaklaştırıyor ve beni daha yalnız bı- denly that they no longer speak a single word to rakıyor.(…) İçimde bir boşluk… Garip ve büyük each other. The “sick child” expresses the end- bir his, derinliklerime doğru kaçıyor, gizleniyor. ing of the close relationship with Nüzhet as Ruhum karartılarla, sessiz ve şekilsiz gölgelerle, “listlessness and dying”: eşya arkasına saklanan hayaletler gibi kendil- “Benkımıldayacak halde değilim. Kanım erini göstermeden korkutan meçhul varlıklarla sönüyor. Damarlarımın ince yollarında ha- dolu.” [28] şhaşlı bir hava yürüyor ve bütün adalelerim The loneliness suffered in that sickroom, the uyukluyor, içimde büyük bir enerjinin ölümünü uneasiness, unhappiness, helplessness, and con- duyuyordum. Onunla aramızda her şey o kadar demnation of the inability to leave the room bitmiş ki bir kelime bile konuşamıyoruz.” [25] make the hero to perceive the room like an en- The “sick child” returns to the hospital again emy. The “sick child” has embodied all his de- and undergoes a thorough check-up by the sur- lusions on the walls of the sickroom. This sec- geons. All examinations reveal that surgery is tion of the novel is completely rich with meta- necessary. Due to the excessive discharge from phors of incarnated expressions such as prolon- his knee, there is a possibility that his legs need gation of the walls, hardening of the walls, the to be amputated since the disease may develop walls crushing the eyes, wearing the walls, and

65 the walls giving birth to bad moments (being sevinç başlıyor: Istırabın ilâcı ıstıraptır. İkisi- responsible for them). Accusing the elements of nin hâsıl-ı zarbı: Sevinç.” [29] nature and sometimes the city itself for the sad- The “sick child” leaves the room in which he ness suffered is a metaphorical structure that is stayed for days with the dread and fear of living also seen in Turkish poetry as well; the accused in the outside world. Even if the hero is physi- in this novel is the hospital walls. cally well after what he has lived through, the “Yüksek, çıplak, mavi, dümdüz, dimdik du- psychological signs of - illness will last forever. varlar. “Burada ıstıraba ve tevekküle o kadar alıştım Gözümün hiçbir görüş köşesi yok ki içine bir ki, onları bırakırsam ruhumun bir parçası ke- duvar parçası girmesin. Hep ve yalnız onları silmiş gibi boşluk duyacağım; bırakmazsam görüyorum. Onlardan kaçan gözlerim onlarla isyansız nasıl yaşayacağım?” [29]. karşılaşıyor. Bakıldıkça uzuyorlar, yükseliyorlar, sertleşi- yorlar ve korkak, yumuşak bakışlarıma kaskatı 3. Conclusion and Suggestions çarpıyorlar, gözlerimi ezecekler. Başım döndü. Deniz gibi yayılıyor ve beni çeviriyorlar. Ser- In his novel The Ninth External Ward, Pe- inliklerini hissediyorum. Denizde, çıplak yami Safa’s main metaphors used as language vücudumu saran dalgaların birdenbire taş ke- signs expressing psychological breakdown are: silmeleri gibi, duvarları giyiyorum. cold, darkness, heaviness, deafness, blindness, Hiç kımıldamıyorlar. drowning/suffocating, whirlpool, deserted is- Bütün bu hastanenin sessiz, hareketsiz, soğuk, land, listlessness, dying, emptiness, attaching bomboş anlarını onlar doğuruyorlar. Gözlerimi, personality to an organ, attaching personality to onlardan kaçırmak için yastığa da kapatamıy- walls, and medicine. orum. Arkama uzanacaklarını, üstüme aba- In the paper titled, “Metaphorical Structures nacaklarını sanıyorum.” [28] of Psychological Breakdown in Turkey Turk- In addition to the personalization of the walls, ish,” examined linguistic signs used in some of the use of the notions of “cold” and “chilliness,” the poems of Attila İlhan and those uttered dur- which have previously been used as expressions ing psychotherapy sessions by real persons who of mental breakdown, is also striking here. suffered from psychological breakdown. The “Ve onlara mütemadiyen bakıyorum. İçime paper reported that linguistic sings such as serin mavilikler doluyor, ruhlarını iyice “emptiness,” “darkness,” “deep,” “coldness,” gizleyen korkunç ve tehditkâr mahlûklar. Şuur- and “drowning/suffocating” were widely used ları varmış gibi duruyorlar ve her an büyük bir in metaphoric structures. Moreover, associating felâket yapmaya hazırlandıkları halde, av- natural elements with the mental state that the larının korkusuyla eğlenmek için duruyorlar, individual is in, even accusing other entities Allah gibi kuvvetini göstermeden kuvvetli du- other than the individual and that cannot be ruyorlar. controlled for that particular state is a fre- Onlarla mücadele ederek vakit geçiriyorum, quently encountered type of metaphor [30]. fakat onlar donmuş avuçlarıyla zamanı da ya- In the paper, “Language Signs Expressing kalıyorlar, durduruyorlar ve hayatımın serbest Psychological Breakdown in Attila İlhan’s Po- akışına mâni oluyorlar. ems” words such as “darkness,” “coldness,” Kanım soğuyor. Kireçleniyorum.” [28] “autumn,” “emptiness,” “death,” “fog” and Owing to the extraordinary effort and care words from the same conceptual domain were that the surgeons have shown, the child’s leg is used to express psychological breakdown [31]. saved from amputation and it is only shortened This study concluded that the usage of meta- a bit. Meanwhile, the child learns that Pasha is phors such as “emptiness,” “darkness,” “cold- paralyzed and wants to see him for the last time. ness,” “drowning/suffocating,”; accusing an- Doctor Ragıp and Nüzhet are about to marry. other entity other than the self, and attaching After all the dressings are completed, the day personality to another entity other than the self, comes for him to be released from the hospital. show commonality in the language. However, the “sick child” has now become one with his grief, so the suffering is now a “medicine”: “Istırabın derinlerine indikçe sevincimizi kaybetmek korkusu kalmadığı için, yeni bir

66 All these studies have determined that in the [10] Kocakaplan, İsa, (1992), Açıklamalı Edebî language used in poetry, novels or in everyday Sanatlar, Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, p. language, individuals prefer similar language 63 signs to express similar feelings. What differs [11] Levinson, (1983), Stephen C. Pragmatics., among these linguistic products is the writer’s, Cambridge University Press. , Cambridge, p. 148 poet’s, or the individual’s styles. Of course, [12] Uğur, Nizamettin, (2007), Anlambilim, going beyond these commonalities and creating Doruk Yayımcılık, İstanbul, p. 86 original metaphorical structures will reveal the [13] DRAAİSMA, Douwe, (Çev. Gürol Koca), literary prowess of the poet or the author. Yet (2007), Bellek Metaforları/Zihinle İlgili the words that express a particular state of Fikirlerin Tarihi, Metis Eleştiri, İstanbul, p. emotion, no matter how authentic, cannot go 43 beyond a certain conceptual domain. [14] Arslan, Fatih,(2008), “Metaforik Tercihler Bakımından Akif’i Okuyabilmek”, In conclusion, similar to idioms and proverbs I.Uluslararası Mehmet Akif Sempozyumu, of a language, metaphorical expressions used to p. 3 express a certain state of emotion also show [15] Lakoff, George ve M. Johnson , commonalities. (1980),Metaphors We Live By., The Univesity Chicago, Chicago To arrive at a more general conclusion [16] Lakoff ,George, (1987),Metametaphorıcal Issues,İmage Metaphors, California regarding this topic, more extensive studies [17] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye may be conducted. Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 5 [18] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 7 References [19] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 12 [1] Kıran,Zeynel;Kıran , Ayşe (Eziler), (2010), [20] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye Dilbilime Giriş, Seçkin Yayıncılık, Ankara, Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 29 pp. 281-283 [21] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye [2] Rifat, Mehmet,(1998), XX. Yüzyılda Dil- Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 25 bilim ve Göstergebilim Kuramları, YKY, [22] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye İstanbul, pp. 115-117 Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 41 [3] Rifat, Mehmet,(1998), XX. Yüzyılda Dil- [23] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye bilim ve Göstergebilim Kuramları, YKY, Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 42 İstanbul, pp. 120-121 [24] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye [4] Türkçe Sözlük, (2005), Türk Dil Kurumu Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 72 Yayınları, Ankara, p. 450 ----2ydi [25] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye [5] Davison, Gerald C.; Neale, John M. (Çev. Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 74 İhsan Dağ); (2004), Anormal Psikoloji, [26] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye Türk Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları, An- Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 88 kara, p. 235 [27] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye [6] Blackburn, Ivy M. (1996), Depresyon ve Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 89 Başa Çıkma Yolları, Remzi Kitabevi, İs- [28] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye tanbul, pp. 9-15 Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 93 [7] Kövecses, Zoltán, (2000), Metaphor and [29] Safa, Peyami, (2000), Dokuzuncu Hariciye Emotion, Cambridge University Press, Koğuşu, Ötüken Neşriyat, İstanbul, p. 108 Cambridge, p. 14 [30] Çelikel, Sibel; Kocakaya, Güniz, (2013), [8] Kövecses, Zoltán, (2000), Metaphor and “Türkiye Türkçesinde Ruhsal Çöküntü Emotion, Cambridge University Press, Göstergeleri”, Uluslararası Türk Dili ve Cambridge, pp. 2-3 Edebiyatı Kongresi, 17-19 Mayıs 2013, [9] Aksan, Doğan, (1998), Her Yönüyle Dil, Saraybosna, Bosna Hersek, p. 18 Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim. 2. Baskı, TDK [31] Çelikel, Sibel; Acar Ergün, (2014), “Attila Yay. Ankara, p.187 İlhan’ın Şiirlerinde Ruhsal Çöküntü İfade Eden Dil Göstergeleri”, Dil ve Edebiyat Eğitimi Dergisi, 12, 77-87, İzmir, p. 86

67 myths to be formed and shaped no matter which Mythical Female society they are created in. When the reason for the existence of such collective concepts is inquired, it Figure in Planetarium is possible to assume that they have been created either as answers to the events people cannot by Adrienne Rich explain, or to regulate the social order in which they are produced or present the unseen parts people worry about. Perhaps the most striking Teaching Assistant Ayşe EKİCİ School of Foreign Languages example of myth-making, when the myths of Pamukkale University Ancient Greece are analyzed, they shed light on the religious and political institutions of the time. Turkey, 20070 [email protected] Also, they draw a vivid picture of the society and the people who live in that society together with Abstract: their way of living, behaviours, customs and rituals. The literary works of American literature embraces a number of subjects and motifs due to the cultural The fact that many societies share common issues enrichment of the society itself. The diversity of in their formation makes it possible to seek for nations is accepted as something peculiar to the some mythical images concerning universal issues. American society since all the people under the It is clear that a collective perception underlies name of America bring their subject matters, styles many of the myths all around the world and it is and perspectives together with them to the called as “collective unconscious.” Jung states his literature as well. Since it is widely accepted that most well-known concept- the collective literature is the reflection of real life, it lets us unconscious- as the aspect of the unconscious believe that the cultural, ethnic and social mind which manifests inherited, universal themes background of the writers and poets can easily be which run through all human life. He suggests that traced in literary works. Although trying to figure primordial images that show basic patterns or out each of these reflections is like capturing a common to us all and the archetypes have existed hand full of the rushing river, there surely are some universally since the dawn of time. Thus, in many certain distinctive features and some common cultures, similar myths can be found on certain elements that the literary people make use of in topics. To illustrate, there are many myths about their works. The myths/mythical images are among gender roles of individuals in a society, especially these literary devices; either prose or poetry, these myths about the inferior position attributed to are used by almost anyone who deals with women can frequently be found. The women are literature. This study is aimed at analyzing the commonly portrayed as seducer, mad or evil-like mythical female figure in detail together with characters that are passivized by the male examples from Adrienne Rich's poem, dominancy. As a woman in a male dominant Planetarium in contemporary American poetry. society, Helen Cixous states in Laugh of Medusa:

Key words: Myth, American, poetry, female [2]"I was afraid, and I swallowed my shame and my fear. I said to myself: You are mad! What's the meaning of these waves, these floods, these 1. Introduction outbursts? Where is the ebullient, infinite woman The mythical reading of the texts, which who, immersed as she was in her naivete, kept in provides a rich diversity of analysis in literature, the dark about herself, led into self-disdain by the has been a common concern for literary people. great arm of parental-conjugal phallocentrism, While the origin of myths dates back to ancient hasn't been ashamed of her strength?" (876) times, they still find meaning in contemporary works because myths are the productions of Cixous' idea is that the patriarchal societies are creativity and imagination: based on the hegemony of males and it is concluded by the oppression and degradation of [1]"which are essentially of the same nature, female ones because the dominancy of a gender having the same actors with approximately the upon the other one leads the less dominant group same names, would seem to have been first formed to be silenced or ignored. in some one locality and spread thence through emigration or by the capture (Lamb, 277)

Although there might be some changes in their 68 form, there is a common consensus that lets the

Carl Gustav Jung's archetypes in The awakening of women about the masculine Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, - tradition’s unjust attitude over them. anima and animus- are also based on this gender difference: while anima represents the masculine Rich starts the poem with the following side, animus stands for the feminine one. The lines: [7] "A woman in the shape of a monster/ a characteristics of each archetype denote feminine monster in the shape of a woman/ the skies are full or masculine features of individuals. Jung implies of them." The relation between monster and that: woman may refer to; [8] "in the earlier centuries in the South decent, well-bred, upper-middle-class [3] "the anima affects the male positively by women were not encouraged to have careers- making him intuitional, integrative, less indeed, a woman who tried to work was often aggressive, and negatively - if the conscious life is deemed monster-an unfeminine harpy." (Langdell, unbalanced - by making him "touchy, irritable, . . . 100) In other words, when woman does not fit to jealous, vain, and unadjusted"; the animus the societal expectations placed on her gender, apparently affects the female solely by "stop [ping] people might label her as ‘monster’ or ‘mad’. A up the approaches to her own feeling. She may woman who expresses her opinions through even become frigid." (Sadoff, 94) writing is [9] “scarcely less offensive...than monsters”. (Edgeworth, 106) In other words, the The portrayal of the female- or animus- has been female is displayed as dangerous when she does almost identical in different societies since ancient not conform to the assumptions of the society. times. While the intellectual issues, critical thinking and the other merits in parallel forms Rich’s depiction of a woman as a monster belong to the domain of anima, as Emma Jung might refer to a number of female figures from claims: feminine mentality has an [4] mythology. On one hand, the intellectual women "undeveloped, childlike, or primitive character; are seen as “monsters” because of their capability instead of the thirst for knowledge, curiosity; to think and express themselves; on the other hand, judgment, prejudice; thinking." (257) just like Medusa, the snake-haired lady whose look turned men to stone, like Sirens whose beautiful 2. Text songs attracted any man who heard them and make Adrienne Rich is a contemporary feminist the men come closer as they lived on the rocks in poet who is referred as one of the most widely read the sea, like Scylla who was human to the waist and influential poets of late 20th century. She has but had biting snapping dogs were below the water many well-known poems touching overlooked and she gobbled up anything within her reach; the topics and depicting the image of woman in female is seen as something like monster. American society. She is a skillful observer and a good example of intellectual woman type for her In the poem, Rich writes: [10] "she whom time. In Blood, Bread and Poetry: The Location of the moon ruled/ like us/ levitating into the night the Poet, the poet states that [5]"I came into my sky." The moon is anotther mythical reference she twenties believing in poetry, in all art, as the uses and it is also a feminine archetype in Jungian expression of a higher world-view" (524) The terms: feminist awakening of women in literature has a major impact on her writing since she is, too, a [11] "Luna is primarily a reflection of a man's member of the [6] "...legion, because the war of unconscious femininity, but she is also the liberation has only made as yet a tiny principle of the feminine psyche, in the sense that breakthrough. (Cixous, 892) In her Planetarium Sol is the principle of a man's. ... If, then, Luna poem, she talks about the achievement of Caroline characterizes the feminine psyche and Sol the Herschel, the sister of the discoverer of Uranus, masculine, Jung solves this problem by deciding William. The poem is largely about discovery and that woman's "consciousness has a lunar rather awareness. At the beginning of the poem, Rich than a solar character. (Jung, 179) uses Herschel’s life and “her 98 years to discover / 8 comets” to demonstrate society’s treatment of Moon is the power that affects all the living female achievement, but the discovery toward the creatures, thus it is the representation of power and end of the poem seems to be a collective discovery it is the symbol of fertility which is a distinctive of womankind because it is aminly based on the feature of women. She also talks about an eye that can see the NOVA (a star that suddenly spreads

intensive light and then fades) and impersonates To recite Helen Cixous' motives for the other the sixteen century astronomer-builder of women: Uranusborg, Tycho, letting him "whisper" the [1] "Write, let no one hold you back, let nothing success of her to the other people. Caroline stop you: not man; not the imbecilic capitalist Herschel has accomplished many astronomical machinery, in which publishing houses are the deeds together with her brother but the fact that her crafty, obsequious relayers of imperatives handed name is or will be forgotten forces her to explain down by an economy that works against us and off that she has not lived in vain. Just like NOVA, she our backs; and not yourself. Smug-faced readers, has shone for some time, but she is doomed to get managing editors, and big bosses don't like the true lost in the obscurity because she is a woman. Since texts of women-female-sexed texts." (1976: 877) women are not treated in the same way like men, she knows that the society will not remember no matter what she does. 3. Conclusion

Though she gives the feminine moon in To conclude, myths are the productions of advance, she juxtaposes it with the male "Taurus" collective unconscious in Jungian terms. The which created the world through light, blood and names or the contents might vary but the domain radio wave. "The battery of signals" is the male they are used and the connotations they present are codes she has to encounter all through her life and nearly the same for everyone all around the world. the ones she cannot load meaning but try to stand This study has handled one of these common against. Rich refers to herself as a "galactic cloud myths in Adrienne Rich's poem Planetarium. It is so deep" because as a poet she has many creative possible to infer that mythical female figures have ideas on her mind ready to pour like a rain. She been and are in an ongoing fight against patriarchal does not say "I am a woman," but she prioritizes standards. Since being successful and her role as a poet by referring to herself as "an accomplishing are seen as the rights for males, the instrument in the shape of a woman." She needs intellectual female figures stand for the strive for her poetry to [12] "translate and re-interpret the gaining what males already have. waves into images which would help relieve the body and the mind of a woman from the trap of false identification of female with fearful monster." (Shukla, 58) The reason why she chooses an astronomical sphere for her poem might be the limitlessness of the space. She tries to get rid of all the heavenly boundaries in order to set a true identity for herself.

As a feminist writer, she is hopeful about the future by saying “what we see, we see and seeing is changing” in the poem. Her hope is that the role of women might change in the future. She tries to put the emphasis on the changing roles in a society. There are a number of supporting ideas of theoricians on how the identity of people is constructed. To illustrate: Foucault claims that the identity is [13] “permanently inscribed by power relations and discourse and totally imprinted by history,” (Grosz, 1994: 146) Judith Butler suggests that identity and [14]“gender intersects with racial, class, ethnic, sexual and regional modalities of discursively constituted identities.” (1990:3) It becomes impossible to separate gender from the political, cultural intersections in which it is invariably produced and maintained.

APPENDIX A: I am bombarded yet I stand Planetarium BY ADRIENNE RICH I have been standing all my life in the Thinking of Caroline Herschel (1750—1848) direct path of a battery of signals astronomer, sister of William; and others. the most accurately transmitted most untranslatable language in the universe A woman in the shape of a monster I am a galactic cloud so deep so invo- a monster in the shape of a woman luted that a light wave could take 15 the skies are full of them years to travel through me And has taken I am an instrument in the shape a woman ‘in the snow of a woman trying to translate pulsations among the Clocks and instruments into images for the relief of the body or measuring the ground with poles’ and the reconstruction of the mind. in her 98 years to discover Adrienne Rich, "Planetarium" from Collected 8 comets Poems: 1950-2012. Copyright © 2016 by The Adrienne Rich Literary Trust. Copyright © 1971 she whom the moon ruled W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Reprinted by like us permission of W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.. levitating into the night sky riding the polished lenses

Galaxies of women, there doing penance for impetuousness ribs chilled in those spaces of the mind

An eye,

‘virile, precise and absolutely certain’ from the mad webs of Uranusborg

encountering the NOVA every impulse of light exploding from the core as life flies out of us

Tycho whispering at last ‘Let me not seem to have lived in vain’

What we see, we see and seeing is changing the light that shrivels a mountain and leaves a man alive

Heartbeat of the pulsar heart sweating through my body

The radio impulse pouring in from Taurus

http://www.jstor.org/stable/25089455 REFERENCES Accessed: 25/01/2015

[14] Butler. Judith, (1990). Gender Trouble: [7, 10] Rich, Adrienne, Poems: Selected and Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge: New, 1950-1974, Norton, New York, 1978. London & New York. [3] Sadoff, Dianne F. Mythopoeia, the Moon, and [2, 6, 1] Cixous, Helene. Cohen, Keith and Contemporary Women's Poetry. The Paula. The Laugh of the Medusa. Signs, Vol. Massachusetts Review, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring, 1, No. 4 Summer, The University of 1978). The Massachusetts Review, Inc. Stable Chicago Press:1976. Stable URL: URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25088829. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173239. Accessed: 24/01/2015 Accessed: 25/01/2015 [12] Shukla, Sheo Bhushan., and Anu Shukla. [11] C. G. Jung, "The Personification of the Multiple Contexts and Insights. New Delhi: Sarup Opposites" in Mysterium Coniunctionis, & Sons in Behalf of Indian Association for from The Collected Works of C. G. Studies in Contemporary Literature, 2003. Jung, XX. New York: Pantheon Books, Bollingen Series XX: 1963.

[9] Edgeworth, Maria. “Letters for Literary Ladies: Letter From a Gentleman to His Friend upon the Birth of a Daughter.” The Longman Anthology of Women’s Literature. Ed. Mary K. DeShazer. New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc., 2001.

[4] Emma, Jung. "On the Nature of the Animus," in Women and Analysis, ed. Jean Strouse. New York: 1974.

[13]Grosz, Elizabeth. (1994). Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporeal Feminism, Indiana University Press: Bloomington.

[1] Lamb, D. S. Mythical Monsters. American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 2, No. 2 Apr. - Jun., Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association: 1900 Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/659242 . Accessed: 24/01/2015

[8] Langdell, Cheri Colby. Adrienne Rich: The Moment of Change. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004.

[5] Rich, Adrienne. Blood Bread and Poetry: The Location of the Poet The Massachusetts Review, Vol. 24, No. 3 Autumn, The Massachusetts Review, Inc. : 1983 Stable URL:

72 Representation of

Punishment:

Execution Images of IS

Devrim Deniz Erol Anadolu Üniversitesi İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi [email protected]

Abstract: Execution or punishment images produced for intimidation, fear, humiliation or propaganda have emerged in different forms throughout the cultural history of mankind. This subject, which is pre-processed in paintings and drawings, has been changed to replaced with photos and then video images. In the age of digital technology we are in, this situation has gained a new dimension by spreading live images or pictures taken over the internet at the same time. Thus, while the execution area is expanding and globalizing, the target mass of the message giver is expanding and globalizing. In the light above, this study focuses on the executions and punishment images of the terrorist organization IS (Islamic State) that spreaded on the internet. In the study, the reasons for the production of these images, which hit the 21 st century seal and their spreading patterns, are interpreted by taking into account their historical connections and precursors.

Keywords: IS, Representation of violence, Representation of punishment, Images of executions, Images of IS.

1. Introduction Invasion of Afghanistan, Zerkavi went to Afganistan for the purpose of Jihad. In 1999 he ISIS (Iraq and the Islamic State of Iraq) is an formed Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad Islamist and jihadist organization that has been (Organization of Monotheism and Jihad). known for its terrorist attacks in many parts of Mentioned organization, has joined into Al- the world. Especially in recent years, the Qaeda during Iraqi War and renamed as Iraqi organization has come to the agenda with Al-Qaeda (2004). With the beginning of professional propaganda videos that are Syrian Civil War, the organization has become prepared and combined with real and fictional more known. In June of 2014, by taking images. These videos, which are especially control cities in Iraq and executions performed, circulating on the internet, can be considered ISIS has brought on to the worldwide agenda. as a global terrorist organization‟s propaganda. Meanwhile, ISIS declared itself a State and This study focuses on the executions and started to use Islamic State as the name. The punishment images of the ISIS terrorist leader of organization, Abū Bakr al-Baghdadi organization spreading over the internet. In the has declared Caliph of Islamic State[1]. study, videos are discussed in relation to both “One of the most important milestone of the executions and historical connections of Salvation discourse in Islamic belief is execution representations. establishing of Islamic State and Caliphate” [2]. Other discourse is, the Islamic State and 2. Historical and Ideological Islamic thinking should become more powerful Foundamentals of ISIS and widespread. ISIS is also relying on these discourses. So, that makes the organization Ebu Musab Zerkavi is the founder of Jihadist and Islamist. organization. In 1988, during The Soviet

73 Organization, takes its power from Salafism. [them] upon the necks and strike from them In this respect, “Salaf-i Salihin” and “Ahli every fingertip."[4]. So when you meet those Sunnah” tradition should be briefly discussed. who disbelieve [in battle], strike [their] necks In Sunni sect of Islam, as opposition to Ahl ar- until, when you have inflicted slaughter upon Ra'y, stands Ahl al-Hadith as a movement, them, then secure their bonds, and either which is takes deferring Hadiths to center and [confer] favor afterwards or ransom [them] does not tolerates to rationalism. Ahl al- until the war lays down its burdens. That [is Hadith, reflects a way of thinking which takes the command]. And if Allah had willed, He The Quran as primary source but Hadith could have taken vengeance upon them centered. In this respect, Ahl al-Hadith [Himself], but [He ordered armed struggle] to thinking, takes Text of Quran and Hadiths test some of you by means of others. And those foreground and deduce meaning without any who are killed in the cause of Allah - never rational rendition. The reason of this way of will He waste their deeds."[5]. thinking at first known as Salaf-i Salihin and The ISIS members who gave interviews to nowadays as Salafism is due to The Islamic the media also stated that their victims were thinking inherits from first generation to the not tortured, and that the actions taken were next. This consideration gives the name of appropriate to the Qur'an and hadiths. For “Salafiun” means “The Predecessors”. From example, a member of an organization says, this point of view, Salafism takes “Pre- "My Lord already says, 'Cut off your necks Secterian Islamic Belief” as reference point when you see your infidels.' We do not torture; and consider themselves as predecessors of We either put a bullet in their heads or cut it Islamic belief as itself. For Salafism Hanafi, off as God has said. These are the Ashari, Maturidi sects of Islam should be shortcomings". The execution of the burned considered heresy to Sunni Islamic belief. Jordanian pilot is not in the Qur'an and the Besides, there is Sunni sect centered exclusion hadiths. " This is explained by the words of is also common. In 17. Century, Salafist God: "My Lord says, there is good for you in thinking leaped forward with Wahhabism and retribution.” [6]. in 1970‟s reemerged and tended to be radicalized [3]. 3. ISIS and Propaganda Based on these thoughts ISIS, not only Christendom, Budism or Judaism but rejects Throughout the history of the world, all other Islamic; sects and thinking systems propaganda and counter-propaganda have been except themselves and because of the nature of widely used, especially in times of war. Salafist thinking declares them heretic, However, it can be said that propaganda polytheistic, expects all real believers to obey movies are used professionally especially to Islamic State and Caliph and join Jihad to during the period of World War II. Throughout fight against infidel states and persons World War II, Germany, the United States and who/which declared so. Britain have published propaganda films which As stated above, the interpretation of the that "demonize" their enemies and show their Qur'an or hadiths in Salafism based on support to their allies. The propaganda historical or reason is not welcomed by techniques that ISIS uses are a continuation of religious understanding. ISIS also makes these films. Especially in May of 2014, these violent acts suitable for the ways of Sunni videos are produced by Al Hayat Media Center belief. Taking vengeance by retaliation, in September of the same year and are spread beheading, hostage taking, killing, jihad, etc. to the world, named "Clashing of Swords" and exists in Islamic teaching. There are many "Flames of War: Fighting Has Just Begun". examples related to. However, Surah Anfal Besides, the propaganda of ISIS is not limited will be sufficient in terms of 12th Verse, in video films only. The propaganda unit has a Muhammad Surah 4th Verse, Surah Bakar highly organized network of organizations. Surah 178th and 191th Verse, Surat an-Nisa The organization makes propaganda by using 74th Verse. Surah al-Anfal verse 12 says: internet and traditional publishing (radio, TV, [Remember] when your Lord inspired to the etc.) tools. angels, "I am with you, so strengthen those The media structure of ISIS consists of 4 who have believed. I will cast terror into the components related to the production and hearts of those who disbelieved, so strike distribution of videos, photographs,

74 explanations and so on. These are al-Furqan Looking at the video made by Al Hayat in (Arabic), al-Hayat (English), al-I'tisam and this process, it is seen that the images started Ajnad foundation. These structures work with with the signature of Hz. Muhammed (tawhid), regional media outlets (Al-Bayan., etc.) to send which also belongs to the organization. In messages to official and unofficial social videos, there are Nasheeds (propaganda music) media channels. These media channels also without instruments but human voice, belong to the members of the organization and supported with sound effects. If the their supporters; non-allegiant persons and propaganda in the videos is aiming for a "enemies". Members and supporters also work country or a segment, that part is used as a in coordination with unofficial channels and language sub voice, or propaganda is made by Jihadist-Islamic forums. So it is a network that the members of the organizations in the is spreading to the world. Consumers of this images; More than one language can be used in network are supporters, people who are not videos. Besides that, real and fictional images connected with the organization, and people are presented together. Videotapes include who are seen as enemies [8]. Hence, the professionally performed image transitions, propaganda of the organization is directed both drone camera shots, items that reflect computer to its members and supporters, to their new game aesthetics, digital effects, Hollywood- supporters, and to the "enemies to show of like action scenes, or images from these films. strength. Images consists; execution, battlefields, Shabakat Shumukh al-Islam, Shabakat al- clashes or propagandas organizational Fida al-Islamiyya and Ansar al-Mujahidin elements of ISIS. Blades are commonly used in Arabic Forum, al-Minbar al-I'lami al-Jihadi are videotaped executions. In some cases, the among the online forums that organization victims wait silently in the kneeling position, uses. The organization, which also has an dressed in orange clothes, to finish the official social media page accessible via executioner's word, and then they are killed by VKontakte up to 2014 in Iraq and Syria, has cutting their throats. In this respect, in some started to publish an English internet journal in cases the killing of a single person, or can be Islamic State News in Islamic State News in show mass killings. In some images shows June 2014. The 8 page newspaper reports on that, executions can be performed as burning the prisoners and their images showing the victims [12]. These uses reveal a aesthetized wars, and the governance activities of the ISIS violence and execution representation in are presented in short texts and graphs-visuals. videotapes. In July of the same year, an internet magazine These videos attract attention with their named Dabiq in English was published [9]. shocking factor. Besides, the videos use the Considering the developments in question, it digital visual technologies of the age, and in can be said that the association entered a new association with it, displays a structure that era especially in terms of propaganda methods overlaps with the popular culture products of and related media network in 2014. The the global. In this sense, the organization developments are parallel to the fact that the seems "caught the era". The videos are also an leader of the organization has declared his execution show. While the internet circulation caliphate and declared that Iraq and Syria were of videos and the place of execution are state-controlled in certain regions, taking the expanding and globalizing, the target mass of name of the Islamic State. the message is also expanding and globalizing. The organization, which has made the It is therefore possible to describe the videos as propaganda methods more professional and global terrorist organization, global systematical, since 2014 by giving task to propaganda. It is also possible to set up certain members trained for it. In this respect, historical links that may relate to these videos video images that are taken outside the and to talk about their predecessors. organization are being limited by the name of the organization [10]. 4. Executions and their representation High-quality effects, professional shoots, montages, graphics, videos made with up to Since ancient times, execution ceremonies date news items, began with a video series especially have been used for purposes of; entitled "Flames of War", involving the murder punishment of power or parties in power of British journalist John Cantlie [11]. struggle, terror, propaganda, humiliation of

75 enemy, entertainment, sacrifice of gods and so in videos of ISIS, transforms them into a tool on. They have always carried a quality of show of global propaganda. because they made public in the form of spectacle ceremonies. 5. Conclusion Gladiator fights in Rome, Assyrian executions, the sacrifice ceremonies of the Jihadist and Islamist terrorist organization Aztecs are among the early examples of these ISIS, has come up with professionally prepared demonstrations [13]. Visual representations of videos containing executions and punishment these executions began to be produced in images. These videos contains aestheticized almost the same period. These representations violence and execution. Execution ceremonies in paintings, engravings, or sculptures, along carried a demonstration character throughout with violence and the killing of aesthetize history; They were visually represented for (beautification) has come to the agenda. An various purposes. These videos are also part of example of these are can be seen in Bergama this tradition. Temple and Lacoon sculpture. These videos, which aim to show their Execution ceremonies, especially in the power to their own members and supporters as midst of large crowds in the West, began to well as "new" members, are also aiming to emerge as a result of developments such as the intimidate "enemies" at the same time. As a emergence of a new law and crime theory and shocking element of the propaganda process, modern legal systems in the late 18th and early videos are spread all over the world via the 19th century. Such practices have become internet. In this respect, the videos of ISIS are negative indicators over time due to reasons globalizing the scene of executions and such as praising gladness or pity, turning the transforming the executions into a global torturer into a "deceit", showing the frequency propaganda. of crimes against power or adapting to violence. So a new application has come to the References agenda. This practice is arresting and closing the body [14]. However, particularly in certain [3] Büyükara, Mehmet A. ve Taha Kılınç. geographies, spectacular execution ceremonies Yeni Selefilik ve IŞİD (interview). (mod.) have continued to be implemented by states or Aynur Erdoğan, Dübam, İstanbul, pp.7-8, by various power structures. In the 20th 2014. century, linchi practice in China, executions [1] Byman, Daniel. Al Quaeda, The against the Negros in USA, public executions Islamic State, and the Global Cihadist in Iran in the 21st century, or recm ceremonies Movement. Oxford, NY, pp.165, 2015. in many regions can be given as examples. [4] Surah Al-Anfal verse 12, 12.01.2017, With the emergence of photographs since https://quran.com/8/12. the end of the 19th century, execution [5] Surah Muhammad Verse 4, 12.01.2017, ceremonies began to be displayed and https://quran.com/47/4. represented. While the linchi applications are [6] Eroğlu, Doğu. “Ankaralı IŞİD'ciden akıl displayed; The executions against Negros in almaz sözler: İşkence etmiyoruz, boynunu the USA were photographed by the kesiyoruz”, Birgün, 09.07.2015, executioners and even made into postcards and http://www.birgun.net/haber-detay/ circulated (American lynch photographs) [15]. ankarali-isid-ciden-akil-almaz-sozler- Today's digital technology and internet iskence-etmiyoruz-boynunu-kesiyoruz- circulation have brought a new dimension to 84400.html the execution images; Executions and [13] Hür, Ayşe. Kafa Kesmenin Kısa punishment images are easily taken and Tarihçesi. Radikal, 12.10.2014, globally circulated. Images of Saddam http://www.radikal. com.tr/yazarlar/ayse- Hussein's execution videos, images of hur/kafa-kesmenin-kisa-tarihcesi- Farkhunde's lynching and killing in 1218267/2014 Afghanistan in 2015, or images of the former [8-11] Milton, Daniel. The Islamic State: Libyan leader Gaddafi, who was captured and An Adaptive Organization Facing killed during the Arab Spring can be given as Increasing Challenges, in: The Group examples. In this respect, globalization That Calls Itself a State: Understanding enlarging the scene of executions, which made the Evalution and Challenges of the

76 Islamic State. (ed.)Muhammed al-Ubaydi, Nelly Lahoud, Daniel Milton, Brayn Price. Combating Terrorism Center, pp. 48-49;50-53;53;53, 2014 [14] Foucault, Michel. Hapishanenin Doğuşu. (transl.)Mehmet Ali Kılıçbay, İmge, Ankara, 2000. [13] Kill Them Wherever You Find Them, Youtube, 08.10.2016, https://www. youtube.com/ watch?v=Fd9WgN4UsQM ;WATCH: New ISIS Video Hangs „US Spies‟ From Meat Hooks & Slaughters Them Like Sheep, Heavy, 12.09.2016, http://heavy.com/news/2016/09/new-isis- islamic-state-amaq-news-video-the- making-of-illusion-iraqi-army-soldiers- shia-shiite-eid-al-adha-meat-hook- execution-throat-slitting-full-uncensored- youtube-video-download-mp4/ [2] Oğuz, Alaattin, Aksu Akçaoğlu ve Latif Yılmaz. “IŞİD Şiddetinin Kaynakları ve Temsili Üzerine Başlangıç Notları”, Birikim, 2014. http://www.birikimdergisi. com/guncel- yazilar/1025/isid-siddetinin-kaynaklari- vetemsili-uzerinebaslangicnotlar #WKywpdKLR6o. [15] The lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith 1930, Rare Historical Photos, 16.04.2014, http://rarehistorical photos.com/lynching-thomas-shipp- abram-smith-1930/ [7] Yon, Rachel. The Use of Propaganda and Social Media, in: The New Islamic State: Ideology, Religion and Violent Extremism in the 21st Century. (ed.) Jack Covarrubias, Tom Lansford and Robert J. Pauly, Jr. Routledge, NY, pp.49-51, 2016.

77 Dramaturgy on Turkish Horror Movies: Analysis of the Film Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ

Research Assistant Banu ER╝ANLI Ba╞kent University Faculty of Communication / Department of Communication Design [email protected]

Abstract. The term "dramaturgy" comes from French which means "writing plays and managing information". The first usage of this term is coming from German Theatre History, "Hamburg Dramaturgy 1767/69" named book which belongs to GE Lessing (εp╞iroŢlu, 2013). An interpretation and an overview process of dramaturgy involves the abstract and the form of the drama, the meanings and the structure of it and the resolution of qualifications (Sözen, 2013). This method is usually applied in theaters, but in similar direction it can also be applied on cinema and on films. The cinematographic qualification of cinema art, differs it from theatre. Because cinematography by being incorporated into the narrative of the story into one of the constituent elements and thus the narrative is evolving into a different dimension (Sözen, 2013). In the first part of the study named Dramaturgy on Turkish Horror Movies: Analysis of the Film Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ, structure of horror movies and presence process of horror movies in Turkish Cinema are introduced. The second part, discusses dramaturgical analysis of the film Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ produced by Hasan KaracadaŢ in 2013 on the six main headings; information about film, subject, cinematographic horizon of director, cross cultural signs, ideological approach and narrative strategies.

Keywords: Dramaturgy, horror movies, the film Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ

1. Introduction tre. Because cinematography by being incorporated into the narrative of the story into one of The term "dramaturgy" comes from French the constituent elements and thus the narrative which means "writing plays and managing in- is evolving into a different dimension (Sözen, formation". The first usage of this term is com- 2013). ing from German Theatre History, "Hamburg Dramaturgy 1767/69" named book which belongs to GE Lessing (εp╞iroŢlu, 2013). An in- 2. Horror Cinema terpretation and an overview process of dramaturgy involves the abstract and the form of the Fear, is one of the fundamental feelings, dif- drama, the meanings and the structure of it and fering in intensity, that is experienced by hu- the resolution of qualifications (Sözen, 2013). man beings from birth to death. The feeling of This method is usually applied in theaters, but fear, which manifests itself by instinct or by in similar direction it can also be applied on learning, may come from known or unknown cinema and on films. The cinematographic origins. Since the beginnings of cinema, the qualification of cinema art, differs it from thea- horror genre has always had a prominent place

78 in it. The inherent psychoanalytic subtexts and It is possible to come across horror genre the effects of the psychologic experience of it, among the trending 1980s video films. Howev- causes the horror cinema to be chosen by the er, usually shot with commercial profits in viewer consistently. Being an art form, visualiz- mind, these films are fraught with weak scripts ing the directors view and understanding, hor- without any plot structure, bad acting, and irrel- ror cinema is used to reflect the feelings of fear evant erotic scenes to pull in the viewer, and and superstition in human beings. Unknown, therefore do not display any artistic or cine- which is the intrinsic factor of fear, is fictional- matographic concern. However, Karanlσk Su- ized and reflected on film from social, commu- lar (Dark Waters) by KutluŢ Ataman (1993) nal, and historical standpoints. with vampire elements, is exceptional among Although cinema, and the genre of horror the strong examples of the horror genre. were contemporary at the time of the invention, While it is not possible to see an example of initially, the intention was not to scare the the genre between 1933 and 2004, the movie viewer. However, it is known that, encountering "Büyü" (Spell) by Orhan OŢuz in 2004 can be the moving images on the big screen for the regarded as the beginning or a new era in Turk- first time, the experience caused alarm among ish horror cinema. After 2004, nearly in all hor- the viewership nonetheless. In this context, it ror movies seen in Turkish cinema, religious can be said that Phantasmagoria" shows made elements affects the whole of the film. The suc- with Magic Lanterns in 18th. and 19th. centu- cess that Büyü had at the box office and the ries, had laid the groundwork for the horror cin- reception of the audience played a role, in the ema. The movie shot in 1895 by Louis Lumi- rise of the trend that started with Büyü. Be- ere, which is considered as the first movie in tween 2004 and 2013, a total of 23 films were cinema history,Sortie de lUsine Lumiere a shot in the horror genre. The number is 48 for Lyon (The Exit From The Lumber Factory In between 2012 and December 2016. The re- Lyon), and the next one shot in the same year search has revealed that, while the number of (Teksoy, 2005: 31) LArrivée dun Train en films shot was 4 in 2013, it was 7 in 2014, Gare de Ciotat ("The Arrival Of A Train") reaching 19 in 2015. 22 films were shot in were written into cinema history also as the first 2016. ever horror movies, as the reception of the audience was one of frightful fascination. The introduction of the horror genre to the 3. Analysis of the Film Turkish cinema happened with, ÇσŢ lσk" by Aydin Arakon, premiered in April 26th 1949 in The 2013 production movie "Dabbe: Cin Cinema Sümer, which tells the story of a doc- Çarpmasσ by Turkish horror director Hasan tor meeting a young girl driven to madness by KaracadaŢ, was chosen for the dramaturgic her uncle due to his inheritance claims, when he analysis. Although dramaturgic analysis is a takes shelter in a mansion during a stormy must in cinema for good results, it is usually night. applied in stage works in Turkey. On the other Until 2000s, not being able to divert from hand as a still developing genre, it is essential European and Hollywood Horror Cinema and for Turkish horror cinema since it is known that Christian concepts, Turkish Horror genre start- translating and maintaining fear into the audi- ed to produce examples in this field after it was ence is a challenging task, and there is usually a discovered that Islamic religion, indigenous fine line between amusement and fear to be myths, superstitions and traditional beliefs of managed with precision. Anatolia can be utilized as horror elements. Cinema, as the seventh and the last of form 3.1. Details the fine arts, is an instrument that reflects beliefs and emotions to the audience through the Name of the film: Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ medium of culture. (╝im╞ek, 2013, s: 143) Year: 2013 According to Önk, genres such as musical, Director: Hasan KaracadaŢ horror, and dark film are virtually nonexistent Script: Hasan KaracadaŢ in Turkish Cinema until 1980. (2011, s: 3867). Director of cinematography: Halil εbrahim In this context, it is observed that only six Turk- Çekiç ish horror movies were produced until the year Release Date: 2 AŢustos 2013 1980. Genre: Horror

79 Country: Turkey worked for a Japanese production company Running Time: 134 min. where he directed a thriller movie called Non. Cast: Irmak Örnek, A. Murat Özgen, Cansu His horror novella Duhan, which he wrote in Kurgun, Sultan KöroŢlu Kσlσç, Elçin Atamgüç, 2004 was awarded Tokyo Horror Clubs grand Sabriye Günüç award as well.1 Editing: Aytekin Birkon Art Director: Ay╞egül Çiftçi Screen movies directed by Hasan KaracadaŢ: Producer: ÇaŢlar Özlek Lighting: Selçuk Güngörmezler • Dabbe 7: El-Nazar (2016) Distrubuter: UIP Film • Dabbe 6 (2015) Total Gross: 3.751.364,0 TL • Dabbe 5: Zehr-i Cin (2014) Total Viewers: 422.747 • Magi (2014) Time in Theatres: 15 week • Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ (2013) • Dabbe: Bir Cin Vakasσ (2012) • El-Cin (2012) 3.2. Synopsis • Dabbe 2 (2009) Getting ready for marriage, during her ritual • Semum (2007) henna-night, Kübra is attacked by supernatural • Dabbe (2005) entities called djinns and her body is possessed • Hummadruz (1999) by unknown beings. Her mystical incident is not something new for her village Kσbledere. In his movies it is possible to feel his Japa- This mystical village has seen some unfortunate nese Horror Cinema roots. He has, and is con- events in the past during a dig for treasure and tinuing to make important contributions to the has been cursed. A psychiatrist named Ebru sets genre. He is effectively integrating Islamic and out to treat Kübra, who is also an old friend of Turkish motifs and horror elements in his mov- hers. Ebru the psychiatrist, will be working with ies and increasingly using digital effects with one of the local clerics usually consulted for increasing success. The directors latest movie exorcising djinns. She would be recording and Dabbe7: El-Nazar is expected to be released examining the procedure carried out by this ex- in 2017. orcist known as Faruk Akat. The clash between science and religion is commonly observed in Hasan KaracadaŢs 3.3. Director's Vision and Other Works films, and Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ in which the plot mainly stands upon this clash is chosen for Hasan KaracadaŢ has directed a total of 11 dramaturgic analysis from this standpoint. films in between 1996 and 2016. He was born in ╝anlσurfa on 20 October 1976, and studied medical genetics in Ankara after which he has 3.4. Societal Plane moved on to Japan to complete Nippon Eizo- Juku Cinema Direction program in 1998. He The movie starts with the journey of a scien- has directed numerous documentaries, shorts, tist and a cleric to reach the village of Kσbledere, feature films, tv series and movies in Japan and MuŢla, to treat a woman named Kübra, who is Turkey. He has appeared in over fifty interna- believed to be struck by djinns in her henna- tional festivals with his work and won various night. The mysterious events begin during the awards. He was first recognised for his film journey. A mysterious man they come across is Hummadruz" which appeared in International an omen to the things that will happen. The sto- Istanbul Film Festival in 1999 and which also ry is set in the neighboring village of Kσbledere won numerous international wards. His short where people who left Kσbledere now reside. movie Pas was awarded best film award in Most of the dialogues are in the dialect that is Tokyo Video Festival and JVC Film Festival in spoken in Aegean provinces of Turkey. How- 2001. In 2002-2003 season he has won ever, the scientist woman and the cleric speaks "Bunkacho" the most prestigious award given with clear "Istanbul Turkish. by Japanese Ministry of Culture from among 500 other nominees. In the same period, he has 1http://www.sinematurk.com/kisi/4047-/

80 Djinns, djinn strike, and black magic, which footages used in the film which also shows the can be seen in the Islamic history and Anatolian image the girl who got attacked by the beings. belief systems are discussed throughout the The colors and tones of the eyes and the lips film. The Dabbe" in the films title is a crea- suggests that she is possessed by the djinns. ture referenced in Koran as (27 Neml: 82) In the background of the poster, images of When the time for the word about apocalypse skulls in brown and beige tones are used exten- is near, we will summon a dabbe (creature) sively. It is possible to say that these images from under the ground. And he will tell that are direct allusions to death and danger. Blood people dont beleive our messages (especially stains are seen on the garment she is wearing on the ones about the apocalypse). The exact de- the poster. It can be suggested that the stain re- scription of the creature Dabbe'tül Arz" is a sembles a being, although supernatural, with topic of debate in Islamic history. Cin Çarp- head and feet. The phrase on the poster Gözler masσ phrase in the title suggests genre of the Cinlere Aitse, Kayσtlar ╝eytanσndσr (If the eyes movie and that the horror element will be estab- belong to the djinns, the records are the Dev- lished on "djinns" and "djinn strike. ils) is located at the top and gives clues about The images used in the poster of the movie the film to the reader. The sentence implies that makes suggestions about the plot and storytell- the recordings are used in the movie and the ing design. leading actresss eyes on the poster does not belong to the bride but to the djinns. At the bottom of the poster the title is presented with "Dabbe" on top relating the movie to the series, but the thin serif font below with the subject sets it apart from the rest of the series. "A Hasan KaracadaŢ Movie with the same font below presents the director. At the very bottom August 2013 reports the release date and balanced company logos are placed on the left and right.

3.5. Expression Plane

Expression analysis, is the attempt to decon- struct the text by overcoming syntactic and se- mantic limits and therefore to find the space of meaning on the deeper level of the text (Sozen, 2013). It can be claimed that there are two different planes of expressions established in the movie: one of Ebru the psychiatrists, who says that Kübra is undergoing a psychiatric disorder and should be treated clinically; and the other of

Faruk the clerics, who approaches the incident Image 1: Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ Poster within the religious context, and claims it http://www.sinefesto.com/wp- should be resolved accordingly. content/uploads/2013/08/Dabbe-Cin-Çarpmasσ- Filmi.jpg 3.5.1. Theme

The poster, in relation to the plot element Themes provides a vision closely related to henna-night, depicts a woman wearing the societal mindset, lifestyle, and social prob- bindallσ (bridal garment worn in henna-night) lems of the time period the works are written in and "be╞ibiyerde" necklace with five gold coins (Sözen, 2013); and "Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ fo- (Image 1). It can also be seen that the movie is a cuses on the the problems the pressed woman sequel to Dabbe: Bir Cin Vakasσ (Dabbe: A faces, and solutions to those problems. In this Djinn Incident) as some visuals are repeated. focus, the presentation of cultural elements such The red dot and REC" suggests the camera

81 as supernatural beings, prayers, alchemy, and provides clues about the modern woman repre- nazar charms are used extensively. sentation. As it provides socio-economic cur- sors, the places in the scenes of interviews with 3.5.2. Contrasts the village residents provides information about the setting to the viewer. Story structure rests upon the view of the problem from the standpoints of characters 3.6.2. Character Design from two different professions and social cultures. This conflict of science and religion is It is possible to classify movies in terms of presented to the viewer through dialogue and their characters as: story based and person physical elements in the story. The dialogue based (Onaran, 1997). Since it is a sequel film, between the two characters presents the scien- it is possible to say that the movie Dabbe: Cin tific and religious approaches to the same prob- Çarpmasσ rests upon a story based structure. lems. In the scenes depicting this conflict, tech- In Dabbe, Dabbe 2, Dabbe: Bir Cin Vakasσ nology and tradition is shown together. In a movies characters change, but the stories told scene where a discussion about djinns are ongo- on Dabbe" and djinns stays the same. ing, the technological gadgets such as the video The story in Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ is cre- camera and the laptop is shown with the seem- ated on the events of a past treasure dig and the ingly old books on the table establishes this djinn strike incident that happened later on. The contrast. Similarly, the modern clothing (jeans, main characters in the story are Kübra, who t-shirt, sunglasses) of the doctor against the tra- gets attacked by djinns; and the characters try- ditional garments of the cleric (plaid shirt, vest) ing to resolve the mystery, doctor Ebru and the is notable. cleric Faruk. As supporting characters, Kübras mother and her sister are also included in the 3.6. Narrative Plane story. After the scene in which exorcision of Kübra Trending in Hollywood horror in the latest who is believed to be possessed by the djinns, it era, the handy-cam shooting technique was first is observed that the doctor and the cleric sug- introduced with projects such as Blair Witch gest different explanations to the the incident. Project and Paranormal Activity. This home- Ebru believes, Kübra could be treated with sci- made handheld-camera footages previously entific methods. She diagnoses Kübra with sev- seen in the directors other movies is also pre- eral disorders after her behaviors. In a scene sent in Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ. When used cor- where Ebru speak to the camera after an epi- rectly this technique which is desired for its sode of Kübra she says: effective communication of the sense of reality, can enhance the sense of fear of the viewer. It is 02:03. This is doctor Ebru Karadu- Although the film is telling the story from the man. The stage one of visual fact presenta- present plane, the henna-night footages of the tion is complete. As I suspected, Kübra has incident are used in the scene where the footage a process that begins with parasominic is reviewed. This way, the real footage usage sleep disorder and bioelectric activity trauma, later developing into schizotypal per- is maintained while a past event is included in sonality disorder. The patient responded ra- the story structure as well. tionally during our first meeting, however during her recent session with Faruk Akat 3.6.1. Space Design she displayed her exaggerated metaphysical and supernatural beliefs extensively. The phenomenon of space resembles the features used to define the characters, and be- In contrast, in the speech Faruk gives, dis- comes meaningful through how the relationship cussing the changes in Kübras behaviour, he between characters and events are constructed. says: As the mainly story unfolds in village houses, the structures also conveys the place the events Non of my words of spell were effective. took place. Especially the frames, prayer texts, This means the djinn who possessed Kübra and photos on the walls of the homes provides is very dangerous. It is of a kind which does not leave the body until it is kills or us the insight about the structure. The scenes gets killed; one of the most cruel, the most shot by mounting the camera on the Ebrus car ruthless.

82 3- The struggle and the resolution. (Wellman, 3.6.3. Point of view 2004) In the subject movie, Ebru is moved by her The story told throughout the movie is pre- childhood friend Kübra getting attacked by sented to the viewer through handheld cameras, djinns, and caused her journey to the village cameras placed on cars and in houses. The with the cleric. The fact that the cleric and cameras are being used by the doctor for her Kübras parents are more interested in the su- research and therefore is held by her in the early pernatural, rather than the psychiatric aspect of scenes, this shows the events from the doctors the event causes them to confront Ebru. The perspective. However in the later scenes the resolutions of the story are; Ebru being revealed camera is either used by the cleric or is in a as the one who was really meant to be pos- fixed place. In these scenes the perspective also sessed, the cleric being thrown into a well, and changes. Kübras parents refusing to help him. It is known that handheld cameras and cameras placed in rooms adds to the sense of reality 3.6.6. Crises in the movies. However, for example near the ending where the cleric runs away from an in- The crises which are used for creating in- visible being in an abandoned village, the fact trigue, are among the important moments in the that he does not leave the camera blurs this script (Chion, 1987). As it can be seen in the sense of reality. In this scene and the similar scene where the henna-night footage is re- chase scenes in which the characters are faced viewed, everything seemingly goes normally at with life threatening situations, the ever record- first before Kübras expression slowly begins to ing camera presents an exaggerated sense of change. She goes outside and comes back, after continuity to the viewer. which he attacks the man she was about to marry and kills him. It is not known how she comes 3.6.4. Scene Sequence to this point. The whole starting point of the story is this obscurity and the murder. Another While the story is of the events at the village, element worth of attention in the script is the it also intermittently include the interviews with numbers 7175, uttered by Kübra in Aramaic the village residents and the footage from the language while she commits murder. These henna-night. In this frame, there are only two numbers, are presented in different ways different locations, the one where Ebru and Fa- throughout the film. Towards the ending, in a ruk meet, and Kübras village. There is also a scene in which Faruk seeks help from one of his journey sequence in between the two. In this friends about the meanings of the numbers, he context the sequence of the events can be realizes that the numbers corresponds to V, I, chronologically shown as: V, O letters in Arabic. The word letters forming VIVO, according to Islamic belief are not crucified. Vivo means I'm alive. in Latin and this word is being used as a password.

3.6.7. Climax

The climax in Dabbe: Cin Carpmasi hap- pens when his friend informs him about the meaning of the number 7175. His friend sends him some pictures and tells him that the mystery of the number is related to the word vivo ╝ekil 2: Dabbe: Cin Çarpmasσ scene sequences and the 7175 cult. His friends words over the telephone can be identified as the keywords 3.6.5. Plot Framework leading to the resolution: The members of the 7175 cult who did not In dramatic events, the plot framework can believe that Jesus was neither dead nor cru- be established over three main movements: cified said precisely this: O the cursed 1- Protagonist being guided by purpose. commotion who screams from hell across 2- The arguments against the protagonist. the crucifix! We swear that you have not

83 put the thorns of hell on Jesus Christs 4. Conclusion brow, his clean palms are untouched by the evil nails. I, your God, have not gifted his There are certain biases towards the horror unblemished soul to your leper breaths. My genre in Turkish horror genre that it has come- Jesus! My servant is on my level, know this dic effects on the audience rather than fear. It and let it be known that Jesus, son of Mary can be natural that viewers who got used to get is not dead but alive. And Jesus said: Vivo. Thus the group who decided that Jesus was frightened in a different language not being able not dead encrypted the word vivo, which to fear the familiar Turkish speaking characters. means Im alive, into the number 7175, Fa- There are several mythologic elements and ritu- ruk. If we come to your predicament, the als in Turkish culture from its Shamanist roots. djinns who got falsely buried under for Beliefs which can be encountered all over Asia- dead let each other know that they are liv- Minor in different forms and compositions such ing by this password. as djinn, djinn strike, magic, evil-eye are part of Turkish horror culture. In the holy book of Is- 3.6.8. Resolution and Ending lam, protections towards these fears and superstitions are present. In the final, which can be categorized as an It is possible to say that Dabbe: Cin Carp- open ending, textual information about the fate masi stands out from the director Hasan Kara- of the characters are given. The uncertainty cadaŢs other movies in which he also uses Is- provided in the information gives the viewer to lamic elements and Anatolian myths, in terms imagine their own ending, while hiding towards of dialogue, setting, and character design. This yet another sequel. This can be confirmed by is supported by the fact that it stands well the fact that the subject movie is also a sequel. against the dramaturgic analysis, and shows only few flaws. 3.6.9. Sound and Music Design

As an effective instrument for frightening, References sound element in horror cinema is a very important phenomenon that should be used cor- [1] N. Abisel, Popüler Sinema ve Türler, Alan rectly. As can be expected from a movie cate- Yayσncσlσk, εstanbul, 2010. gorized in the horror genre, long pauses, effects [2] B. Foss, Sinema ve Televizyonda Anlatσm that create tension, whispers, unknown noises, Teknikleri ve Dramaturji, Hayalperest, εstanbul, grunts, and screams are dominant throughout 2012. the film. With the exception of the scenes of [3] Z. εp╞iroŢlu, Dramaturgi, Tiyatroda Dü╞ünsellik, εkaros Yayσnlarσ, εstanbul, 2013. henna-night and journey to the village, it is also [4] M. Sözen, Sinemasal Dramaturgi ve Örnek Bir noted that no music is used in the film. Unlike Çözümleme, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Hasan KaracadaŢs other movies which made Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Hakemli Dergisi, 2013, use of excessive amounts of screams and loud May-June, 100-119. noises, this movie uses these element sparingly and with moderation. It is known that intense use of these elements rather disturbs the viewers more than it frightens them.

84 Problems and Demands of Turkish Muslims (Germany Sample)

Cengiz Kanık, Siirt University, Department of Theology, Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Today five million Muslims live in Germany and the majority of them are Turkish people. In the public sphere, they experience various problems and try to solve them. We can gather these problems under eight titles: Minaret, headscarf, education in the mother tongue, religious lessons, halal food, Friday prayers and religious festivals, cemetery and Islamophobia. In my article I will explain this issues.

Keywords: Germany, Turkish Muslim, minaret, headscarf, education in the mother tongue, religious lessons, halal food, Friday prayers and religious festivals, cemetery and Islamophobia.

1. Migration of Muslims to Europe and England in 1970 (Abadan-Unat, 2002: 129) followed by Germany. As a Western European countries, which embarked consequences of these agreements, many upon a process of rapid development in the workers went from Turkey to Europe. The aftermath of World War II, attempted to meet highest number of Turkish workers to Western the challenges of deficiencies in their labor Europe countries took place between supply provided by the less developed southern 1961‒1973. Within this period, according to neighboring countries (Perşembe, 2005: 62). A İİBK (Employment Agency), 805,000 workers tremendous loss of human life caused by the were sent to work abroad. During this period, it World War II and economic growth enhanced is estimated that between 120,000 and 150,000 by the acceleration of industrialization illegal workers went Western Europe (Martin, enforced Western European countries to 1991: 3). Due to the 1973 oil crisis, the receive labor force from the outside (Canatan, recruitment of workers in all of Western 1995: 11-12). Therefore, a guest work program Europe was halted (Perşembe, 2005: 67). was initiated in order to compensate the workforce deficit by European countries after The weakness of socio-economic Turkey-Germany labor contract on September structure, inadequacy of social security system 1, 1961(Perşembe, 2005: 13). This and political pressure in a country causes immigration had two important features in people to migrate to more developed and terms of Turkey. The first was transition from democratic places (Şen, Koray, 1993: 17). For agriculture society to industrial society and the this reason, 59,913 refugees went to Europe second was from Islamic society to Christian after 1980 military coup (Perşembe, 2005:70). society (Karagöz, 2007: 21-22). The Republic In the 1990s, European countries have started of Turkey was eager as much as individual. to apply visas for Turkey and have decided to Immigration was an important opportunity to completely halt the recruitment of workers and prepare a safer future and more comfortable family reunions (Canatan, 1995: 1996). After life for the individual. The Turkish State these dates, immigration to Europe has begun attributed a special meaning to this to decrease. Today there are around 5 million immigration to find a solutions both to the Muslim immigrants in Germany and 15 million unemployment and lack of foreign exchange in Europe. reserve in the country (Gitmez, 1983: 103). Therefore, Turkey signed a number of agreements with Austria, Belgium and Holland in 1964, France in 1966, Switzerland in 1967,

85 2. Essential Discussion Issues in 2013: 282-83). In addition to the headscarf, Germany religious activism and congregational imagination are manifested. The Europeans Islam enters into the public sphere of have been aware of that Islam was not far from Europe by the means of individual practices. themselves by means of headscarf one of the Today in Europe, ‘Islam’ is a cultural and religious signs, Religious symbols have been political identity for Muslims. Muslims want to perceived by them as a threat to women's rights do their religious practices in parliament, and freedom of thought, and meant concession universities, hospitals, recreation and holiday from right after prolonged struggle with the places and developing their subjectivities in the Church. Attempts were made to reduce the Islamic public sphere. This leads to the visibility of Muslims. Muslims are forbidden formation of different public spaces (Göle: to enter the school, the swimming pool and 2012: 11-31). This subjectivity paves the way various public spaces with their headscarves for crises in the public sphere. (Göle: 2015: 37-38). For example, an elementary school teacher in Baden- 2.1. Minaret Württemberg in Germany, Afghan-born The minaret is one of the most German citizen Fereshta Ludin, was forbidden important religious signs of Islamic to attend classes with a headscarf by the civilization. Some crises occurring in secular school's administration. The court rejected the European countries are about minarets. Racism allegation, in spite of accepting the basic rights against Muslims and their religious symbols, of the Ludin. In Karsruhe, Ludin was like minaret, is widespread. For example, in forbidden to teach at school with the decision Swiss far-right party leader Heinz-Christian that the court had given and was dismissed Strache initiated a referendum on minarets in from civil service (Kastoryano, 2008: 426). November 2009 and Marine Le Pen in France Although there is no ban on de jure in is especially against construction of mosques. Germany today, the headscarf can emerge as a While there is no problem about mosque and de facto problem in various places. Pious construction of mosques in Germany, the women who do not want to face this problem problem arises from the construction of large are developing various tactics. According to mosques with minarets. De Certeau, tactics, a kind of sub-class struggle, contain creative possibilities such as 2.2. Scarf privacy, mask, surprise, play, intelligence, bluff (Highmore, 2002: 159). The obstacles in There is no doubt that the headscarf is social life caused by headscarf are tried to the most debated topics in European public overcome or at least minimize through these opinion. As a result of the gradual rise in the tactics. level of education among Muslim women who wear head scarves are emerging in European public sphere with their own corporeality. The low level of education of first generation women did not turn out to public sphere too 2.3. Halal food much. There is no much problem about their headscarved state in public sphere. Along with There are many details in the the last generation who shared the same venues conceptualization of 'halal food', from cutting with Europeans and know German language, animals to eating suitable animals and the modes of communication and shopping consuming food products to keep. For behaviors as opposed to their parents, moved example, Islam forbids to eat certain animals, the headscarf from periphery to the centre. such as pigs, wolves, dogs, eagles, snakes and After that the main discussions started (Göle, to consume dead animal and animals without 2012: 48). According to Nilüfer Göle, Muslims bloodletting/draining/slaughter. The inclusion are compelling the secular borders in Europe of such details can necessarily turn into and entering public spheres with their religious problems such as use of additives in processed symbols, which Europeans do not desire. food or slaughter of animals by shocking Europeans are introducing new laws to impose (Yaman, 2015: 175). Processed foods are a ban on entering into the public sphere (Göle, produced from gelatin obtained from pig or

86 cattle which is used to extend shelf life. A 2.5. Education in The Mother major part, about 90%, is produced from pork Tongue and only 10% is from cattle (Şimşek, 2012: 74- 75). Turkish Muslims living in Germany want their language not to be forgotten in the 2.4. Religious Education Lesson society. Germany taking into account of mother tongue education has proposed a two Religious education lesson is another model solution. The German local states are discussion issue in Germany. The problem is independent from each other in terms of mostly about the way education is given. Many similar practices such as education. Bremen, religious education models such as Islamic Hamburg, Baden-Württemberg, Saarland, Religious Studies, Intercultural Education, Berlin and Schleswig-Holstein have decided Multicultural Education and Religions / Higher that these lessons are out of their own Education are among these debates in public responsibilities, while Hessen, North Rhine- schools. Westphalia, Bavaria and Lower Saxony undertake. In this framework, a binary model Firstly, with the law which went into emerges. In the first model, the content is effect in 1968 in Federal Germany, religion arranged and all expenditures are financed by courses were organized in the context of the the German school administrators, the second views of churches and communities (Yaman, one is all expenditures are financed by the 2015: 169). Religious education for Muslim consulates of the country. Teachers are sent to children in Germany started in 1978 in North Germany for 5 years period (Yaman, 2015: Rhine-Westphalia. Teachers have been sent 165). The real problem here is that the lessons from Turkey to give these lessons since the are not compulsory. Therefore, these lessons 1980s, and in the framework of project started are limited to interest. in 1999, students who can take this course in German for 2 hours per week. Likewise, 2.6. Religious Holidays and Friday Islamic religious lessons in Bavaria are taught Prayers by teachers from Turkey. The Bavarian Ministry of Education has gone through some Muslims cannot perform prayers with changes in the content of the religious lessons permission from their workplace during Friday to be taken by Muslim children. National prayer. In fact, this is a problem that can be festivals, military service and health issues solved with a contract that can be made with were taken out of the curriculum (Altun, 2001: the employer. Non-governmental organizations 48). In Berlin, religion lessons are offered as assume that Muslims and non-Muslims in electives. In the Hessen State, Islamic religious Germany promote relations if the religious lessons began with the curriculum jointly days of Muslim will be national holidays. agreed by DITIB and Ahmediyya communities According to them, ‘Muslims and Islam are a from primary school. part of Germany’ thought in the German public opinion will become more consolidating. The Germany is paying attention to the content of Islamic religion so that Muslims, A number of solutions are proposed in who are a large immigrant mass, do not abrade tandem with the states and workplaces. The German values. H. Kader Zengin, who studies local governments of Bremen and Hamburg on this subject, says that the emphasis is on signed a contract. In these states, employees three aims in the lessons. The first aim is to be may be granted holiday if requested on the gained basic knowledge of Islam with a cross- condition of compensation days off. A day is sectarian approach in the curriculum. Second is accepted as public holiday for all Muslim for students to organize their practical lives in student by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia the context of education they take, and thirdly (http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/muslumanlardan- to establish a religious identity which requires bayram-tatili-talebi-27306750). knowledge of the German society and culture, and respect for their values (Zengin, 2010: 29). 2.7. Special Cemetery for Muslims

Muslim immigrants prefer to be buried in their own countries for emotional reasons.

87 This demands leads to many troubles, religious-legal harmony of Muslims, to especially economical. For this reason, funeral promote social cohesion and to prevent social companies have been established by division in Germany. associations. Families with average annual income have to take into account between This conference consists of a general 2000 and 2500 Euros. But, in terms of next assembly. This general assembly includes the generations Turkey have become a nostalgic German state, representatives of Muslim country. Now, corpses are buried in Germany associations and scholar. In the first conference instead of Turkey. In many states, burial three title was studied between 2006-2009. proceedings have begun with the new law. Cemeteries were built for Muslims. All these Main Title 1: “German Social Order and The developments were considered as a sign by Harmony of Values” Muslims to see Germany as their homeland. Main Title 2: “Religious Problem in the 2.8. Xenophobia (Islamophobia) German Constitutional Understanding”

Media is one of the important means of Main Title 3: “Economy and Media as a manipulating society's perception. Therefore, Bridge” media is used effectively. In Germany, news The second period, 2009-2012, started from time to time leads to Islamophobic positive, but stagnated with the change of the behavior. For example, in the German media, Minister of the Interior resulting from the the photographs of women wearing Government's change. Hans Peter Friedrich headscarves, bearded Muslims have referred to who was new minister’s comments adversely as criminals. Some negative attitudes towards affected. Especially, separating discourse of Muslims in business recruitment and education Islam and Muslims was the main reason for the may be attributed to Islamophobic behaviors. problem. According to him, “Although born As a part of a solution to this problem, more and living in Germany are citizens of qualified immigration editors should work in Germany, Islam does not belong here.” media organs. However in 2010, President Christian Wulff 3. An Important Factor in the described Islam as a religion belonging to this Solution of the Problems: German Islam country, just like Christianity and Judaism. The Conference second period Interior Minister Friedrich took up the issue of 'Islam and radicalism'. But For a long time, the Germany has Muslim society was opposed him, as Muslims avoided defining itself as an immigrant state were defined as potential terrorists. and has ignored the problems that arose in the public area. But in 2006, this reality was At the third period, two important understood, recognized and an important step things were seen in NGOs. First, while the first was taken in implementation of resolution. In two semester conference topics are determined 2006, the Federal Ministry of the Interior by the Ministry of Interior, but in this organized 'Deutsche Islam Konferenz (DIK)' conference, topics determined by Muslim together with the Muslim representatives in NGOs. The second important development was Germany and paved the way for an approach to that security issues did not get into the issues establish the negotiation agenda. The Muslim of the conference. society established an opportunity to reveal Main Title 1: “Islamic Social Assistance” their identity in Germany. Main Title 2. “Islamic Spiritual Care”. In this context, Wolfgang Schäuble, the speaker of the conference, summarized the Conclusion and Assessment purpose of the conference as "strengthening the religious and social integration of the Along with globalization, very rapid Muslim population and ensuring that all people mobility has led to formation of multicultural live together in Germany." Thus DIK aimed to and pluralistic societies. Especially in Europe, improve the dialogue between the German these pluralistic structures are much explicit. If State and Muslims, to support social and pluralism and differences have possibility of an

88 equal representation, it will eliminate the risks practices should be taken under constitutional of weakening peace and empower solidarity. guarantees. As a result, the following can be Therefore, a libertarian approach should be said that the problems of the Turkish preferred in public sphere. Institutional immigrants NGOs who live in Germany are structures should be structured in a way that resolved day to day being discussed with local beliefs can be represented. Different religious authorities. References

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Zengin, H.K. (2010). “Almanya’da İslam Din Öğretimi Vasıtasıyla Oluşturulmak İstenen/Oluşturulan Müslüman Kimliği Üzerine”, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi. 51:1.

89 The Analysis of the Developments within Turkish Health Sector through EU Progress Reports

Lecturer Osman Çöllü1 Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey, School of Foreign Languages [email protected]

Asst. Prof. Erdal Eke Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey, FEAS, Department of Healthcare Management [email protected]

Abstract. European Union is an international and multinational organization whose origin dates back to 1951. Over time, European Union has produced policies in many fields and turned them into the values, principles as well as rules. One of these fields is health. European Union makes some suggestions to the member States within the framework of the values and principles it developed in the field of health. In this context, current situation and the developments within the health sector of Turkey, one of those countries which the membership negotiations are still held with, are analysed in the Progress Reports annually published by the European Union Com- mission. The question of which subjects came to the forefront in the assessment and evaluations regarding Turk- ish health sector during the process of membership negotiations makes up the essence of this research. The aim of the study is to analyse categorically the evaluations of the European Union regarding Turkish health sector from the beginning of the negotiations with the EU in 2005 in terms of health methodology. In this context, the study has been designed through literature survey and content analysis based on the assessment and evaluations concerning Turkish health sector within the Progress Reports 2005-2016. The scope of the study is based on the analysis of the assessment and evaluations made on a variety of subjects, especially service delivery, organization, financing, and human resources parameters within Turkish health sector as can be seen in the Progress Reports annually published by the European Commission especially under the title of Consumer and Health Protection in Chapter 28. Through this study, some findings have been obtained on a number of subjects such as delivery and organization of health services, organizational and administrative capacity of the Ministry of Health, health indicators, contagious diseases, tobacco control, health legislation, cooperation level with WHO, database and automation works related to the health services under the subtitle of public health in the EU Pro- gress Reports. To illustrate, it is stated in these reports that there happened quantitative increases within the capacity of health services, especially in the number of healthcare personnel, that the health indicators such as life expectancy at birth have improved in a favorable manner, but that Turkey has a total of health-care costs per capita, which is much more lower than that of the European Union average.

Keywords: Health, Turkish Health Sector, European Union, European Union Progress Report

1 Corresponding Author

90 1. Introduction opments in Turkish health sector through EU Progress Reports. In the aftermath of World War II, the aims of restoring the peace, gathering around the com- 2. Turkey-EU Relations and Progress Re- mon values, and establishing a strong coopera- ports tion mechanism in the sphere of economy came to the forefront in Europe, having suffered from Turkey-European Union relations point to a a great collapse in every area, most particularly period of some 60 years. Soon after the creation in social, political, economic, and cultural areas. of the European Economic Community in 1958, In accordance with these aims, the first step was Turkey applied for association to the European taken by Germany, Belgium, France, the Neth- Economic Community on July 31, 1959. Hav- erlands, Italy, and Luxembourg in 1951 with ing considered Turkey‟s application, EEC the Treaty of Paris creating the European Coal Council of Ministers recommended the signing and Steel Community (ECSC). Later, in 1957, of an association agreement which will be valid Europe took yet another turn thanks to the Trea- until the actualization of the membership condi- ty of Rome establishing the European Econom- tions. Within this context, the Ankara Agree- ic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic ment (The Association Agreement) was signed Energy Community (EURATOM) [21]. Having on September 12, 1963 and entered into force shown an enlargement tendency with the new on December 1, 1964. With the Additional Pro- member countries within the process, The EEC tocol, which was signed on November 23, 1970 earned the name of European Union by the and entered into force in 1973, the so-called Maastricht Treaty in 1993, ushering in a new preparation period envisaged in the Ankara age in terms of economic and political unifica- Agreement ended, and the conditions related to tion [1]. the “Transition Period” were determined. Dur- ing this term, completion of the Customs Union For the time being, European Union, which is and ensuring the free circulation of persons as made up of 28 member countries, is defined as well as industrial and agricultural goods be- a supranational organization that proposes the tween the Parties were envisaged. As from cohesion of the European communities in eco- 1971, within the framework of Additional Pro- nomic, political, social, and cultural areas. tocol, the EEC unilaterally abolished customs There exists a set of criteria required for the duties and quantity restrictions which were membership to this supranational organization. applied to all industry products imported from Membership criteria for the countries wishing Turkey with some exceptions, including textile to be a member of the EU entail their fulfill- and petroleum products. In return for this, it ment of the relevant standards on political, ju- was provided that Turkey would gradually dicial, and economic levels [5-6-25]. Harmoni- abolish customs duties on the industry products zation levels of the candidate countries with imported from the EEC, and thus a 22-year membership criteria are handled in the Progress timetable was granted for the Customs Union to Reports published by the European Union enter into force in actual terms. Not waiting for Commission [2]. the periods envisaged in the Ankara Agreement to be completed, Turkey applied for the full As a country holding negotiations of mem- membership of the European Community on bership to the European Union, Turkey has April 14, 1987. The EEC Commission declared made good progress in almost every field. One its opinion on Turkey‟s application on Decem- of these fields is surely that of health. Health ber 18, 1989 and stated that the Community Transformation Programme, which was put into wouldn‟t be able to admit a new member before practice in 2003, also brought important re- it achieved its domestic integration [4]. forms in Turkish health sector in its wake [23- 22-19]. Within this context, the developments In its integration with the European Union, in Turkish health sector have been a subject of Turkey entered the “Final Period” of the full the assessments as well as recommendations membership road on January 1, 1996 by com- under Chapter 28: Consumer and health protec- pleting the "Transition Period" on December tion in the Progress Reports annually published 31, 1995, which lasted 22 years and resulted in by the European Union. This study thus focuses the completion of the Customs Union process in on the evaluation and description of the devel- terms of industrial products and manufactured

91 agricultural products. The milestone of Turkey- Just like those in charge in a research and de- EU relations is the Summit of Heads of State velopment department, Progress Reports are and Government in Helsinki on 10-11 Decem- drawn up by a number of officials, including ber 1999 [20]. the experts from EU, Members of Parliament, Turkey Desk Chief, and Term Presidents who Turkey was officially recognized as a candi- are dedicatedly responsible for the negotiations date country and formulated to be on an equal with Turkey. In these reports are basically in- basis with the other candidates at the Helsinki cluded events and evaluations concerning Tur- Summit. After the preparation of the National key‟s previous period, current situation, and Programme in 2001 and 2003, another mile- future period. Within this context, they take a stone was experienced in EU-Turkey relations social, economic, and political photo of Turkey at the Brussels Summit on 17 December 2004, in some way. The Reports start with the devel- as Turkey was stated to have met the political opments in the previous period. Classically, the criteria sufficiently and the decision to start the reforms are praised and required to proceed. full membership negotiations with Turkey on 3 Then, the country‟s status quo, that is its current October 2005 was taken [4]. situation, is reported and the actions to be taken are expressed. In this part, the country‟s wrong Accession negotiations officially started with practices, domestic and foreign policies, eco- the Intergovernmental Conference held in Lux- nomic growth, and development status are dis- emburg on October 3, 2005 and the Negotiation cussed in detail. Finally, the relevant advice is Framework Document for Turkey was pub- given, the things to do in the forthcoming peri- lished. Thus, a relation with ups and downs od are itemized, and they are required to be between Turkey and EU took yet another turn fulfilled till the next progress report [24]. by going beyond a crucial turning point [4]. As is seen, just like a research and develop- Following the 3rd National Programme in ment expert, EU not only studies the candidate 2008, the Ministry of European Union Affairs country in terms of a multitude of issues rang- was established on July 8, 2011. Following the ing from energy to fishing, infrastructure to announcement of Turkey‟s New European Un- domestic-foreign affairs, health to social securi- ion Strategy on 18 September 2014, Turkey‟s ty but also sets a course for the improvement of National Action Plan for the EU Accession- the topics and chapters in which the lack of Phase-I (November 2014-June 2015) and Tur- satisfactoriness is felt. These reports, which are key‟s National Action Plan for the EU Acces- periodically given to Turkish Government by sion-Phase-II (June 2015-June 2019) were an- the EU, take a photo of what kind of processes nounced on 30 October 2014 and 1 December the country experienced in the past and will go 2014, respectively [20]. through in the future during its journey towards joining the European Union. Therefore, Pro- So far, 16 chapters have been opened to ne- gress Reports should be carefully examined in gotiations and Chapter 25: Science and Re- interpreting the relations between EU and Tur- search was closed temporarily, stating that Tur- key [24]. key met the required criteria [4]. Within the context of Negotiations Frame- Apart from the Accession Partnership Docu- work Document, Turkey‟s EU Accession Nego- ment and National Programme, another docu- tiations are held on the basis of 35 chapters and ment which starts to be prepared with the ac- they encompass all parts of the social quisition of the candidate status is called “Pro- life. Chapter 34: Institutions and Chapter 35: gress Report”. The EU Commission evaluates Other Issues are handled in the final stage of the the progress that the candidate country has negotiations. During the negotiations, the chap- made in the harmonization with the EU acquis ters are opened depending on the candidate as well as the drawbacks that it has observed in countries‟ fulfillment of the opening criteria this field through progress reports on a yearly which were set down by EU Council, and each basis. In preparing them, the Commission bene- chapter is temporarily closed depending on the fits from the feedback it obtains officially from actualization of the closing criteria determined the EU Delegation, public institutions, and by the Council. Even if just one member ex- NGOs in the candidate country [2]. presses a negative opinion, this may interrupt

92 the opening or closing of the chapters. Screen- served to have come to the forefront. Within ing meetings make up the first stage of the ne- this context, harmonization of the list of modi- gotiations. The first screening meeting was held fiable diseases [11], establishment of the Out- on the Chapter 25: “Science and Research” on break Control and Surveillance Unit [11], estab- 20 October 2005, and the last one on the Chap- lishment of a national tobacco control commit- ter 23: “Judiciary and Fundamental Rights” on tee [8], establishment of tobacco control units at 13 October 2006. While the screening process provincial level [9], setting-up of a strategic was going on, “Science and Research” chapter plan (2008-2012) for communicable diseases was opened to negotiations in Intergovernmen- [9], establishment of the National Cell Coordi- tal Conference held in Luxemburg on 12 June nation Center [9], publication of its first strate- 2006, and this chapter was temporarily closed gic plan covering the years 2010-2014 by the in the same meeting. So far, 16 chapters have Ministry of Health [12], expansion of the trial been opened during the accession negotiations, to establish an early warning and response sys- only one of which was temporarily closed [3]. tem for intestinal diseases [12], launch of a toll free telephone quit line [13], implementation of The first Progress Report on Turkey was pub- the 2010-2014 obesity prevention and control lished in 1998, and this was followed by the programme [13], establishment of National others which were drawn up annually. Official- Public Health Institute [14], setting-up of the ly, European Union doesn‟t have a common Early Warning Response and Field Epidemiol- health policy and health model. On the other ogy Training Unit [14], merging of the tissues hand, it conducts evaluations and gives advice and cells and organ transplantation services to based on a set of health-related criteria within become one unit under the Health Services the framework of European Union Social Mod- Directorate General [14], establishment of some el. A number of evaluations, assessments, and 50 new community-based mental health centers suggestions are observed to have been made in in 42 provinces [14], setting-up of a national the Progress Reports from 2005, when Turkey health information system [15], establishment started negotiations, to 2016. In EU Progress of sub-EWRS units in all 81 provinces [15], Reports, the data related to Turkish health sec- creation of Turkish Organ and Tissue Donation tor are studied under the Chapter 28: Consumer Database [15], establishment of obesity coun- and Health Protection, which was opened to selling units and cancer screening services [15], negotiations on December 19, 2007. creation of a national field epidemiology training programme and a laboratory training pro- Within the context of the study, the develop- gramme [18] and enforcement of an action plan ments in Turkish health sector are evaluated for 2015-2018 in the area of tobacco control through European Union Progress Reports [16] are the positive assessments made in the based upon the following 6 subtitles: Admin- Progress Reports. istration, Organization, and Policy Develop- ment, Service Delivery, Health Economics and On the other hand, negative assessments have Financing, Human Resources, Legislation, and been reported on some subjects where no pro- Health Indicators. gress has been made so far. To illustrate, adoption of a national action plan in the area of men- 3. Assessments and Recommendations in EU tal health is still pending [13]. Secondly, Tur- Progress Reports on Turkish Health Sector key has not yet finalized its strategic action plan on HIV/AIDS [18] and doesn‟t have an inde- 3.1. Administration, Organization, and Poli- pendent body to monitor and inspect mental cy Development health institutions [18]. Thirdly, no progress was made in increasing the sensitivity of sur- When this field is analyzed through 2005- veillance system in detecting threats [17] and 2016 Progress Reports, assessments as well as the national cancer institute is still to be estab- recommendations related to the policy devel- lished [17]. opment and strengthening the organizational capacity within the areas of tobacco and tobac- While it can be observed that the recommen- co products, communicable diseases, blood and dations related to such issues as health threats, blood components, tissues and cells, mental tobacco products, stem cells, and communica- health, cancer and obesity are typically ob- ble diseases have been followed or good pro-

93 gress has been made in these areas within the the area of socio-economic determinants of process, no progress seems to have been made health [9-10], the amounting of the public regarding the recommendation of “ensuring the health expenditure to 5.6% of the national confidentiality and security of health data in the budget in 2011 [13] and 5.4% in 2015 [16], national health information system” which was total health expenditure per capita amounting to mentioned in Progress Report 2013 for the first only one third of the EU average in the same time [15]. year [16], and the heavy burden put on the healthcare system by the increasing number of 3.2. Service Delivery refugees [17].

When it comes to the delivery of health ser- 3.4. Human Resources vices, Progress Reports between 2005 and 2016 mention specific assessments such as the vac- As regards the assessments in this field, cination of 9 million children under age 6 2005-2016 Progress Reports state that after the against measles in addition to the school chil- recommendation made in 2005 about “the dren inoculated in 2004 [11], full national cov- strengthening of the administrative capacity in erage of the family medicine system by the end terms of qualified staff in order to facilitate the of 2010 which was introduced in 2004 [13], adoption of the acquis concerning” [11] and the delivery of a free service to quit smoking one made in 2013 about “the need for the sus- through the 24/7 national hotline taking 1500 tainable structures for intensive staff capacity calls a day [15], opening of fifty two “hope building at central and grassroots levels” [15], houses” to provide residential care [18], access related works were performed in 2014 for of each registered citizen to health services building the necessary human resources capaci- through a local family physician [18], while in ty with a view towards providing residential general terms they also report that some pro- care [18] and the quantitative capacity of health gress has been made in the field of service de- services improved in 2015, including the num- livery regarding public health, mental health, ber of doctors per capita [16]. Also, in the field communicable diseases, blood, tissues, cells of communicable diseases, training was provid- and organs. However, among the negative as- ed for over 7 000 medical staff throughout the sessments in this area are the limited progress country [9] and for the field epidemiologists on as regards cancer [13] and the absence of any early detection and control measures on specific progress in the field of pharmaceuticals [16]. diseases [10] as well as for the personnel working in the community-based mental health cen- The recommendation about “the need for fur- ters [15-17]. ther progress in the field of health inequalities to ensure that the social insurance scheme ena- 3.5. Legislation bles all citizens to benefit from equal access to health services” which was reported in Progress When this field is analyzed through 2005- Report 2013 [15] as well as the one about “ the 2016 Progress Reports, assessments as well as need for the improvement of the access of un- recommendations related to the harmonization registered citizens to health services and the with the EU legislation within a number of are- availability and quality of services, including as such as tobacco and tobacco products being for older people and people with disabilities, as in the first place, communicable diseases, alco- regards health inequalities” which was men- hol, blood and blood components, tissues and tioned in Progress Report 2014 [18] are tried to cells, organ transplantation as well as mental be actualized most particularly by means of health appear to have come to the forefront. Health Transformation Programme, General Within this context, ratification of the WHO Health İnsurance and Family Medicine System. Framework Convention on Tobacco Control [11], publication of a directive for the notifica- 3.3. Health Economics and Financing tion system of communicable diseases in the Official Gazette in November [11], adoption of When the Progress Reports between 2005 the legislation on tobacco control [7], entry of a and 2016 are studied, important assessments national tobacco control programme into force which were made regarding this field may be [8], extension of the smoking ban to all indoor exemplified as follows: some progress made in public areas and certain open-air areas as from

94 July 2009 [9], adoption of an implementing ment of a National Institute of Public Health regulation in the area of tissues and cells [12], had yet to be adopted [10], while the mentioned prohibition of the online selling of tobacco institute was established in 2015 under the products through law amendments in June 2011 name of Health Institutes of Turkey (TUSEB) [13], adoption of a new by-law on community also hosting a number of sub-institutions, which mental health centers in February 2011 [13], was not mentioned in the Reports. publication of a revised control and surveillance by-law in the field of communicable dis- 3.6. Health Indicators eases in April 2011 [13], becoming an active party to the WHO Framework Convention on As regards the health indicators mentioned in Tobacco Control [14], publication of the Ordi- Progress Reports 2005-2016, the assessments nance on Tissue Typing Laboratories, the Indi- particularly about the issues of HIV/AIDS, cation List for Composite Tissue Transplanta- population, birth rate, life expectancy, tobacco, tion and the Donor Inclusion and Donor Exclu- and communicable diseases appear to have sion List for Composite Tissues Transplantation come to the forefront. As regards fight against in November 2011 and entry of the Regulation HIV/AIDS, Turkey was reported to continue to on organ and tissue transplantation services and be a low prevalence country and the cumulative the Regulation on management of organ and number of cases reported since 1985 was 1371 tissue transplantation centers into force [14], for HIV positive and 551 for AIDS as of 2005 entry of a new alcohol legislation forbidding the [11]. In this area, Turkey continued to be a low sales of alcohol beverages between 10 p.m. to 6 prevalence country in 2006 as well [7], but due a.m. [15], alignment of the provisions for resi- to the absence of real HIV/AIDS policies, pub- dential care for people with mental disabilities lic awareness about the disease was observed to with the acquis by an „omnibus‟ law in Febru- be low and the incidence to be increasing in ary 2014 [18], entry of the legislation concern- 2011 [13], and so the need for raising public ing alcohol-related harm reduction to put labels awareness of the disease was emphasized in carrying warning messages on alcoholic bever- Progress Report 2012 [14]. ages into force in June 2014 [18], and Turkey‟s becoming one of the first signatories of the Among other assessments regarding health Council of Europe Convention against Traffick- indicators, one can easily notice the following: ing in Human Organs [16] are the remarkable The preliminary results of the 2008 Turkey assessments that came to the forefront within Demographic and Health Survey revealed that the process. the over-65 age group reached its highest level ever, and the fertility rate dropped to 2.15 from In addition to all these, it was stated that the 4.33 between 1978 and 2008 [10]. Life expec- organ donation and transplantation legislation, tancy at birth rose to 76.9 years from 72.4 years and the tissue and cells legislation improved the in ten years [16]. Turkey observed the lowest alignment with EU Directives and international cigarette consumption level in five years during best practices [18] and that Turkey partly the first quarter of 2010 [12]. The proportion of aligned with the EU acquis on blood [17]. adults consuming tobacco products dropped to However, the fact that Turkey has not yet com- 27.1% in 2012, as compared with 31.4% in pleted the legislative alignment process in the 2008 [15]. Turkey continued to be the country area of public health [13] and that EU safety with the highest implementation scores, accord- and quality standards on blood have not been ing to the World Health Organization‟s 2013 fully implemented [17] are reported to be the global tobacco control report [18]. The screen- negative assessments. While good progress ing of target groups for breast and cervical can- seems to have been achieved within the process cers reached 12% and 18%, respectively and the for the actualization of the recommendations target for these cancer types in 2015 was deter- about the need related to the maximum tar yield mined as 70% [12]. As another sign of the good of cigarettes [7] and the legal alignment in the progress achieved in the field of cancer, cancer fields of blood, tissues and cells [8], the need screening coverage reached 35% for breast and for the completion of the legislative alignment 80% for cervical cancer, and finally non- in the field of organ donation was emphasized communicable diseases were reported to cause in Progress Report 2016 [17]. Progress Report 86 % of all deaths in Turkey, affecting 1 in 5 of 2009 stated that a draft law on the establish- the population under 70 [17].

95 4. Conclusion so on have come to the forefront. Also, some recommendations have been made about the Turkey‟s journey to the membership of the expansion of the scope of the social security European Union, as it is called today, can be system, availability as well as accessibility of traced back to 1959. Having made its first the services, and quality improvement. membership application in 1959, Turkey was recognized as a candidate country by EU in When it comes to the health economics and 1999, and full membership negotiations started financing issues mentioned in the Progress Re- to be held in 2005. The European Union annu- ports, one can easily see the good progress in ally publishes a Progress Report regarding Tur- socio-economic parameters within the process key‟s membership process. Within this context, and the assessments made on general govern- from 1998 to the present, assessments and rec- ment expenditure on health as well as the total ommendations have been made concerning its health expenditure per capita. In addition to membership process through these regular pro- what is mentioned above, the fact that Turkey gress reports. has faced a heavy burden put on its healthcare system by the increasing number of refugees in Health sector is one of the fields studied un- recent years is also discussed. der the Chapter 28: Consumer and Health Pro- tection. Turkish health sector has been undergo- With respect to the human resources, the ing an important reform process since 2003, need for the increase in the number of qualified when the Health Transformation Programme healthcare personnel and the necessity of per- got off the ground. Within this process, good forming this in a sustainable framework have progress has been made in a number of fields been emphasized. Moreover, trainings for the and subjects such as health indicators, labor healthcare personnel have been reported to be force, infrastructure, administration and organi- provided in different fields and scopes. zation, financing and expenditures. In the context of legislation, the works devot- From 2005, when the full membership nego- ed to such areas as tobacco and tobacco prod- tiations with Turkey started to be held, to the ucts in particular, communicable diseases, alco- present day, a large number of assessments and hol, blood and blood components, tissues and recommendations with regard to Turkish health cells, organ transplantation as well as mental sector have been mentioned in the Progress health have been emphasized. Reports published by the European Commis- sion. Within this context, the assessments and Within the context of health indicators, as- recommendations in the Progress Reports can sessments have been made about especially be summarized based on 6 six subfields, that is HIV/AIDS, population, birth rate, life expec- administration, organization and policy devel- tancy, tobacco, non-communicable diseases, opment, service delivery, health economics and and cancer. financing, human resources, legislation, and health indicators: References Within the context of administration, organization and policy development, issues of de- [1] Avrupa Birliği Bakanlığı, Avrupa Birliğinin veloping policies and strengthening the admin- Tarihçesi, http://www.ab.gov.tr/index.php?p=105&l=1, istrative as well as organizational capacity in Access Date: 12.02.2017. the areas of tobacco and tobacco products, communicable diseases, blood and blood com- [2] Avrupa Birliği Bakanlığı, İlerleme Raporları, ponents, tissues and cells, mental health, cancer http://www.ab.gov.tr/index.php?p=46224, and obesity have been frequently emphasized. Access Date: 13.02.2017.

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98 Effects of Slow City Movement in Turkey: Seferihisar Case

Assist. Prof. Dr. Demokaan Demirel Ömer Halisdemir University, Public Administration Department, Turkey [email protected]

Abstract: Sustainability is not to break any system operation. It doesn’t consume vitality of the system with an excessive usage. It maintains the existence of the system without burdening the main resources. The concept of sustainability contains three key elements. The first of these is the environmental dimension expressing the nature and use of natural resources. The second is social dimensions that provide justice and participating decision-making processes all segments of the society. The third, the economic dimension which suggests oversee environmental and social elements of economic activities. Today, the cities with the effects of globalization are in fast living conditions which describe non-self-sufficiency and more consuming than producing. The cities are increasingly being away places where people communicated closely with each other and thus they socialized. Now only, the cities are liveable for more consuming. In addition it is a requirement to become easier and cheaper delivery of goods and services in cities with practical living conditions. In this context; the main axis of our work life is that consumption-oriented life doesn’t ensure peace and happiness to the people, they are looking for a different, calm and morally quality of life. The Slow city philosophy aims to attain a quality life style through individuals satisfied with urban life. The aim of this study is to examine the development and basic criteria of the slow cities approach. Also, in this context, it is discussed on the slow food movement linked to the slow cities approach. In the study , it is considered to Seferihisar’s, is the first slow city in Turkey, historical and cultural structure and its activities carried out to meet the slow city criteria.

Keywords: Sustainability, The Slow Cities, Quality of Urban Life, Seferihisar.

is not the rejection or opposition; it is based on a philosophy of stance against the negativities 1. Introduction caused by it. In this respect, the locally specific emphasis of the slow city urban trend is based Jobs provided with industrialization accelerated on approaches such as raising the quality of the migration from the village to the city. This urban life and sustainability. The main topics of has caused the urban population to increase at a the slow city urban philosophy are, in particular, high rate and in an uncontrolled manner. With the use of renewable energy sources, the this process, urban unplanned and unprotected improvement of water and air quality, and the urbanization emerged. A lot of unplanned preservation of tangible and intangible cultural settlements appeared in the vicinity of the city in values and heritage, which are particularly terms of unhealthy infrastructure, and these emphasized by sustainability. The study focuses settlements surrounded the city. This leads to the on the slow food movement, which has an destruction of existing history, cultural and important role in the emergence of the slow city natural values in the city centre, the decline of urban trend. The emergence and characteristics primary relations, and the diminution of the of the slow city urban movement have been quality of living together with the alienation of evaluated. Then the slow city activities in the individuals who are far away from the urban Seferihisar, the first slow city of Turkey, have identity. In this respect, the slow city trend has been examined under the headings of policies, manifested itself as a movement advocating the hospitality, awareness and education policies, preservation and ownership of local cultures of social harmony and partnership on environment, every region of the world that underscores the infrastructure, urban life policies, agriculture, negative effects of industrialization and tourism, artisans and craftsmen. This study aims globalization. Therefore, the idea of slow to make a general evaluation of the slow urban urbanization, industrialization and globalization

99 philosophy with concrete applications in the features of food such as organic, traditional, example of Seferihisar. seasonal high quality. Local sensitivity and authenticity are seen as an important component 1. Slow Food and Slow City Movements of the alternative approach [5]. The slow food movement has been adopted in many countries Slow movement is a movement that has turned of the world and has been included in the New into an anxious social response to the rapid slow York Times magazine in 2001 as "80 Ideas and fast food pricing initiated against the Shaking the World" [6]. The International "Slow hegemony of McDonald's and the like, which Food" movement was officially adopted on has become symbols of fast food and fast life November 9, 1989, with the approval of the culture, and the loss of local food. The slow Slow Food Manifestos, the founding member of food movement was initiated by Carlo Petrini in Falco Portinari, Manifestos has been accepted 1986 in the Italian town of Cuneo in the Langhe by Germany, America, Argentina, Austria, Region. The reason for this move is a reaction to Brazil, Denmark, France, Holland, Spain, the opening of McDonald's in Rome Piazza di Sweden, Switzerland, Italy, Japan, Hungary and Spagna [1]. The slow food movement suggests a Venezuela. At the dawn of slow city has been quality concept based on shared experiences [2] influential that the success of the Slow Food stating that fast food cultures can lead to movement in the world moved to urban life negative consequences such as packaged ready- practices. In 1999, at the initiatives of Paolo to-serve, standard modular choices, corruption Saturnini, the mayor of Greve in Chianti, Italy, of social authenticity, blunting of creativity in the mayor of Carlo Petrini, leader of the Slow long walks and acceptance of uniform standards Food movement and the four towns of Italy in individuals. (Bra, Greve in Chianti, Orvieto, Positano) laid the Slow City Foundation. Subsequently, Carlo The movement has a three-dimensional Petrini expressed at the idea that the cities that conceptual framework. It covers good, clean and adopted the slow philosophy should be united fair sizes. Good means food has a real taste and under a common roof in the World Slow Food appearance. Clean means sustainability Congress in Orvieto, the current the Slow City dimension. Justice means social sustainability Foundation Center, gathered in 1997 dimension which include food is ethically [7]. Organized in the form of an international sustainable involves the use of non-exploitative union, the Slow City Association has put production methods and the exclusion of good forward a truce consisting of 28 articles and 5 products [3]. Slow food movement's main goals additional documents. The official name of the are [4]: institutional structure formed by slow city cities

is "International Network of Important Cities for 1- In order to protect local biodiversity Quality of Life". According to the foundation of creating seed bank and maintain it. the association; the duration of the association is 2- To encourage and protect local/traditional unlimited. The union will use its logos depicting nutrients. an orange snail bearing a crown of modern and historic buildings. Historical chateau in the 3- To promote the education of taste. union logo expresses history, cultural values inherited from past generations, many other lost 4- Consumers educate against fast food values. The reinforced concrete building is a products. symbol of contemporary civilization and has a silent, unspoken, soulless and dull 5- To create public opinion encourages silhouette. The snails just in front of the two organic farming activities. buildings that evoke different meanings are the expression of a serious protest against a certain 6- To go against genetic engineering lifestyle. From the food culture to the city intervention to the products. planning, it expresses that everything should be 7- To gain gardening skill to the students and regulated by the principles of slowness, prisoners. calmness, and historical miraculous respect [8].

Slow food emphasizes the production and In the statute; the slow city association is said consumption of food, and promotes distinctive to be a non-profit-making organization. The

100 purpose of the association is defined seeking characteristic structure away from solutions for urban organization, supporting and standardization. In order to be able to get the spreading good living cultures through tests and title of the Slow City, it is necessary that the practices. Official languages of the association population is less than 50000, acceptance of are Italian and/or English. It is stated that all slow food criteria, provision of mandatory cities can participate in the international union criteria, minimum 50% of the criteria must be that do not have more than 50000 realized. populations. The national and international centre of the association is Orvieto. The The candidate city, which wants to be evaluation of the city who want to be defined as accepted as a slow city member, opens the a slow city is maintained by these union centres demand with a letter of intent. The letter to be [9]. The Slow Cities members undertake to fulfil prepared by the candidate municipality in the the following issues which contained in the rules form of official letter will be addressed to the of procedure for the determination of the International Slow City Union Presidency and fulfilment of the necessary criteria for forwarded to the slow city capital of that membership [10]. country. After the applicant letter of the candidate municipality reaches the city centre of • An environmental policy that primarily the slow city, a preliminary evaluation of focuses on the recovery and recycling candidacy is made. If the preliminary evaluation techniques, and conserving and improving the is positive, the application letter is accepted. A characteristics of the region and urban fabric. reference file describing and documenting what • An infrastructure policy that does not has been done about the slow city criteria by the undermine regionalism. candidate city is prepared. The candidate city • The use of technologies to improve the submits the application file to the slow city quality of the urban and urban environment. coordinator in its own language, in English and • Promotion of the production and in digital form, along with additional consumption of nature compatible foodstuffs. documents, and pays the file evaluation request • Protection of production based on cultures specified in the statute of the slow urban and traditions and contribution to the union. The evaluated application file will be standardization of the region. delivered to the slow city headquarters in Italy • Increase the quality of hospitality by in case of passing points. If the file is approved eliminating the physical and cultural obstacles by the headquarters, membership will be that could lead to a prejudice over the full and announced at the next international meeting held comprehensive use of urban resources. by the Slow City Union, preferably at the • To give special attention to young people general assembly, with a certificate and schools, to give taste education, to create a ceremony. All cities eligible to use the snail, consciousness to live in a quiet city among which is the Slow City logo, are regularly citizens. audited every five years and the continuity of the city's Slow City certificate is passed on. In Slow cities also accept some obligations to addition, the candidate city has to pay an annual fulfil the requirements of their statutes. These membership fee, which varies according to include spreading slow city initiatives and to population size, after approval of the realize their goals of movement making the application. The annual dues amounts to 600 initiative to the public, to implement preferences euros per year for settlements with a population shared by the slow city on the basis of respect of 1000 or less, 750 euros for cities with a for local qualities. It also agreed on taking part population between 1000-5000, 1500 euros for a in bold initiatives to public bodies and to population between 5000-15000, 2500 euros for participate as a volunteer coordinating the between 15000-30000 and cities with a movement is important for the success of the population of 30000 or more it is 3500 Euro per movement [10]. year [10].

To be a slow city; it is necessary for the city The organizational structure of the slow urban to have local specialities protection, to have movement consists of a regulatory committee originality, to be eager to protect them, to responsible for decision-making, a scientific preserve local cultures and to exhibit a committee with the authority to control as well

101 as an outline of the movement, and a secretariat At the heart of sustainable urban ideas and responsible for all the operational activities in practices lies the idea of city-based solutions for the national and international network. The slow the solution of problems in the world, and that city from the international association bodies, cities are systems related to other systems international committee, which has been [13]. Slow cities are the cities where appointed for three years, negotiates sustainability is literally experienced. In slow international co-ordination strategies, promotion urban sustainability, the environment is closely activities and common issues. The international linked to the cultural environment and to coordinating committee appoints a presidential sustainability. Slow cities in sustainable cities council based on the majority of are the most suitable places to support both votes/participation, negotiates the membership green and ecosystem approaches [14]. Despite procedures for cities, and examines the their overlapping features; slow urban and applications for membership of cities. It sustainable concepts include different aspects of approves the general criteria for giving a slow human and environmental relations. While city title. The international president represents sustainability is more concerned with the the association. The presidency council instructs environment and the future; the slow city is the international coordination committee and more concerned with people and the present regulates its powers. The guarantors evaluate the [15]. While the agenda for sustainability is cases related to the discipline offered by the usually focused on resource uses and board members. The international scientific consumption, slow food and slow city use local committee provides broad, up-to-date and products, social and cultural differences as local cultural information to the institution's bodies economy tools, as well as resources and for the development of the institutional activities environmental quality of sustainability [5]. of the slow city award. The accounting auditor monitors the expenditures made [10]. Infrastructure policies based on slow city criteria include criteria that increase the level of Slow city membership criteria have three living of cities and add value in terms of urban kinds: mandatory criteria, perspective criteria architectural comfort. The criteria of urban life and other (non-compulsory) criteria. Mandatory policies add vision to cities and support the criteria are the criteria for which the studies concept of sustainable city by giving priority to carried out in that subject are existing architectural identity. Policies for obligatory. Perspective criteria are the criteria by agricultural, tourists, craftsmen and artisans which the candidate city adopts more precise which protect the environment and respect the and privileged commitments towards to the prosperity of the local people, and they are future. If they are realized, they will increase sensitive to natural areas. In terms of points by 15% in the criteria headers they have introducing a community of criteria called taken part. Other criteria bring to scores hospitality, awareness and plans for education the candidate city; but they are criteria that do are obligatory for the adoption of the philosophy not have a mandatory qualification. of slow city, the initiation of movement and the Environmental policies from criteria are introduction of the city. The criteria for social important in terms of establishing the basis of cohesion point to a way of life that is peaceful, the concept of sustainability and consist of comfortable and social solidarity for the slow features that increase city living standards. Slow city dwellers. The criteria under the heading city criteria are associated with the 3-e model of partnership covers all the studies related to the sustainability. The environment from these slow food philosophy. The criteria, which form aims air quality control, waste management, the basis and starting point of the slow city light pollution control, protecting alternative concept and examine the slow food concept, are energy sources. Economic growth criterion not obligatory; but it is important in terms of recommends that local products and cultural reclaiming the cornerstone of the philosophy activities related to the slow city be preserved, carried enable Slow Cities [10-18]. be developed local markets and organic agriculture. Social equality principle because it As is clear from the criteria, slow city is a is not directly on the criteria list but is focused fast-paced answer under the influence of on local products and results in economic globalization and tries to create a local opportunities [11-12]. awareness of preserving unique qualities in

102 localities [19]. Slow cities cannot be isolated the field of tourism in recent years. The from external changes. The administrators of geothermal resources are also oriented to these cities go through a set of rules and policies tourism and Seferihisar is considered as a tourist to make a change in a way that maintains their district. The county has a population of about uniqueness. The movement describes the 150.000 in summer due to the arrival of foreign development of an alternative urban and and domestic tourists [23]. On 28 November economic system with the potential to create 2009, Seferihisar was awarded the title "Slow more flexible cities against the crisis conditions City" by the International Coordination in the global system, especially against market Committee in Italy and the district was forces. The concept of resilience here aims to registered as the first city in Turkey and the move urban dynamics in a better way, starting 121st slow city in the world. In this section, from established social networks and an slow city activities in Seferihisar are covered authentic physical, cultural and social under the headings of policies for environment, character. Significant actors in the urban infrastructure, urban life policies, policies for governance networks to achieve social agriculture, tourism, artisans and craftsmen, flexibility with slow urban movement re-add the hospitality, awareness and education. middle class as "stakeholders" in urban political space [20]. 2.1. Environmental Policies

In addition, the slow city approach is a good A number of projects have been prepared to example of how small cities can benefit from change the image of the Seferihisar district international connections, as opposed to the centre. One of them is a project which is sense of being loaded into the city with the continued with the contributions of 20 painters. processes of globalization, and the perception of Within the scope of the project, it was decided the city as a place that develops and races by that to paint the façades of the houses, to stone leaving the backplane citizens’ demands. Slow the columns, to put geraniums on the windows urbanization movement has different local and balconies by making the wooden grills in characteristics and values allow for the order to 4000 sardines should be planted. A coexistence of different urban fabrics by street planning project was also prepared to preserving local lifestyles and the unique reduce the traffic so that the pedestrians can be identities of small towns and cities [21-22]. roamed on the streets without traffic stress, while the central buildings are painted in 2- Slow City Activities in Seferihisar harmonious colours and the dish antennas are tied with the central system so as to make the Seferihisar is located on the southwest of Izmir shop signs compatible and aesthetically coherent and in the Aegean Region. The distance to the with each other and to equip the streets with city city centre is 45 km. Urla in the north, Menderes furniture to enable people to socialize [24-25]. in the east, Aegean Sea in the west and The Blue Flag, an international brand and value south. Because it is one of the twelve Ionian followed by all countries of the world, which is cities, it is estimated that it was founded by the a symbol of cleanliness and safety, has been Etruscans who migrated from Anatolia to Rome, applied for the first time and Seferihisar is the Italy. The history of Seferihisar, which dates first with its 13 Blue Flag beaches in Izmir, with back to 4000 BC, has a strong tourism potential 10 municipality’s public beach in with its historical and touristic sites. Teos, one Turkey. Actions are being done to increase the of the twelve Ionian cities, go down in history as areas free of vehicles for public health and a major settlement and trade centre in the 900s public well-being. Especially in Sığacık, BC. In 1884, before the Republic, Seferihisar vehicles are not allowed to enter certain was district. Today, it is one of the 30 districts zones. People are encouraged to walk further, of Izmir. The railway line does not pass through ride bicycles by not taking the vehicle traffic to the district; the nearest station is in the city the city centre. In this context, a three-wheeled, centre of Izmir and serves at Adnan Menderes solar-powered bicycle project has been Airport. The district has become an attractive developed that can be used with pedals or solar centre for tourism thanks to the private energy, avoiding noise and environmental investments, historical buildings, antique cities pollution. In order to emphasize that bicycle use and thermal springs that have been realized in is spreading on Seferihisar basis and that it can

103 be used in everyday life, it is observed that two Metropolitan Municipality and ÇEVKO bicycle beaches were built in Seferihisar (Foundation for the Evaluation of Municipality service area and Sığacık, citizens Environmental Protection and Packaging and city visitors can use these bicycles free of Wastes) by separating and collecting urban and charge by applying to the municipality [26]. industrial garbage [27]. Opened for business in the July 17, 2010 Sığacık and working with There are many projects related to the use of advanced biological treatment methods the renewable energy fields in the district. These Waste Water Treatment Plant of Seferihisar, include Seferihisar district biogas plant project, Seferihisar district, Sığacık and Akarca’s waste renewable energy resources project, Seferihisar- waters was treated and it was determined that Doğanbey daily cure centre and accommodation the capacity of the daily 10,800 m3 waste water. units’ project, and energy efficiency trainings. In Waste waters collected in the district are the context of a sustainable environment and disposed of according to the National Water quality of life, one of the greatest criteria of a Pollution Control Regulation and the Urban city's quality standard is the quality, availability Waste Water Directive. This not only and potential per capita green field. In this contributes to the preservation of Seferihisar sea sense, local plants were used in the arrangement water quality, but also helps to ensure that the of the green area made in Seferihisar Sığacık community's health is compatible with the Square and the area was illuminated by solar public health [26]. energy. Solar-powered lighting systems have also started to be used in outdoor lighting. This On 2 July 2009 Seferihisar village market was work is important in terms of encouraging established for the first time in order to enable sustainable energy use [27]. the local people in the districts and the surrounding villages to exhibit and sell their In slow cities, standardization of the plates in own products and to contribute to the order to keep the image pollution in the transformation of their labour into a new forefront, aesthetic concerns such as the removal market. The old municipality in the Seferihisar of unnecessary and excessive plates, colour bazaar, where the village market is established, adaptation are foreground. For this the villagers sell its products 6 days a week and purpose; advertisements and advertisement the producer market where they have the panels in the standard size and style determined opportunity to sell their own vegetables and by the municipality have started to be used fruits in front of the same buildings on Tuesdays instead of advertisement and advertisement serve the same purpose. The products offered by panels of different sizes and styles in Seferihisar about 120 peasant farmers with organic according to the municipal plans for the agriculture and good agricultural certificates regulation of advertisement graphics, panels and from nine villages are also grown in agricultural traffic signs. areas in the same villages. In order to encourage the use of domestic seeds in the district, the 2.2. Infrastructure Policies "Peninsula Seed Exchange Festival" was The basic responsibilities related to organized with the cooperation of Seferihisar infrastructure in slow cities include the Municipality, Urla, Mordoğan and Karaburun preservation of historical and cultural spaces and municipalities and "Can Yücel Seed Centre" making them reshabilitable, the establishment of was established. Another very important activity more environmentally friendly strategies such as carried out under healthy local products is to traffic, pedestrian and public transport, the allow the establishment of "School Vegetable establishment of commercial centres where Gardens" in schools’ gardens so that children natural products can be sold, and the re- can grow vegetables. In addition, students who evaluation of disrupted urban areas. For this sell the vegetables they grow in the school purpose, measurements were made in gardens in front of the District Village Market Seferihisar with mobile monitoring tools for air and take out their allowances are also an pollution and quality measurement. A report was important self-reliant activity in terms of obtained from IZSU and the Provincial Health individual personality development [26]. Directorate for the documentation of sea water cleanliness. In addition, various works have been carried out in cooperation with İzmir

104 2.3. Urban Life Policies basis of economic activities in general is agriculture and in this context olive cultivation Seferihisar is very important for thermal tourism constitutes; citrus fruits and artichokes, and the district has strong wind corridors. In this ornamental plants, predominantly greenhouses, frame, it is aimed to use geothermal energy have become an important source of income in primarily in the heating of the city. The recent years too. For applying eco-tourism and necessary licenses have been granted for the to activate the existing potential in Seferihisar, establishment of wind turbines in Sığacık. As a eco-label study was performed to ensure the result of the work carried out together with the branding of local products. Thus; it began eco- İzmir Development Agency, it is planned to tourism movement in Seferihisar. Teos Marina, train lighting staff working on solar energy in which was opened in 2010, has been turned into Sığacık Kaleönü. In addition, Seferihisar a border crossing as a result of long efforts. Municipality has introduced a wireless internet Travels have begun between Samos Island of network system covering all the cities [24-28]. Greece and Seferihisar. Promotional books and brochures under the name of Seferihisar Culture The Municipality's "Slow Tour Minibus" Publications are distributed both in Seferihisar project aimed to improve public transport and on three separate languages [27-30]. facilities by removing public transportation vehicles from the centre of Seferihisar and "Field to Table Good Agricultural Project" transporting passengers to these public buses on conducted and supported by Seferihisar certain routes. Seferi Cinema Application has Municipality and Ege University Faculty of created an environment where people can Agriculture and Izmir Development Agency coexist and socialize with shows to be made aims the spread of good agricultural practices outdoors. It is desired to develop community and to contribute to increasing sustainable relations with the Community Mobilization agricultural production applications. Sustainable Project and to realize social peace by evaluating Fisheries Development Project in Seferihisar is the citizen’s demands with democratic methods. required that Seferihisar Fishing Cooperatives E-municipality, solution desk, e-town and kiosk have to upgrade fisheries standards of (online information machines) system projects production and marketing with experiences of are desired that the public can easily access the Italian partners for the European Union [29]. municipal services by putting the convenience of technology into the use of the people of 2.5. Hospitality, Plans for Awareness and Seferihisar. With the Sığacık Landscape Design Education Project, it is aimed to relax to the people living in Seferihisar and the tourists coming to the For the establishment of Slow Food Union's province in a green area and natural local organizations in Seferihisar, Teos Slow environment, organizing activities and Food Association was passed. The project aimed socializing [29]. to improve the vegetable gardens in schools and the manufacturers’ market also the people living 2.4. Policies for Agricultural, Touristic, in Seferihisar or tourists visiting to the region by Artisans and Craftsmen getting to know the traditional dishes, go away them from the hustle and bustle of the city. In The production and consumption of Satsuma this way they would be winning comfortably tangerine, a product unique to the region, was eating habits. In this context, a restaurant named promoted in the festival called "Tangerine "Sefertasi", where only local food is served with Festival" held in Seferihisar in 2009 in the efforts of the municipality, has been opened Turkey. The tangerine producer association has in order to mobilize the principle of importance exported to abroad tangerine and made a of the local delicacies. The Municipality's province in Turkey. Among the varieties of School Mobilization Project aims to ensure that cheese that are not similar to other cheese types children living in Seferihisar can receive in the region, Armola cheese is produced in a education in a healthier and safer educational few dairy farm and houses in the district. Also, environment and prepare for the future better by the creation of local food restaurants has been carrying out school maintenance and repair accelerated. In this regard, trades education works. The Youth Centre Project aims to continues with the support received from the contribute to their development by giving universities in Izmir. In this context, while the

105 services in the field of personal development, support to women who are in difficulty and need vocational training courses and counselling to help. Psychologists and sociologists have begun the young people and to provide social to provide services for women. Seferihisarlılar interaction of young people from different age Fair was realized by making a study for citizens groups [29]. who came from various parts of Turkey and settled in the province to feel unfamiliar with The knowledge that a Slow City University, them, to fuse with Seferihisarlılar and to share which includes disciplines related to slow urban their cultural riches. In the context of the philosophy such as fine arts, architecture, urban partnerships, traditional tastes unique to planning departments, is planned. It is very Seferihisar started to be offered locally and important on the basis of education and externally with the operations of Hıdırlık development. However, as a result of the studies Development Cooperative. Various researches carried out by Oxford (England), Ferris State are being carried out with the cooperation of (USA) and Ondokuz May (Turkey) Universities, Ege University and local producers for the an international writing school was opened in transfer of the local cheese Armola's production Seferihisar and this school was established as a to future generations correctly [27]. "Creative Authoring Application and Research Centre" has become an address for authors and Conclusions writer candidates. The centre passed the activity on 1 June 2015. At the centre there are trainings The slow movement is an alternative approach on novels, stories, poems, scripts, magazines, to the rapid lifestyle that accelerates with the editorials, and media writings about creative transition from the Industrial Society to the authorship [30]. Information Society and globalization. The success of the slow-food movement in the world 2.6. Social Cohesion and Partnerships has allowed coming together the mayors of the four cities in Italy to lay the foundations of the To become a child-friendly city supported by Slow Cities Union. Slow cities have curious UNICEF (UN Children's Fund), the people to the natural, historical and cultural Municipality of Child has been established and a values, pristine urban spaces, and local flavours. mayor representing young people has been The individuals are equal, balanced and benefit elected. The children have had a say about from the city facilities in proportion to their Seferihisar. The effort to reach as far as the needs. Slow city has a certain urban identity. In children in the local governments is compatible slow cities, individuals are effectively involved with the provision of local participation in in educational, artistic, cultural and political slower cities. The Can Simidi Fund, established activities. The slow city current is, first of all, an within the framework of the budgetary opportunity for different cultural discourses to possibilities of the municipality in line with the gain meaning by preserving local identities and goal of social peace, is constantly providing values against routines such as the single type of assistance to needy citizens. With the Seferikart human model or global urban lifestyle that Project, it is provided to meet the needs of globalization reveals. It is aimed to make urban contracted traders with the money points to be life become better quality with slow city model, loaded by the municipality for the citizens to enable income justice in local economic life whose economic status is determined by the and to initiate sustainable development commission established by the municipality. movement by protecting natural environment Unhindered Life Mobilization is planned to raise and historical values. According to this; it is living standards and to adapt to society of the important for a slow city to be environmentally disabled citizens. It is aimed to decrease the friendly, to preserve its local culture and physical and emotional obstacles faced by the traditions, and to create an environment for disabilities of Seferihisar in daily life [31]. interaction between producers and sellers. In the Women's Labour Houses were opened in slow city, young people and schools are Doganbey and Ulamış. In these houses, women informed about the production and sale of have begun making money in return for their traditional products. It's not just businesses, labour through different production activities. awareness to a slow city is also being created The Women's Counselling Centre has been that all citizens live in. opened to provide psychological and legal

106 The focus of the slow city philosophy is to İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri protect available cultural and physical values Enstitüsü, İstanbul. and to transfer them to the next generations in accordance with the principle of sustainability. [11] Camphell, S. (1996), “Green Cities, In this way; the movement is a local model of Growing Cities, Just Cities?, Urban economic development that utilizes Planning and the Contradictions of technological possibilities that people can Sustainable Development, Journal of the socialize with, protects sustainable values, American Planning Association, 3, 296- nature, traditions and customs, uses renewable 312. energy resources, and has no infrastructure problems. Sustainable development is reflected [29] Candan, Pınar (2015), Yerel Yönetim in the application of the urban life signs of the Öncülüğünde Toplumsal Değişim slow city philosophy and the integration of the olgusunun İncelenmesi: Seferihisar Örneği, slow city criteria into the city as a result of the Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, incorporation of an environmentally conscious İzmir. society in the cities. The slow urban model improves tourism by increasing the recognition [10] Cittaslow International Charter (2014), of cities. It transforms cities into a centre of www.cittaslow.org/download/Documantiuf attraction, and has a function of a brand among ficiali/Charter_2014.pdf, (22.10.2016). the cities across the world. In this regard, the approach was seen as an opportunity for [18] cittaslow.turkiye.org, (20.10.2016). Seferihisar, which has been rich in historical and cultural heritage. Seferihisar has been registered [24] Doğutürk, Gözde (2010), Mimari ve as the first slow city of Turkey with its Yaşam Kalitesi Bağlamında Yavaş Şehir sensitivity to the environment, its natural and Hareketi ve Seferihisar Örneği, historical texture, cultural values, local Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, participation, hospitality, promoting agricultural Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi activities and infrastructure policies. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Seferihisar's slow city membership is important in terms of being a global tourist attraction [12] Ekincek, S. (2014), Sakin Şehir centre as well as natural and cultural resources. (Cittaslow) Yöneticilerinin Sakin Şehir In the success of the Seferihisar slow city Hareketine Sürdürülebilirliğe Yönelik project, the mayor has an important role in Değerlendirmeleri, Anadolu Üniversitesi managing the city with governance policies Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış promoting political participation in the city. The Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir. success of the project is attributed to the local participation of the economic and social agenda [2] Erdoğan, İ. (2014), “Eğitimdeki of the project on an equal basis for everyone in Değişimlere Dair Eleştirel İncelemeler”, the urban space. The participants have a Hasan Ali Yücel Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, versatile profile that includes old and new 11-1, 21, 129-140. middle classes, local residents, daily tourists, students and administrators in the education [21] Ergüven, Mehmet Han (2011), sector, and scientists. Seferihisar is an important “Cittaslow-Yaşamaya Değer Şehirlerin model for ensuring that future generations can Uluslararası Birliği: Vize Örneği, live in a city where time can slow down, Organizasyon ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, individual awareness can be at a higher level, 3 (2): 201-210. and they can protect their own natural, local and cultural identities. [23] Emekli, Gözde (2004), “Seferihisar’da Termal Turizm Olanakları”, Dünden Yarına References Seferihisar Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı, Seferihisar Kaymakamlığı Çevre, Kültür ve [27] Aydoğan, Selma (2015), Sürdürülebilir Turizm Birliği Yayını, 147-156. Mimarlıkta Sakin Şehir Yaklaşımı, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, [28] Gazete Seferihisar (2010), “Cittaslow Nedir, Ne Değildir?” Yayın No:1, İzmir.

107 [3] Schneider, Stephen (2008), “Good, [25] Günerhan, Sibel Ağı, Ümit Erdem ve Clean, Fair: The Rhetoric of the Slow Food Hüseyin Günerhan (2010), “Çevre ve Movement”, College English, 70 (4): 384- Enerji Açısından Yavaş Şehir 402. Hareketlerinin Gelişimi”, Tesisat Mühendisliği Dergisi, 118: 32-37. [30] Seferihisar Belediyesi (2015) “Yaratıcı Yazarlık Okulu Açıldı”, [20] Gündüz, Can, Aslı Ceyhan Öner, Paul www.seferihisar.bel-tr/yaratici-yazarlik- Knox (2016), “Social Resilience in Aegean okulu-acildi, (22.10.2016). Slow Cities: Slow City Seferihisar”, Universal Journal of Management, 4 (4): [14] Sezgin, Mete ve Şafak Ünüvar (2011), 211-222. Sürdürülebilirlik ve Şehir Pazarlaması Ekseninde Yavaş Şehir, Çizgi Kitabevi, [6] Honoroe, Carl (2008), Yavaş, (Çev. Esen Konya. Gür), Alfa Yayınları, İstanbul. [26] Toplu, Hüseyin İhsan (2012), Yavaş [8] http://www.italyaonline.net, (20.10.2016). Şehirler ve Halk Sağlığı, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi Fen [9] http://www.cittaslow.net, (20.10.2016). Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İzmir.

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[19] Pink, S. and T. Lewis (2014), “Making Resilience Everyday Affect and Affiliation in Australian Slow Cities”, Cultural Geographies, 1-16.

108 disturbance, chaos and wars in a country may force its people to leave their lands and as a result the people who join this migration Adaptation problem movement leave their secure lives and the places they are oriented behind and struggle to make a new life in an unfamiliar culture where of Syrian immigrants: a different language is spoken” (Harunoğulları A case study of and Cengiz, 2016: 309). The phenomenon of migration, which includes demographic, economic, political, Mersin, Turkey psychological and sociological features, is regarded as a movement from a society to another when it is considered in social terms (Eisenstadt, 1954:1; Jackson, 1986: 2). As the aforementioned change of place is done from an Prof. Dr. Kemal Görmez and Dr. Hazal Ilgın accustomed situation towards an unfamiliar Bahçeci one, due to the cultural differences between these two settlements, migration movements Gazi University/ Department of Political Science also bring about change, transition and and Public Administration problems relevant to the social life. Social [email protected] adaptation is among the most significant [email protected] challenges within this context and is related

Abstract: The reasons for the phenomenon of with immigrants’ struggle to make them migration, which could simply be described as “to accepted in the new places they migrate to and change place of living; residential change”, can be to be adapted to this new region. “The summarized as to have better living standards or adaptation process is shaped by the impacts of some challenging incidents such as conflicts, natural immigrant’s status in home and target countries disasters etc. Whatever the factor behind a migration as well as various factors that determine this movement is, to analyze social, economic, political status” (Apak, 2014: 1). and cultural processes that occur in the aftermath is of great importance to predict the direction of social The civil war in Syria, which has been change and progress. Within this context, this study furthered since 15th March, 2011, and the mass aims to analyze and reveal social and locational migration movement that occurred as a result motivating factors behind the adaptation process of has deeply affected economic, political and Syrian immigrants living in Mersin/Turkey. This analysis is based on two different case studies, social dynamics of the countries in the region and Turkey, where the number of Syrian namely “Perception of people in Mersin about * Syrian refugees” and “Needs analysis of Syrian immigrants were counted as 2.283.987 by people living in Mersin”. The phenomenon of December, 2016, is regarded as the foremost migration that is analyzed in this study refers to the country among the others. Likewise, Mersin international human migration movements from Province comes to the forefront with 139.811** Syria to Turkey. registered Syrian immigrants by December, 2016, though the number is estimated to be Keywords: Migration, Syrian Immigrants, Social around 300.000 with unregistered Syrian adaption, Mersin province. immigrants.

The lack of harmony, unemployment, 1. Introduction ostracization and marginalization, as concomitants of migration movements, may Migration is a geographic, social and cultural force young children to work for low wages, movement of residential change from a place to result in physical and psychological health another which aims a return in the short, medium or long term and could be a result of * http://www.goc.gov.tr/icerik3/gecici- economic, political, ecologic or individual koruma_363_378_4713 (04.01.2017) reasons (Yalçın, 2004: 13). “Internal ** http://www.goc.gov.tr/icerik3/gecici- koruma_363_378_4713 (04.01.2017)

109 problems for the people who escape from As for the educational backgrounds of conflicts as well as being pushed into crime and participants of this study; 2,7% of all prostitution. As a result, significant changes or participants were composed of illiterate degeneration may occur in residential and social individuals while 6, 3% were only literate. orders and this situation may deeply affect the Apart from those; 16,7% of the participants organization of relevant areas and disturb the were graduates of only primary school, 23,4% social order (Özey, 2002: 275). This fact also were graduates of secondary schools, 29,6% applies to Mersin Province which hosts a were high-school graduate while the other massive number of Syrian immigrants. 21,3% had bachelor’s degree. When the participants are analyzed in terms of Within this context, it is of importance to occupation; 32,9% were retired with the biggest identify challenges faced by Syrian immigrants proportion and followed by farmers with 25% in the host country, such as adaptation to and tradesmen with 18,2%. 1,1% of the language, disharmony with the locals, participants were unemployed, 4,4% were alienation and even conflicts and to determine student and the other 18,4% consisted of needs in addition to deciding on policies to help workers, civil servants, professionals, those Syrian immigrants for urban and social working for temporary and seasonal works and adaption. housewives. In terms of income distribution; the biggest proportion that is 65,4% belonged to This study is based on the data of two those with a monthly income of 0-499 TRY. different case studies conducted in October, 11,9% of the participants had an income 2015, namely “Perception of people in Mersin between 500-999 TRY, 5% had 1000-1499 about Syrian refugees” and “Needs analysis of *** TRY, 5,5% had 1500-1999 TRY, 6,5% had Syrian people living in Mersin”. 2000-3000 TRY, 3,4% had an income between 2. Analysis on the perception of people in 3000-4000 TRY while the rest 2,2% had a Mersin about Syrian refugees monthly income over 5000 TRY.

This study was conducted on 1-3 October 2.2.2. Adaptation problem from the point of through face to face interviews with 1050 perception about Syrian immigrants individuals in total who were 18 or over 18 Attitudes, behaviors and perceptions developed years old. by certain groups of societies towards the others 2.1. Aim and method of the study have a great significance in order to help the given society realize a sound social life. The sample of this study, which was conducted Therefore perception of people living in Mersin within the borders of Mersin Metropolitan Province is among the factors that affect social Municipality in order to reveal the perception of and residential adaptation of Syrian immigrants people living in Mersin about Syrian refugees, who share the same life spaces. was created by the method of probability sampling. 70% of the people in Mersin, who participated to this study, stated that there were 2.2 Findings and analyses Syrian immigrants in their districts. However, those who did not want Syrian immigrant 2.2.1. Main demographic characteristics of the neighbors constituted 35% of the participants, participants 21% reacted normally while 6% did not have any idea about the issue. 71% of the participants of this study were female while the other 29% were male. Among Among those who stated that neighborhood the individuals interviewed during the study; of a Syrian would discomfort them; 35,5% 45% were 20 or under-20 years old, 35% were thought that they might harm them and their between 21 and 30, 9,8% were between 31 and family members, 14,6% did not find Syrians 40, 5,2% were between 41 and 50 while the culturally close to them, 17,3% did not support other 5% were 50 or over 50 years old. political attitude of Syrians living in their country, 16,7 % stated that they personally dislike Syrians while 12,7% did not want to live *** Case studies were done by the authors.

110 with Syrians due to the unfavorable news about 46% of the participants thought that Syrian them. refugees should reside in refugee camps and 45% thought that they should stay certain areas 28,3% of the participants stated that they had out of city centers. not interacted with Syrian refugees and did not have any problem too, 25,7% expressed that In response to the question that is “What is they were in favor and did not have any your opinion about formal education problem, 22,4% said that they felt unrest due to opportunities provided by the state for Syrian this issue and had some problems and the rest children who are under 18 and cannot speak 15,5% stated that they avoided any interaction Turkish?”, proportion of those thinking that with them as they had problems. Syrian children who cannot speak Turkish should take Turkish language classes first and Those who were not in favor of employment further their education with the curriculum of Syrian refugees in Mersin had a proportion prepared by Ministry of National Education was of 39,6%, proportion of those reacted normally 50,3%, that of those who thought that only was 25,6%, that of participants who thought special education centers for refugees should they could be employed but measures should be provide education services in Arabic was 39%, taken against low wages was 25,4% and those those thinking that Arabic speaking teachers thinking that they could be employed but should be recruited and they should further their should be prevented to have their own education with state support constituted 8,2% businesses constituted a proportion of 7,8%. while the other 2.3% stated that they should not Proportion of participants who thought that it is benefit any educational services. It is seen that not fair to give working permits for Syrian proportion of the participants living in Mersin refugees was 79%. who think that Syrian refugees should learn Turkish is almost half. Again it may be inferred Those who were not in favor of financial from the given data that people see Syrian aids for Syrian refugees to be provided by local immigrants as temporary residents and there is administrations had a proportion of 91%. Those a significant number of people who think that who had already helped Syrian refugees living teaching the language of the host country, in their neighborhood constituted 19%. which is actually highly significant in terms of It seems that residents of Mersin who live adaptation, is unnecessary. together with Syrian refugees in their In response to the question about whether neighborhoods are avers to living together with there is any security issue in certain parts of them within the long-term although they have Mersin where large numbers of Syrian refugees not witnessed any bad behavior of Syrians. are located, 77% of the respondents stated that 57,1% thought that Syrians should benefit they had not experienced any security problem health services of special centers to be built for in these regions. However, 64% of the them, not the current health institutions. 15,7% respondents stated that they were not in favor of stated that they should benefit free or paid the idea that is to confer citizenship for Syrian services according to income status, 13,9% refugees living in Mersin. This result also stated that the services should be free of charge seems to be directly related with the and the other 13,2% expressed that Syrian aforementioned idea of “temporariness” about refugees should pay to benefit the health Syrian immigrants. services. In the matter of economic contribution of Proportion of those who thought that they Syrian refugees in Mersin, 56% of the should return to their home country if the crisis participants thought that they did not contribute in Syria is solved was 48,3%, that of others who to economy in Mersin at all while 31% stated thought that they could stay as long as they that they did. The other 13%, on the other hand, wish but under refugee status was 30,2% while expressed that they did not have any idea about the proportion of those thinking that temporary the issue. secured lines and residential areas should be In the framework of all mentioned ideas; created in Syrian border was 17,5%. the proportion of residents of Mersin who think that Syrian refugees cannot socially adapt to the

111 city is 60%. In other words, people living in proximity between proportions of male and Mersin think that Syrian immigrants have female participants is one of the indicators for problems in terms of social adaptation while reliability of this study. Among the individuals accepting that they do not cause any trouble for interviewed during the study; 25% were 20 or the course of social life. It is clearly seen that under-20 years old, 23% were between 21 and this situation is not a result of any unfavorable 30, 20,9% were between 31 and 40, 12% were attitude and behavior of Syrian immigrants in between 41 and 50 while the other 19,2% were communal areas. On the other hand, it may be 50 or over 50 years old. According to this data, caused by the fact that although they live within it is also seen that proportions of different age the same geography, people may regard some groups are highly approximate as well. cultural differences as strange or be affected by tension that dominates the region, particularly As for the educational backgrounds of in political terms. participants of this study, 24,6% of all participants were composed of illiterate 2.2.3. Perceptions about Syrian immigrants individuals while 0,9% were only literate. Apart according to participants’ educational from those, 6,7% of the participants were background and income status graduates of only primary schools, 22,6% were graduates of secondary schools, 18,6% were When this general framework is specifically high-school graduate while the other 26,7% had analyzed according to educational background bachelor’s degree. The first point of this data and income status of the participants, the result which catches the attention is that almost half of seems to be the same with the aforementioned the Syrian participants had a high-school or findings. Regardless of income status and better degree of education. When the educational background, as it is also mentioned participants are analyzed in terms of above, residents of Mersin have adopted occupation, the biggest proportion were government’s “temporariness” policy about consisted of unemployed people with 32,9%. Syrian immigrants. In accordance with this This group was followed by workers with perception, residents of Mersin think and hope 22,1% and tradesmen with 19,5%. In terms of that Syrian immigrants will return to their home income distribution, the biggest ration that is country after the war comes to an end and 45,2% belonged to those with a monthly therefore do not seem to have any level of income between 1000-1499 TRY. 18,8% of the individual or social awareness to ensure social participants had an income between 1500-1999 adaptation of Syrian immigrants. TRY, 14,8% had 500-999 TRY, 13,3% had 2000-3000 TRY while the other 5,1% had a 3. Needs analysis of Syrian people living in monthly income between 0-499 TRY. Almost Mersin half of the participants manage on minimum This study was conducted on 1-3 October wages or thereabouts. When we consider the through face to face interviews with 1000 number of household members, it is seen that individuals in total who were 18 or over 18 50,9% of the participants had a household years old. consisted of 1-4 individuals. This group was followed by those having 5-9 household 3.1. Aim and method of the study members with a proportion of 34,4% and the others with 10-15 household members with The sample of this study, which was conducted 11,2%. within the borders of Mersin Metropolitan Municipality in order to identify needs of 3.2.2. Adaptation problem from the point of Syrian immigrants living in Mersin, was created expectations of Syrian immigrants by the method of probability sampling. To meet the needs of immigrants and their 3.2 Findings and analyses expectations from the host country is one of the most significant factors to ensure the 3.2.1. Main demographic characteristics of the adaptation. For this reason, it is important to participants identify needs and expectations of Syrian immigrants. 54% of the participants of this study were female while the other 46% were male. This

112 Considering food needs of Syrian refugees 10,9% ask for a language course and 5,3% need who participated in this study; %31,8 meet their employment. needs by working, 26,2% by public relief, 27,1% with their own savings, 7,5% with The proportion of Syrian refugees that assistance of neighbors while 0,4% meet this receive any kind of aids from an organization is need by panhandling. 24%. Among those who stated that they receive assistance from others, 51% expressed that their The biggest problem of participant Syrian neighbors/relatives help them, 32% receive aids immigrants in terms of housing is that they live from charitable foundations and organizations in too small places. This problem had a while 13% and 4% receive aids provided by the proportion of 26,3% and followed by government and municipal administrations unfavorable conditions of houses with 24,9%, respectively. possibility of dispossession at any moment with 12,3%, using the same room with all the other 38% of the Syrian refugees stated that they household members with 10,9% and the other desire to return to their country if the war 8,5% expressed their problem as the lack of comes to an end, 48% were undecided in this main household goods such as beds and quilts. respect while 14% stated that they do not want to return at all. Within this context, those who In response to the question about urgent want to stay in Mersin if the employment is medical needs, 38,8% of the participants provided constituted 53% while 38% were expressed the need for medicine, 34,2% stated undecided and the other 9% did not want to stay the need for doctor, 8,5% expressed the needs in any case. arising from illness of children while 6,3% were cancer, 5,6% had medical needs due to health When they were asked about the reason for problems requiring surgery and the other 0,1% choosing Mersin Province to migrate, 40,9% of needed treatment to have a child. the participant Syrian immigrants said that it is near to the border, 29,8% stated that they have In order to overcome health problems; 36% relatives in Mersin, 22,7% expressed that of the Syrian immigrants apply to hospitals but Mersin is a beautiful city and 5,7% stated that have language problems, 24,9% go to state-run they preferred Mersin for business reasons. hospitals, 21,7% get help from neighbors, Within this framework, proportion of Syrian 13,4% try to solve with their own means and immigrants who feel secure in Mersin is 65%. 1,6% apply to hospitals but cannot afford for the medicine. 47% of the participant Syrian immigrants stated that people of Mersin are helpful while As for the primary needs of Syrian 41,1% thought that people of Mersin do not immigrants in terms of health services; 43,4% want to live with them. had problems about identity cards and health certificates, 26,4% hade medicine problem, The proportion of Syrian immigrants who 24,1% had problems about hospitals and/or expect housing assistance from local doctors while the other 1,1% needed administrations is 31,6% while 23,4% ask for wheelchairs. improvement in health services and 27,6% expect employment opportunities. When the educational opportunities for the children of Syrian immigrants are examined, it Generally, it may be inferred from the is seen that 69,8% of the children can partly given data that half of the Syrian immigrants attend the educational activities while 12,6% are currently within the process of social can attend the school continuously. adaptation. It is also thought that relatively better educational background of these people The most urgent needs of Syrian refugees has a significant impact on their earlier are housing (37%), food (25,1%), heating involvement within the social adaptation (8,8%) and clothing (5,9%). process.

49,9% of the Syrian refugees have financial When the other half of the Syrian needs, 11,3% need housing-rent assistance, immigrants, who have relatively lower level of 11,2% need for medicine/medical treatment, educational background and income status, are

113 examined, it is seen that they still have certain No 9,1 8,7 7,2 needs to be met in terms of housing and health Undecided 35,8 41,0 37,1 services, nevertheless they do not engage in any conflict with the community they live together with. Particularly the idea of staying in Mersin even when the war in their country is over and Proportion of Syrian immigrants who stated as long as the needed employment opportunity that they may consider staying in Mersin if is provided proves this fact. employment opportunities are provided is about 50% in all profession groups. This proportion is 3.2.3. Willingness of Syrian immigrants to followed by those who are undecided, with 30- return to their home country according to 40%. As it is seen in this data, provision of employment and income status employment opportunities significantly affected the idea of Syrian immigrants to permanently The willingness of Syrian immigrants to return settle in Mersin. Most of the Syrian immigrants to their home country according to employment consider permanently settling in Mersin if the status and income groups was measured with needed employment opportunities are provided. three main questions. The first of these questions is about whether they will consider -What are their expectations from the local returning to their home country if the war is administration? over, the second is whether they will consider staying in Mersin if the employment Unemployed Tradesman Worker Housing 29,5 21,0 29,9 opportunities are provided and the last question Improvement in health services 30,7 36,4 29,4 is about their expectations from local Employment 9,3 9,7 5,9 administrations. Improvement in educational services 4,3 6,2 7,2 Regular food aids 3,7 3,6 2,3 Social and cultural events 22,6 23,1 25,3 3.2.3.1. According to the employment status

- Do they want to return to their home country It is seen that the upmost expectation of if the war is over? Syrian immigrants from the municipal

Unemployed Tradesman Worker administration of Mersin is improvement in health services. This is followed by housing Yes 36,8 37,9 40,7 needs and the need for social and cultural No 14,8 15,4 9,5 events. Undecided 48,4 46,7 49,8 3.2.3.2. According to the income status

- Do they want to return to their home country if the war is over? In response to the question about whether they will consider returning to their country if 0- the war is over, almost half of the Syrian 499 500- 1000- 1500- 2000- 3000- 5000+ immigrants, who were in unemployed, 999 1499 1999 3000 5000 Yes 51,0 45,3 34,3 42,6 33,8 37,5 23,1 tradesman and worker groups in terms of employment, expressed that they were No 9,8 11,5 13,3 12,2 19,5 12,5 23,1 undecided in this issue. When the proportions are examined it is seen that those who are Undecided 39,2 43,2 52,4 45,2 46,6 50,0 53,8 willing to return to their countries if the war is over is a minority among all.

- Will they consider staying in Mersin if the Regardless of the profession groups, the needed employment opportunities are proportion of Syrian refugees who are provided? undecided about returning to their country if the war is over is about 40-50%. This proportion is Unemployed Tradesman Worker followed by that of those who want to return if the war is over and it is seen that this proportion Yes 55,1 50,3 55,7 is same with the profession groups mentioned above.

114 - Will they consider staying in Mersin if the Another possible inference from these two needed employment opportunities are studies examined within the scope of this study provided? is that policies relevant to social and spatial adaptation of Syrian immigrants are 0- insufficient. The fact that the Syrian immigrants 499 500- 1000- 1500- 2000- 3000- 5000+ 999 1499 1999 3000 5000 with relatively higher income levels are one Yes 68,6 59,5 54,4 48,4 45,1 56,3 30,8 step ahead of the others proves this thought. The main factor that results in this situation is No 15,7 5,4 8,8 8,5 10,5 12,5 15,4 the Syrian immigrants’ “temporary status” given by the central government, together with Undecided 15,7 35,1 36,7 43,1 44,4 31,3 53,8 some other main reasons.

The first of these reasons is the perception of people living in Mersin about Syrian The proportion of Syrian immigrants who immigrants. People in Mersin regard Syrian are willing to permanently settle in Mersin if immigrants in the city as temporary residents the employment opportunities are provided is and do not see them as a part of the community. about 45-50% in all professions except for the Again as a natural result of this perception, highest income group. This proportion is people in Mersin are indifferent to the policies followed by that of undecided Syrian towards the needs of Syrian immigrants and immigrants in all income groups and this result addressing these needs and it is seen that this is also same with the distribution in profession indifference sometimes may even turn into groups. biases against the Syrian immigrants without any sound basis. It can also be pointed out that - What are their expectations from the local this situation poses an obstacle in terms of the administration? adaptation process of Syrian immigrants. 0- 500- 1000- 1500- 2000- 3000- 5000+ 499 999 1499 1999 3000 5000 Despite the perception of temporariness Housing 39,2 35,1 26,5 26,1 21,8 31,3 7,7 developed by the people in Mersin against Improvement 19,6 23,6 35,0 29,3 38,3 18,8 30,8them, Syrian immigrants interestingly express in health that they will not consider returning to their services Employment 11,8 9,5 7,3 10,6 8,3 18,8 7,7 country if the employment opportunities are Improvement 5,9 9,5 3,8 4,3 4,5 15,4provided, even when the war is over. It is also in thought that this result may be a result of the educational demographic characteristics of Syrian refugees services Regular food 4,1 4,0 4,3 2,3 12,5 in Mersin. The data show that almost half of the aids Syrian immigrants living in Mersin at least have Social and 23,5 18,2 23,5 25,5 24,8 18,8 38,5 cultural minimum living standards. This fact may be events mentioned as a positive factor for the adaptation process of Syrian immigrants.

When the expectations of Syrian One of the significant reasons of the fact immigrants from the municipal administration that a majority of Syrian refugees fall relatively of Mersin are examined according to income behind within the social and residential groups, it is seen that the upmost needs are adaptation process though they are undecided or health services, housing and social-cultural unwilling to return to their country is that a events. number of Syrian immigrants have not been provided with the most basic needs such as 4. Conclusion housing and health services. Basic needs of Syrian immigrants and the expectations arising According to this study, a significant majority from these needs concentrate on housing and of the Syrian immigrants living in Mersin health services. These expectations and needs consider permanently settling in the city. It are followed by the demand for social and shows that adaptation process of Syrian cultural services. Within this scope, as it is also immigrants will continue to be a significant agenda for Mersin.

115 mentioned above, policies towards the social adaptation process should be discussed again.

In addition, it is a significant fact that the unfavorable perception of people in Mersin against Syrian immigrants may demotivate the immigrants within the social adaptation process. It should be taken into account that, this perception, which may result particularly in antagonism and grouping within the society, can be altered by appropriate policies within this field to be developed by central and local administrations.

References

Apak, H., Suriyeli Göçmenlerin Uyumu ve Gelecek Beklentileri: Mardin Örneği, Mardin Artuklu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Sosyoloji Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Mardin, 2014.

Eisenstadt, S. N., The Absorption of Immigrants, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1954.

Harunoğulları, M. and Cengiz, D., Suriyeli Göçmenlerin Mekânsal Analizi: Hatay (Antakya)Örneği, 2016. http://tucaum.ankara.edu.tr/wp- content/uploads/sites/280/2016/05/semp8_31.p df (04.01.2017).

Jackson, J. A. Migration, Longman, London, 1986.

Yalçın, C. Göç Sosyolojisi, Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara,2004

116 The Importance of Public Relations in Social Entrepreneurship Activities

Berfu İlter Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Uluslararası Ticaret ve Finans Bölümü *Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: For the determination and solving a social problem or necesity, social entrepreneurship has continued its entrepreneurial activities.in order to do this; it needs action on planned public relations to communicate convincingly, reliably and positively with the target audience. The purpose of the study is to emphasize the importance of public relations efforts in social entrepreneurship activities. The study is based on literature and consists of three parts. In the first part, the concept of social entrepreneurship, in the second part the definition of relations with the public, and in the last part the contributions of social entrepreneurship activities and the relations with the public are expressed. As a result, the social enterprise, which is a very effective tool for the formation of social transformations, can not be successful by underestimating public relations.

Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Social Entrepreneurship, Public Relations.

1. Introduction most importantly, in a way to meet these two purposes, it is about meeting all kinds of new An entrepreneur is a person using needs arising in order to exist in the future for important opportunities, raising funds to take a change 2. Like the needs of individuals, the an advantage of these opportunities, starting a needs of societies are also infinite and new business by taking risks and uncertainties unlimited. Societies have to meet the into consideration to make a profit and grow1. reasonable ones among these unlimited needs Shortly, an entrepreneur is defined as a person to sustain their existence. Otherwise, social who makes innovation or progress by taking problems remain unresolved and can become a risks. Thus, entrepreneurship introduces the source of new problems. In this sense, social society with new resources, new technologies enterprises are institutions established to meet and in this way resources that have not been certain needs of the society. Social used before or are used less are provided to the entrepreneurs are the actors of these economy and production increases. The institutions. Establishing such organizations reason for societies to improve and encourage can be defined as social entrepreneurship. entrepreneurship is not only about providing Although the concept of social employment and preventing poverty, perhaps entrepreneurship is new, social entrepreneurs

2 B.İlter, “The Role of Religion in Solving Problems Faced by 1 N.M.Scarborough, çev:G. Sart, Girişimciliğin ve Küçük Women Entrepreneurs:AFİKAD Example”, Women’s Studies In İşletme Yönetiminin Temelleri [The Essentials of Turkey: Charting The Social, Economic And Political Changes Entrepreneurship and Small Business Administration], 7.Baskı, In Women’s Lives, W. Sayers, ed., AGP Research, Londra- Nobel Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2014, p.4. Istanbul, 2016 (A), p.1.

117 have existed for centuries. It is possible to analyses. However, it is believed that the social encounter social enterprises in various fields entrepreneurship literature must become clear such as associations and social solidarity about the definition of the concept and area it associations created by industrialists and covers4. The concept of social entrepreneurship businessmen. Social enterprises are is yet in an effort to create definitions for the opportunities for people who want to carry out viewpoint it includes nowadays. charitable or socially beneficial volunteer The Canadian Centre for Social activities. Like profit-oriented businesses, non- Entrepreneurship (2001) separates social profit businesses can also be established and entrepreneurship into two groups. The first operate in the same fields to provide the goods group corresponds to the concept in profit- and services required by the society. Social oriented sectors, activities emphasizing the enterprises created by social entrepreneurs importance of being socially related to a voluntarily contribute to the social, cultural, private sector and benefits increasing the economic, environmental and sports number of people who are good by doing good development of a country. Thus, in this things. The second group corresponds to the respect, it is necessary to consider social activities supporting entrepreneurial entrepreneurs not as an alternative but as a approaches to increase organizational complementary for state or private sector efficiency and ensure long-standing institutions3. sustainability in non-profit sectors5. Today’s Social entrepreneurship tries to determine modern societies are built on three principles. a social problem or a need and solve this These three main elements consist of problem. Public relations are the art of positive governments, businesses and non-profit influencing the attitudes of the target audience organizations. These institutions have a for products and policies of an organization. pioneering role in the progress and Social entrepreneurship requires planned development of societies and they complete public relations to establish persuasive, reliable each other. In recent years, the importance of and positive communication with the target non-profit organizations and their effectiveness audience in an effort to solve problems. Social depending on the level of development of entrepreneurship which is quite an effective societies gradually increase.6 tool for the creation of social transformations should not ignore public relations in the The concept of social entrepreneurship studies. has emerged with the opinion of finding solutions to social problems with the 2. The Concept of Social Entrepreneurship entrepreneurship viewpoint. The concept especially contains activities conducted to find Studies conducted on social entrepreneurship innovative and creative solutions for social until today and their results are considered as a problems related to the environment, reflection of efforts to create theory related to education, and disadvantageous social groups. the concept. Thanks to the social Here, the most important purpose is to provide entrepreneurship literature review performed social development. In this regard, it is by Aslan et al. in 2012, the viewpoints of the concept as of 1987 were examined. It is 4G.Aslan, A. Araza and Ç.Bulut, “Sosyal Girişimciliğin Sosyal understood in the observations made that Çerçevesi” [The Social Framework of Social Entrepreneurship], Girişimcilik ve Kalkınma Dergisi (7:2), 2012, pp.69-85, pp. 69- theorization is carried out by means of case 88. 5 S.Besler, S., “Sosyal Girişimcilik” [Social Entrepreneurship], 3 M.Özdevecioğlu and A.Cingöz, “Sosyal Girişimcilik ve Sosyal Sosyal Girişimcilik, Editör: S. Besler, Beta Yayınları, İstanbul, Girişimciler: Teorik Çerçeve” [Social Entrepreneurship and 2010, p.7, pp.3-28. 6 M.Sarıkaya, “Kâr Amacı Gütmeyen Örgütlerde Sosyal Social Entrepreneurs: Theoretical Framework], Erciyes Girişimcilik” [Social Entrepreneurship in Non-Profit Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, Sayı:32, Ocak- Haziran, 2009,p.82, Organizations], Sosyal Girişimcilik, S.Besler,ed., Beta Yayınları, pp.81-95. İstanbul, 2010, p.31.

118 beneficial to remind that non-profit However, economic entrepreneurs take action organizations are institutions which aim to in the expectation of economic return. Social create changes in individuals and in the society entrepreneurs take action and devote and do not expect any pecuniary advantage themselves for the goodness of others and they while achieving this aim. One of the reasons need to create a transformative impact. This is for the formation of non-profit institutions is because it is important to improve the lives of that although state policies are effective, the masses. The target audience of the social state cannot meet all social needs of people. entrepreneur consists of not the high-income Social enterprises created by social groups that may have the technology, but the entrepreneurs voluntarily contribute to the lower income groups, the groups lacking social, cultural, economic, environmental and service or the disadvantaged population8. sports development of a country. By this way, Social entrepreneurship is a multi-component they operate as complementary of public or concept9: private sector institutions7. Social entrepreneurship uses • Social value creation; on the basis of entrepreneurship principles to identify a social social entrepreneurship, there is the problem or need and to resolve this problem. fact of social value creation rather than Social entrepreneurs do not expect a profit like increasing the wealth of people or economic entrepreneurs. Social shareholders. In order for an activity entrepreneurship is enterprises established to to be considered as "social", it needs to remove inequalities among people around the meet the need of the concept for world and to provide assistance to groups sustainable development. However, which cannot access finance, political power the creation of sustainable and transform themselves. Social development is possible with joint entrepreneurship is an approach trying to efforts of the private sector, public balance the negative situation developed sector and non-governmental against the continuous understanding with organizations. In this respect, an motivation, creativity, performance, courage important factor is that social and by being patient against failures by entrepreneurship can bring a social bringing a transformative value proposition in problem to the center and can these inequalities. The motivations of effectively use the sources required to entrepreneurs oriented at social handle this problem. entrepreneurship are similar to those oriented • Seeing opportunities for social value at economic entrepreneurship: Improving creation; determining the ways to take people’s lives by changing the world. While opportunities and having new sources economic entrepreneurship broadens the to realize these opportunities are the horizon of people, social entrepreneurship tries second important component of social to provide equality among people. That is to entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurs say that; social entrepreneurs are motivated by are people with the ability to see the collecting second-hand cell phones, sending opportunities to provide social change them to Africa and providing communication even if environmental conditions are to people there. On the other hand, economic negative. entrepreneurs may desire to improve technology to create better cell phones. 8 M.Ergen, Girişimci Kapital Silikon Vadisi ve Startup Ekonomisi [Entrepreneur Capital Silicon Valley and Startup 7 B.İlter, “Bir AB Projesinin Sosyal Girişimcilik Üzerine Economy], S.Sönmez, ed., Koç Üniversitesi Yayınları, İstanbul, Etkileri” [The Effects of a EU Project on Social 2014, pp.91-92 Entrepreneurship], Sosyal ve Liberal Bilimlerde Yeni 9 S.Besler, “Sosyal Girişimcilik” [Social Entrepreneurship], Yönelimler, H.Babacan ve S.Özer, ed., Vol:1, Gece Kitaplığı, Sosyal Girişimcilik, Editör: S. Besler, Beta Yayınları, İstanbul, Ankara, 2016(B),pp.198-199.pp.191-200. 2010, pp.11-16, pp.3-28.

119 • Being innovative; social generally be created by working in entrepreneurship is an innovative cooperation with other institutions. approach arising from dealing with complicated social needs. Social entrepreneurs performing risk 3. The Definition of Public Relations management and displaying proactive behaviors can be more innovative. An increase in the tendency for Thus, social entrepreneurs become democratization in societies (codetermination, more active in achieving social desire to affect decisions and policies), an missions. Analyzing environmental increase in the educational level, an increase in conditions, monitoring potential the power and effect of mass communication threats and opportunities actively may have become effective in raising awareness of enable a social entrepreneur to develop the public sector, improving attitudes and an effective strategy against behaviors affecting enterprises and unexpected situations. Thanks to this entrepreneurs in accordance with their requests 10 proactive approach, social enterprise and expectations . can be secured in dealing with sudden In accordance with these developments, changes in the environment containing businesses and entrepreneurs noticed the threats and opportunities. requirement to take action for the acceptance • Raising fund-being sustainable; social of themselves and their viewpoints by the entrepreneurs can provide society to sustain their existence. In this sustainability to the extent they create regard, public relations appear as a function resources and will not have troubles in that makes it easier for businesses and finding resources to the extent that enterprises and their viewpoints to be they are sustainable. Social understood and accepted by the society. Public entrepreneurship has the relations contain a dynamic application area characteristics of creating new being affected by the changes in areas related resources without remaining limited to the economy, business, administration, with current resources and being society, ethics, policy, environment, mentality, sustainable by this means. Dependency etc. As a result of the factors such as especially on resources destroys change, forces to the fact that social classes that are the most be rigid and makes it difficult to find important elements of the social structure grow talented people and provide resources by getting complicated rapidly while from financial institutions and tools. enterprises operating in the private and public Social entrepreneurs are people with sector become diversified, the process of the ability to manage a wide democratization accelerates, etc., the need for relationship network in their information and communication increases with 11 relationships with various interest each passing day . However, this information groups. Social entrepreneurs focus on flow should be bidirectional. The factor that improving their skills to create a great will ensure this is public relation activities. relationship and resource network and 10 B.Özkara, “Bir Kamu Yönetimi Örgütü Olarak Türkiye’de to manage various relationships in this Yerel Yönetim Örgütlerinde Halkla İlişkilerin İşlevsel Yapısı ve Bir Model Önerisi” [Functional Structure of Public Relations in network productively and being in Local Administration Bodies in Turkey as Public Administration search of creative arrangements in Organizations and a Model Suggestion], Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, order to increase the capacity of the 1993, pp.113-114. organization with limited resources 11 B.İlter, “Pazarlama Fonksiyonunda Halkla İlişkilerin Yapılandırılması” [Structuring of Public Relations in Marketing because great social values can Function] , Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2001, pp.34- 43.

120 There are various definitions for public • Evaluation; status evaluations should relations. According to the definition of the be made. Public Relations Consultants Association, The entrepreneur should consider all these public relations are described as introducing stages to be effective in the efforts for public the activities of public and private institutions relations. These stages constitute factors and organizations, informing the target completing each other in reaching the result. audience for explaining and improving Moreover, there is a bidirectional flow in purposes and a whole of planned the process of public relations and, on one end communication studies conducted for the of this flow, there is an entrepreneur or evaluation of reactions received from these12. institution, in other words, the sender starting In another definition, public relations are the flow in the effort of public relations, on the the whole of activities of an institution such as other end, there is the target audience of this a business to establish and sustain consistent flow. The flow originates from the sender as a and efficient relationships with certain parts of message, arrives to the receiver and feeds the the society and the society as a whole such as sender by returning as the reaction of the customers, employees, partners to organize its receiver. In this formation, on one hand, environment and itself and interpret the introduction is made, on the other hand, the situation in terms of the society. Among these target audience is identified15. definitions, public relations practices appearing Entrepreneurs use mass communication to as a common function in all businesses and transmit messages to the related audience. institutions of the society have to go through Productive communication, in other words, the following stages13: transmitting explanatory and guiding messages on time with the least effort to the largest ü Drawing attention, audience may be possible with these tools. It ü Giving faith or confidence, is possible to group these tools as written, oral, ü Providing understanding. audio-visual tools16.

During these stages in the practice, a series of successive studies are conducted continuously14: 4. Contributions of Public Relations • Research; a certain problem or Interaction with Social Entrepreneurship opportunity should be described Activities clearly and information should be collected by doing research to determine the target audience related to this subject, A social entrepreneur is a person who notices • Planning; planning and programming social problems arising in the society he lives should be performed to create a in and addresses these problems with an strategy, approach that has not come to mind or has not • Communication; communication and been dared until that moment and creates a taking action are important to apply a difference with his creative, persistent, strategy, sensitive and realist attitudes and gains the trust of the society. Social entrepreneurs have devoted their lives to finding new solutions to 12 HDD, “Meslek İlkeleri” [Occupational Principles],1994, IPRA, Altın Kitap, sayı 1, Rota Yayınları, 1998, p.2. 13 İ.Cemalcılar, D.Bayar, İ.C.Aşkun, Şan Öz-Alp, İşletmecilik Bilgisi [Business Administration Knowledge], İşitme Özürlü 15A.Asna, Bankacılar İçin Halkla İlişkiler Bilgisi [Public Çocuklar Eğ. Arş. Vakfı Yay. No:3, Eskişehir,1999, p.304. Relations Information for Bankers], Banka ve Ticaret Hukuku 14 A.Ç.Paksoy, Türkiye’Halkla İlişkiler Uygulamaları [Public Araştırma Enstitüsü, Ankara, 1988, pp.19-23. Relation Practices in Turkey], Rota Yayınları, İstanbul, 1999, 16 H. Seçim, and S. Coşkun, Halkla İlişkiler [Public Relations], p.33. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayın No: 609, Eskişehir, 1995, p.111.

121 social problems with their characteristics such entrepreneurs to create a universal framework as vision, creativity and extraordinary in this respect19. determination which commercial entrepreneurs The power and value of the social capital to be also have. These unique individuals in every created by social entrepreneurs are hidden in culture can predict the next step in their own the network setup formed by the mutual fields (environment, education, health, human relationships of people. Otherwise, in an rights, social development) and they fearlessly environment where individuals live isolated follow the project until this prediction becomes and dispersedly and cannot put this in action a formation adopted by the society. Social even if they are well-intentioned, the power of entrepreneurs develop new ideas which will mutual relationships will disappear. The social provide the determination and transformation relationships themselves allow access to the of obstructed points of the society. Revolution resources owned by the groups to which created by social entrepreneurs radically individuals are related, and these social changes the way society is structuring itself relations determine the quantity and quality of and its approach to social problems17. Most the resources in question. Social entrepreneur, authors consider social entrepreneurs as social family or groups have the opportunity to use change agents18. the resources of groups and networks in which they are included by means of social Social entrepreneurs play an important catalyst relationships in the framework of certain role in the solution of social and economic norms.20 problems, especially in recent times. At the first stage, this catalyst role contributes to the Social entrepreneurs try to find social content solution of the problems locally. At the next solutions by using social networks frequently. stage, it has the characteristics of a social and Social entrepreneurs’ families, friends, public economic problem solver universally because institutions and organizations in the each region has different problems and environment they are included in, other social different local solver actors (raw material, entrepreneurs, non-governmental labor force, geographical conditions, etc.) are organizations, etc. constitute their social effective in the solution of these problems. networks. Mostly, social enterprise Social entrepreneurs make progress step by opportunities are carried into effect thanks to step in the solution of social problems. Social these relationships. It is considerably important and economic problems solved locally may to act in cooperation to solve social problems, spread to a larger framework when to use resources more effectively and to be communication is established with other social more successful. Meetings and seminars can be entrepreneurs in the universal sense. Social conducted by universities and non- entrepreneurs whose support of each other is governmental organizations to introduce social ensured will provide an opportunity for social entrepreneurship more. People can be informed and economic relief to all world societies with about the works of successful social a broader perspective. The support of non- entrepreneurs by using mass media such as governmental organizations and governments television, radio and newspapers.21 is considerably important for social 19Ş.Yaprak and B.Ilter, “Social Entrepreneurship As An Effective Way In The Solution Of Social And Economic Problems”, SME’s And Entrepreneurship, A.Katrinli, ed., 17 H.Denizalp, Toplumsal Dönüşüm İçin Sosyal Girişimcilik International Entrepreneurship Congress 2009, Izmir University Rehberi [Social Entrepreneurship Guide for Social Of Economics Publication No.38, İzmir, 2010, p.163-164, Transformation], STGM, Odak Ofset Matbaacılık, Ankara, 2007, pp.156-165. p.8. 20 M.Marangoz, Girişimcilikte Güncel Konular ve Uygulamalar 18 S.K.Kırılmaz, “Sosyal Girişimcilik Boyutlarına Kuramsal Bir [Current Issues and Practices in Entrepreneurship], Beta Bakış” [A Theoretical Perspective on the Dimensions of Social Yayınları, İstanbul, 2016, pp.146-147. Entrepreneurship], Ekonomi ve Yönetim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 21 S.K.Kırılmaz, “Sosyal Girişimcilik Boyutlarına Kuramsal Bir C.3, S:2, 2014, p.57, pp.55-74. Bakış” [A Theoretical Perspective on the Dimensions of Social

122 development of a country is the presence of It is very important for social individuals who have the spirit of entrepreneurs to introduce their works to all entrepreneurship and can bring these relevant groups during their activities. characteristics to the forefront in practice.25 Otherwise, their works performed may remain Entrepreneurship starts and develops a limited to a certain group. In this case, even if change in the structure of businesses and the their efforts are reciprocated, they may raise society. This change increases growth and awareness in a relatively small part of the production. The entrepreneur accelerates the society. Public relations activities to be creation, dissemination and application of new conducted have the most important role in the ideas. Moreover, it leads to the establishment transmission of efforts to all parts of the of new industries. It increases productivity in society. With the development of technology, sectors using new technologies and accelerates public relations practices can use mass media economic growth through fast-growing sectors. in a more efficient, quick and accessible way. Therefore, the entrepreneur is the key factor in By this means, social entrepreneurs can reach organizing economic activities, providing their goals more quickly and in a way to cover employment and production activities. Since almost all parts of the society. the entrepreneur combines production resources in a new style and enables unused 5. Conclusion production factors to be used, he is the main actor during the process of transmission of The prosperity of countries results from economic resources from low productivity establishing modern institutes, providing areas to high productivity areas. When employment, eliminating poverty and considered from all these aspects, entrepreneurs providing goods and services entrepreneurship stands out as the basic field to 22 that meet national and international needs . create a social benefit.26 Nowadays, the phenomenon of Nowadays, due to the economic crisis entrepreneurship has become a study field experienced all over the world, social largely supported and adopted. This is because entrepreneurship is an alternative practice to entrepreneurship constitutes the core and find a solution for the social problems to dynamic of economic, social, psychological appear with the increase in collective 23 and technological development and change . redundancy and unemployment. Social At the same time, the economic relief created entrepreneurs find the source of the problem by entrepreneurship is effective in solving and solve the problem by changing the system social problems, and thus, it is socially without leaving the solution of social problems considered as a problem-solving factor. to the state or business world. Furthermore, However, there is a need for social social entrepreneurs share the solutions with entrepreneurs with this understanding for the large masses and convince the whole society to 24 solution of social problems. Undoubtedly, take new steps. Just as an economic one of the most important factors in the entrepreneur establishes new industries, social entrepreneurs approach social problems with Entrepreneurship], Ekonomi ve Yönetim Araştırmaları Dergisi, innovative solutions and implement solutions C.3, S:2, 2014, p.71, pp.55-74. 22 S. P. Robbins and M. Coulter, Management, 7th edition, on a broad scale. All private and public, profit- Prentice Hall, NJ, 2001, p.17. 23J.A.Schumpeter, The Economies and Sociology of Capitalism, R.Swedberg, Ed., Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1991,p.407. 25 M.K.Çonkar and B. Ilter, “Ülke Kalkınmasında Girişimcilik 24 Ş.Yaprak and B.Ilter, “Social Entrepreneurship As An ve Entelektüel Sermaye Boyutu” [Entrepreneurship and Effective Way In The Solution Of Social And Economic Intellectual Capital Dimension in the Development of a Problems”, SME’s And Entrepreneurship, A.Katrinli, ed., Country], İktisat ve Girişimcilik Üniversitesi Türk Dünyası International Entrepreneurship Congress 2009, Izmir University İşletme Fakültesi, Ülkümüz Dergisi, Yıl:2, Sayı:3, 2005, p.203. Of Economics Publication No.38, İzmir, 2010, p.156, pp.156- 26 İbrahim Öztürk, Girişimcilik Raporu [Entrepreneurship 165. Report], İGİAD Yayınları, 2008, p.21.

123 oriented and non-profit institutions in the feedbacks from the target audience and economic structure consider that improving society. social entrepreneur sides will have an important role in providing progress in the economic and social structure. References Nowadays, the gradually increasing [1] N. M. Scarborough, çev. G. Sart, Girişimciliğin number of social entrepreneurs appears in ve Küçük İşletme Yönetiminin Temelleri, 7. Baskı, different areas all over the world. Their goal is Nobel Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2014, p.4. not only gaining profit but also dealing with [2] B. İlter, “The Role of Religion in Solving 27 Problems Faced by Women social problems for the sake of the society . Entrepreneurs:AFİKAD Example”, Women’s World societies are interacting with each other Studies In Turkey: Charting The Social, Economic more with each passing day. The fact that And Political Changes In Women’s Lives, public resources and public authority are not W.Sayers, ed., AGP Research, Londra-Istanbul, 2016(A), p.1. sufficient in the solution of global and local [3] M. Özdevecioğlu ve A.Cingöz, “Sosyal problems will make social entrepreneurship Girişimcilik ve Sosyal Girişimciler: Teorik more important in the future. In our country, it Çerçeve”, Erciyes Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, is impossible for public authority to reach all Sayı:32, Ocak- Haziran, 2009, p.82. kinds of social problems and find a solution for [4] G. Aslan, A. Araza, Ç.Bulut, “Sosyal them. At this point, social entrepreneurship Girişimciliğin Sosyal Çerçevesi”, Girişimcilik ve 28 Kalkınma Dergisi (7:2), 2012, pp. 69-85. steps in . [5] S.Besler, S., “Sosyal Girişimcilik”, Sosyal Social entrepreneurship activities of which Girişimcilik, Editör: S. Besler, Beta Yayınları, purpose is to determine the problems and İstanbul, 2010, p.7. [6] M. Sarıkaya, “Kâr Amacı Gütmeyen Örgütlerde needs of the society and solve them require Sosyal Girişimcilik”, Sosyal Girişimcilik, S.Besler, planned public relations actions to establish a ed., Beta Yayınları, İstanbul, 2010, p.31. persuasive, reliable and positive [7] B.İlter, “Bir AB Projesinin Sosyal Girişimcilik communication with the target audience in this Üzerine Etkileri”, Sosyal ve Liberal Bilimlerde Yeni Yönelimler, H.Babacan ve S.Özer, ed., vol:1, process. Thanks to the fact that they pay Gece Kitaplığı, Ankara, 2016(B), pp.198-199. attention to public relations activities and [8] M. Ergen, Girişimci Kapital Silikon Vadisi ve receive their support, their efforts to make the Startup Ekonomisi, S.Sönmez, ed., Koç social transformation more powerful and Üniversitesi Yayınları, İstanbul, 2014, pp.91-92. [9] S. Besler, “Sosyal Girişimcilik”, Sosyal sustainable may provide positive results. Girişimcilik, Editör: S. Besler, Beta Yayınları, Otherwise, activities carried out by the social İstanbul, 2010, pp.11-16. entrepreneur will be approved only by a small [10] B. Özkara, Bir Kamu Yönetimi Örgütü Olarak part of the society, and these activities Türkiye’de Yerel Yönetim Örgütlerinde Halkla İlişkilerin İşlevsel Yapısı ve Bir Model Önerisi”, performed will not be transmitted as an Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Anadolu example to the other parts of the society. Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 1993, Social entrepreneurship activities will spread pp.113-114. [11] B.İlter, “Pazarlama Fonksiyonunda Halkla in waves to the whole society as long as they İlişkilerin Yapılandırılması”, Yayınlanmamış are in interaction with public relations. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Furthermore, it is considered that thanks to Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 2001, pp.34-43. public relations, it will provide insight for new [12] HDD, “Meslek İlkeleri”,1994, IPRA, Altın Kitap, sayı 1, Rota Yayınları, 1998, p.2. practices to be conducted by receiving [13] İ.Cemalcılar, D.Bayar, İ.C. Aşkun, Şan Öz- Alp, İşletmecilik Bilgisi, İşitme Özürlü Çocuklar Eğ. Arş. Vakfı Yay. No:3, Eskişehir,1999, 304. [14] A.Ç.Paksoy, Türkiye Halkla İlişkiler 27 V.Bikse, B.Rivza, I.Riemere, “The Social Entrepreneur as a Promoter of Social Advancement”, Procedia-Social and Uygulamaları, Rota Yayınları, İstanbul, 1999, p.33. Behavioral Sciences 185, 2015, p.469, pp.469-478. [15] A. Asna, Bankacılar İçin Halkla İlişkiler 28M. Marangoz, Girişimcilikte Güncel Konular ve Uygulamalar Bilgisi, Banka ve Ticaret Hukuku Araştırma [Current Issues and Practices in Entrepreneurship], Beta Enstitüsü, Ankara, 1988, pp.19-23. Yayınları, İstanbul, 2016, pp.146-147.

124 [16] H. Seçim, ve S. Coşkun, Halkla İlişkiler, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayın No: 609, Eskişehir, 1995, p.111. [17] H. Denizalp, Toplumsal Dönüşüm İçin Sosyal Girişimcilik Rehberi, STGM, Odak Ofset Matbaacılık, Ankara, 2007, p.8. [18]S.K.Kırılmaz, “Sosyal Girişimcilik Boyutlarına Kuramsal Bir Bakış”, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Araştırmaları Dergisi, C.3, S:2, 2014, p.57. [19] Ş.Yaprak ve B. Ilter, “Social Entrepreneurship As An Effective Way In The Solution of Social and Economic Problems”, SME’s And Entrepreneurship, A.Katrinli, ed., International Entrepreneurship Congress 2009, Izmir University Of Economics Publication No.38, İzmir, 2010, p. 163-164. [20] M. Marangoz, Girişimcilikte Güncel Konular ve Uygulamalar, Beta Yayınları, İstanbul, 2016, pp.146-147. [21] S.K.Kırılmaz, “Sosyal Girişimcilik Boyutlarına Kuramsal Bir Bakış”, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Araştırmaları Dergisi, C.3, S:2, 2014, p.71. [22] S. P. Robbins and M. Coulter, Management, 7th edition, Prentice Hall, NJ, 2001, p.17. [23] J. A. Schumpeter, The Economies and Sociology of Capitalism, R.Swedberg, Ed., Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1991, p.407. [24] Ş.Yaprak, B.Ilter, p.156. [25] M.K. Çonkar ve B. Ilter, “Ülke Kalkınmasında Girişimcilik ve Entelektüel Sermaye Boyutu”, İktisat ve Girişimcilik Üniversitesi Türk Dünyası İşletme Fakültesi, Ülkümüz Dergisi, Yıl:2, Sayı:3, 2005, p. 203. [26] İbrahim Öztürk, Girişimcilik Raporu, İGİAD Yayınları, 2008, p.21. [27] V. Bikse, B. Rivza, I. Riemere, “The Social Entrepreneur as a Promoter of Social Advancement”, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 185, 2015, p. 469. [28] M. Marangoz, Girişimcilikte Güncel Konular ve Uygulamalar, Beta Yayınları, İstanbul, 2016, pp.146-147.

125 Levels of Image Perception of Turkish Language and Culture Teachers by Students participating in Turkish Language and Culture Classes in Germany

Öznur RENGİ, Soner POLAT 1. PhD. Student in Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning and Economy Department , KOCAELİ University, TURKEY ([email protected]) 2. Associate Professor in Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning and Economy Department, KO- CAELİ University, TURKEY

Abstract. Positive image is extremely important in educational purposes, as it is an enhancing function of many field successes. One of the image stakeholders of education systems is teachers who are system practitioners. This research is a descriptive study aimed at evaluating levels of image perception of Turkish Language and culture teachers by students participating in Turkish Language and culture classes in Germany in the context of various variables (gender, class level, viewpoint of teacher liking lesson) and using quantitative research methods. The research universe consists of students who participate in Turkish and Turkish Culture Course in the academic year of 2015-2016 in various German schools in Stuttgart Central District in Baden-Württemberg. The sample group consisted of 180 students participating in the research and the data from these students were used in the evaluations. At the end of the research, It was found that students’ perception of image of the teacher was high ( =3.98); image perceptions of female students were higher compared to that of male students. Students’ perception with regard to endearing of language and culture by their teachers significantly affected the level of perception of the Image of Teachers in direction of “yes”. Image perceptions of high-level classes were higher compared to that of low-level classes.

Keywords: Image, teacher

1. Introduction age and its positive functions are among the key factors that could make the person, institution or service more attractive and increase the suc- In a period when there is bombardment of in- cess in many fields of life. Individuals, organi- formation and advertising where intercultural zations, products or services that have a posi- interactions proliferate rapidly, persons and in- tive image are found to be successful and relia- stitutions feel the need of manifesting their dif- ble by the target groups they address and are ferences in order to leave their competitors be- evaluated in this context. The image perception hind and make sure that their products and ser- of something is also a large-scale judicial con- vices are preferred; they have to prove to their tent that includes emotional, logical attitudes target group that they are more successful. Im- and assumptions determining how and in what

126 ways it is treated (Polat and Tülübaş, 2015, most visible part of education system, are its p.20). stakeholders who will have a successful and reliable impression on the members of the soci- When we look for definitions related to the ety, striving to increase its services and quality. concept of image in literature, we see that conceptual framework is drawn through different We can claim that many successes and fail- but complementary contexts. Mitchell (2005) ures faced in educational life can be assigned to who studied the subject with an interdiscipli- the image of the teacher, because having a posi- nary approach, tried to integrate the content of tive image is one of the determinants for suc- this concept into different areas such as cess and reliability; this positive image makes graphics (painting, sculpture, design); optics an individual meet the expectations of his/her (image, projection, appearance); perception (pa- target community vocationally (Polat, 2011). rameters related to senses and reasoning); cog- Therefore, in this study, it was aimed to exam- nition (dreams, memories and fantasies) and ine images of teachers who have considerable verbalization (metaphors and descriptions). effect in meeting the educational objectives at Starting from this point of view, we can state desired levels. that, (the concept of) image extends to a wide spectrum that includes verbal, linguistic, mental, Throughout history, the concept of being a cultural and emotional processes; hence its for- teacher has been defined from economical, po- mation should be evaluated from a broad per- litical, ideological and cultural points of view, spective. Image is not a self developed concept. and has had a place in the minds of persons as it Since it has dynamic, alterable qualities, it is has been evaluated within the framework of the managed and oriented. Necessary strategic meanings attached to this vocation and to the measures could be taken in order to establish an teachers as its practitioners (Parlak 2005). As ideal image (Türkkahraman, 2004). Dichter all disciplines of science formulate its own ter- (1985) defined image as “the totality of minology; in a similar manner, different groups thoughts that are formed in the mind in relation of human society have been affected by their to an individual or institution”. Image is a con- own cultural dynamics when they form an im- cept that “expresses the pictures of impressions age of teacher in their minds. and perceptions that an individual formed in her/his mind and psychology (Dinçer, 1998). Educational process is composed of the total- As it can be understood from these definitions, ity of messages which teacher wants to give to image perception has a wide spectrum that can his/her students. Teacher gives these messages be considered from the perspectives of an indi- to the students both through her behaviors and vidual, an organization and a system. through her image. The image which has been formed in the minds of students as a result of Image is the totality of the references which these messages is one of the most important has been formed as a result of personal experi- factors determining the attitude of the students ences, effected by social and cultural events and towards the class; understanding the image of perceptions (Milas 2005). On the other hand, the teacher is important in terms of identifying Türkoğlu claimed that image was a fictional positive sides and the failing features of the ed- display and drew attention to its functional ucational system (Akyıldız, 1993). character. Image has an important function as it is an indicator of how and in which ways we Measuring the image of the teacher in the remember the things we have (own) and how minds of the students is important for evalua- we establish connection with them (Robins, tion of the totality of the activities, practices 1999). and behaviors that will increase the level of participation in the lesson and for determination of Individuals’ success at work is directly relat- the measures that will be taken. In addition, ed with perception of their image (Çakır, 2004). students tend to take their teachers as role mod- Image has such an effect that, as it can increase els in many respects, from behavior patterns to or decrease one’s success in so many fields, it thinking and speaking patterns (Başar, 2006). has also extremely important functions in edu- For this purpose, it is possible to state that, ask- cation system where human relations are in- ing students’ opinions is one of the most im- tensely maintained. Teachers, who make up

127 portant variables in determining teachers’ im- don’t have expected success levels and they ages. experience cultural integration problems (Arslan 2006). As Germany is a country which For several reasons, the number of persons accepts a high number of immigrants, linguistic who are living, working and studying in foreign and social problems are experienced and for countries and cultures has been increasing. In a this reason, this country is in a position to take century of multiculturalism, where information- several measures (Ehmke, 2005). al and cultural exchanges take place more often and swiftly, examination of the images of The studies show that students with Turkish teachers, who are appointed to work in foreign origin are stuck between two cultures, they have countries, in the places where they work has adaptation problems and experience identity gained importance due to the functionalities of confusion (Ültanır, E., Ültanır, G., Canbulat, M., the image mentioned above. Examining wheth- Uyanık, A., 2004). One of the reasons of the er these teachers who work in a different cultur- educational failiures of students with Turkish al setting, have a positive image in the minds of origin living in Germany is that they do not their students, which is required by the necessi- have a good command of German language be- ties of this intercultural environment, could be a cause they are not able to learn their mother guiding light in determining the factors increas- language either. Having Access to a good level ing the effectiveness of the profession in of education of their mother tongue is one of achieving the objectives set by the educational the parameters that could enable these students system. A teacher who is stationed in a foreign to learn German language effectively (Bekir, country by her educational system could be a 2004). If the individual is to have success in an representative for the image of her country or environment other than her own original one, she may provide insight to this end. It is the adaptation problem should be minimized. thought that results of this study could provide And to achieve this, it is necessary to have a clues that will enable know answer whether good command of the language of the country faculties educate and prepare teachers that where she lives. However, the individuals could represent us in foreign countries and have should get the full support of the main stake- positive image in environments where cross- holders of the educational system, that is, cultural exchanges and synergies are experi- school, family and teacher (Çakır, 2002-2003). enced and to answer similar questions related to At this point, the importance of Turkish Lan- this subject. guage and Culture Class becomes evident. Teachers of this class are persons who can serve Given the importance of teaching native lan- the purpose of this class and prove its im- guage in a multicultural and multilingual envi- portance. Their capacity to maintain its purpos- ronment, studying the image of Turkish Lan- es is closely related with the students’ percep- guage and Culture Teachers working in Ger- tion of teachers’ images. many, which is one of the countries where immigration movements from Turkey to Europe, Teaching of native language has special im- and cultural, linguistic, social and educational portance for a child raised in a multilingual and interactions are felt, constitute one of the most multicultural environment if she is to achieve a important dimensions of this study. healthy development academically and spiritu- ally/mentally; to understand and to express her- The fact that teachers from Turkey perform self correctly; and to adapt to different cultural duties in Germany makes multiple contributions environments. Underdevelopment of mother to the multi-directional development of cultural language alienates individual from herself and exchanges between countries (Çakır, 2002- from her social environment. An individual 2003). Positive and high image perception of who knows her language and culture is more teachers charged with the task of teaching cul- successful in how to behave, what to say and ture and mother language is very important for how to interpret the situations faced in different cultural and academic success of the students. cultural environments (Çakır, 2002-2003). Migrant students do not have an advantageous position within the German educational system, Healthy mental, social and emotional devel- which means they are not able to benefit ade- opment of a person is dependent on the condi- quately from educational opportunities, they tion that that person learns the developmental

128 steps of native language and the persons who less frequently observed, with boys getting spe- do not meet the requirement of learning the na- cial attention in this respect. tive language face difficulties in terms of lin- In his study carried out with pr-eservice guistic, mental and psychological development teachers, Akyıldız (1993) emphasized that suc- (Wunder, 1994). cessful students had more positive images of their teachers. When literature is reviewed, it is possible to give the following studies as examples deter- When related studies were reviewed, it was mining a significant relationship between stu- observed that the relationship between image dents’ academic success and their perception of perception and education had been emphasized. the image of their theachers: However, it was not possible to find any study related to images of teachers who were appoint- Polat and Tülübaş (2015), in their study, ed to foreign countries to provide educational which was carried out to measure the relation- services on teaching of native language and cul- ship between perceptions of lecturers by stu- ture. Therefore, it is thought that this research dents and congruence with expectations, inves- will be reference study for future research ap- tigated whether image perception is affected by plications, providing useful insights. gender and class level, assuming that this could also affect students’ attitudes towards learning Within the context of the objectives set out language. The results showed that although the above, the answers to following questions are image perceptions of the lecturers were high, looked for: the existing perception of the image did not meet students’ expectations. It was found out Research Questions that image perception was higher for female 1. What are the levels of students’ perception students and for successful students. of the image, and its sub-dimensions (Profes- sional image, behavioral image and visual im- In his doctoral dissertation, Şahan (2012) car- age) of Turkish Language and Culture Teach- ried out a qualitative research in order to deter- ers? mine the factors affecting the academic success 2. Does students’ perception of the image of Turkish students taking into account the change significantly depending on whether the opinions of administrator and teachers working answer given to the following question is posi- in primary schools in Germany as well as opin- tive or not?: “Do you think the teacher of the ions of students and their parents. Family care, Class is effective in endearing the language and pre-school education, family integration and the culture to students? (Yes or No) knowledge of German language, children's family and close community, reading books, watch- Limitations of the Study ing movies and theater, participating in social This study is limited with the views of stu- activities and native language success were dents, who were attending German Schools in among student-centered factors affecting aca- the state of Baden Wurttemberg in Germany, demic success. Among the family-centered fac- taking Turkish Language and Culture Class, tors affecting academic success were education about the Turkish Language and Culture Teach- and profession of the family, the knowledge of ers and with items on the Scale of Perception of German language, and the harmony within the Teacher Image. family and the communication of the family to the school were determined by the education level, the work intensity, the language problems 2. Method and the shyness of the family. It was understood that pre-school education, family’s attention 2.1. Research Design and interest, discrimination, education level and economic conditions of the parents were influ- This is a descriptive study. Since, it was ential on school-and-education-system-centered aimed to examine the perception levels of factors affecting academic achievement. It was Teachers’ images, and its sub-dimensions, by revealed that, while early orientation affected their students at a certain point in time in rela- foreign children adversely, school dropout was tion to different variables, qualitative research methods were employed in this study. Descrip-

129 tive studies are ways of exploration where qual- Cronbach’s Alpha value was found to be .91. itative methods are also employed The reliability coefficients for sub-dimensions (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz and were as following: .91 for behavioral image; .94 Demirel, 2012, p. 234) for professional image and .68 for visual image.

2.2. Population and Sample 2.4. Analysis and Interpretation of the Data

According to the current statistics related to Arithmetic averages were taken into account 2015-2016 School Year, there are 1940 students in assessment of the levels of students’ percep- registered to Turkish Language and Culture tion of the image of teachers. During the inter- Classes in German Schools in the Central Re- pretation of the arithmetic averages, the follow- gion of Stuttgart. The Sample group of research ing classification was used: very low: 1.00- was composed of 180 students participating in 1.79; low: 2.60-3.339; medium: 2.60-3.39; the research. The evaluations were made over high: 3.40-4.19 and very high: 4.20-5.00. The views taken from these students. The demo- importance placed by the students on each sub- graphic attributes of the students participating dimension was measured in a similar manner. in the study are provided below in Table 1: In addition to that, t-test was used in order to determine whether the perception of teachers’ images differ or not in accordance with the an- Table 1. Demographic Attributes of the stu- swer given to the following question: “Do you dents participating in the study think the teacher of the Class is effective in endearing the language and the culture to students Variables Number of Stu- Percentage (Yes or No)? . Besides, ANNOVA test was dents employed to determine the effect of the class Gender Kız öğ. 95 52.7 Erkek 85 47.3 level. Level of the class 4.Class 53 29.4 5.Class 51 28.3 6.Class 29 16.1 7.Class 20 11.1 3. Findings 8.Class 27 15.1 In this section, findings obtained from the Perception in accor- YES 166 92.2 evaluation of research data are presented. dance with the appro- NO 14 7.8 ach (Yes or No) to the endearing of the langu- 3.1. What are the levels of students’ perception age and culture by the teacher of the image, and its sub-dimensions TOPLAM 180 100 (Professional image, behavioral image and visual image) of Turkish Language and Culture Teachers?

By using descriptive statistics, students’ per- 2.3. Data Collection Tools ception of the image of the teacher and its sub- dimensions were evaluated. Arithmetic averag- The study employed “Scale of Perception of es and standard deviations calculated in relation Teacher’s Image” which was prepared, with a to image perception levels are presented in Ta- view to measuring the Teacher’s Image, by ad- ble 2. aptation of the items in the scale originally prepared by Polat and Tülübaş (2015) to measure Table 2. Arithmetic Averages and Standard Lecturer’s Image. All items are required to be Deviations related to Image Perception answered within the range from 1- strongly disagree to 5- strongly agree. The total points are IMAGE PERCEPTİON X Ss (Standart devia- obtained by calculating the points from each (Arithmetic Mean) tion) answer. The highness of the points indicates Behavioral image 4.06 .717 that the levels of the image of the teachers are Professional image 3.92 .743 high. The scale has three sub-dimensions: I. Visula image 3.97 .895

Visual Image, II. Behavioral Image and III. Pro- TOTAL 3.98 .692 fessional Image. In the validity analysis,

130 According to Table 2, students’ perception of 3.3. Does students’ perception of the image 8). High- change significantly depending on whether est level of perception was about behavioral answer given to the following question is image (x=4.06), which was followed by visual positive or not? : “Do you think the teacher of the Class is effective in endearing the language and the culture to students? (yes or no). that, in general, the image of the teachers was high in students’ perception. Results of the t-test are summarized in Table 4. These tests were made in order to determine 3.2. Evaluation of Students’ Image Perception whether students’ image perception changed according to the Gender Variable significantly in accordance with the positive or negative answer to the following question: “Do The results of t-test which were made to de- you think the teacher of the Class is effective in termine whether the students’ image perception endearing the language and the culture to stu- changed according to gender are shown in table dents? 3. Table 3. T- test Results of the Evaluation of Table4. The test results presenting the eval- Students’ Image Perception according to the uation of Image Perception in accordance with Gender Variable the approach (Yes or No) to the endearing of the language and culture by the teacher. Gender N X Ss Sd T p Behavioral Female 95 4.20 .617 178 2.808 .006 Approach N X Ss Sd T p image to the Male 85 3.90 .789 endearing Professional Female 95 4.15 .649 178 4.131 .000 of the image language and cul- Male 85 3.69 .775 ture Visula Female 95 4.21 .770 178 4.068 .000 Behavioral YES 166 4.14 .642 178 5.706 .006 image image Male 85 3.71 .873 NO 14 3.09 .867 TOTAL Female 95 4.16 .591 178 3.991 .000 Professional YES 166 4.01 .648 178 6.147 .000 Male 85 3.77 .738 image NO 14 2.85 .963 Visula image YES 166 4.06 .790 178 4.806 .000 According to Table 3, image perception dif- NO 14 2.98 .992 TOTAL YES 166 4.06 .607 178 6.357 .000 fered significantly in accordance with gender NO 14 2.95 .827 (t(178)=3.99, p<.01). According to data, image perceptions of female students ( =4.16) were According to the data provided in Table 4 higher compared to that of male students above, students’ perception with regard to en- ( =3.77) When sub-dimensions are taken into dearing of language and culture by their teach- account, it is observed that behavioral image ers significantly affected the level of perception perception differed significantly in accordance of the Image of Teachers and its sub- with danger. (t(178)=2.808, p<.05). According- dimensions in direction of “yes” (t(178)=6.35, ly, female students’ image perceptions ( =4.20) p<.01). were higher compared to that of male students According to data, image perceptions of the students giving “yes” reply to the question ( =3.90). Perception of vocational image also whether teacher endears Turkish Language and differed significantly depending on gender (t(178)=4.13, p<.05) Accordingly, female stu- Culture to students or not were higher ( =4.06) compared to students giving “no” reply dents’ image perceptions ( =4.15) were higher ( =2.95). When sub-dimensions of the image compared to that of male students ( =3.69). perception are taken into account, it was ob- When visual image is taken into account, it is served that behavioral image perception observed that female students’ image percep- (t(178)=5.70, p<.05), Professional image per- tions ( =4.21) were significantly higher com- ception (t(178)=6.14, p<.05) and visual image .71), perception (t(178)=4.80) changed significantly ( t(178)=4.06, p<.01). in favor of students giving a “yes” reply .

131 3.4. Does students’ image perception change significantly according to level of the class?

ANOVA test was carried out in order to determine whether students’ image perception changed significantly according to level of the class. The results are provided below in table 5.

Table 5. Table showing the results of the evaluation of Image Perceptions according to Class Levels (ANOVA).

X Ss Source of Sum of Sd Squares F P Significant variance squares of difference average Behavioral 1. 3.86 .790 Betweengroups 10.31 2 5.157 11.15 .000 1-2 image Group 2. 4.27 .524 within groups 81.83 177 .462 1-3 Group 3. 4.44 .402 2-3 Group TOTAL 4.06 .717 TOTAL 92.14 179 Professional 1. 3.73 .815 Betweengroups 10.43 2 5.21 10.44 .000 1-2 image Group 2. 4.10 .526 within groups 88.41 177 500 1-3 Group 3. 3.92 .743 Group TOTAL 3.92 .743 TOTAL 98.85 179 Visual 1. 4.05 .798 Betweengroups 9.07 2 4.35 6.58 .002 1-3 image Group 2. 3.92 .844 within groups 121.9 177 .689 Group 3. 3.963 .746 Group TOTAL 3.97 .885 TOTAL 131.03 179 TOTAL 1. 3.79 .756 Betweengroups 10.03 2 5.08.428 11.73 .000 1-2 Group 2. 4.15 .496 within groups 75.69 177 1-3 Group 3. 4.40 .436 Group TOTAL 3.98 .692 TOTAL 85.77 179

Table 5 indicates that students’ image per- In order to determine at which class levels ception varied significantly in accordance with this difference was significant, Sceffe test was class level (F(2-177)=11.73, p<.01). In order to made. determine at which class levels this difference Its results show that, behavioral image per- was significant, Sceffe test was made. Its results ception was highest in 8th grades ( =4.44), show that, image perception was highest in while professional image perception ( =4.35) Group 5 (8th Grades) ( =4.40) and lowest in and visual image perception ( =4.46) were also Group1 (4th and 5th Grades) ( =3.79). When highest in 8th grades. sub-dimensions of image perception are taken into account, it is seen that behavioral image perception (F(2-177)=11.15, p<.01), profes- 4. Discussion And Conclusions sional image perception (F(2-177)=10.44 p<.01) and visual image perception (F(2- As a result of the study, students’ perception 177)=6.58, p<.01) were significantly higher in of the images of Turkish Language and Culture favor of higher levels of classes (grades). Teachers were found to be high. The fact that Teachers have a positive image in the eyes of

132 their students indicate an ideal and terminal sit- students’ image perceptions could be effected uation in terms of the achievement of educa- by social judgments and stereotypes. However, tional objectives since positive image brings in literature, there are also studies showing that about positive thoughts towards teachers and gender variable is not a significant factor in positive behaviors (Harmancı, 2008). When the terms of image perception (Akyıldız, 1993). sub-dimensions of students’ perception of the image of their teachers are taken into account, it Another important finding in the study is that is observed that, “behavioral image” has the image perception differs significantly according highest value, which is followed by visual and to the level of class of the students. The results professional images respectively. The fact that of the study indicate that as the class level rais- professional image is lowest could be linked to es, the average scores for the perception of im- the importance of professional expertise. age and its sub-dimensions increase as well. Teachers should update themselves continuous- Image is formed together with attitudes devel- ly by participating in the activities and process- oped in time as a result of interactions between es that will improve their skills and attitudes so events, objects and persons.(Özdemir 2009). that students could better improve themselves Higher positive images of teachers in the eyes academically and socially (Bümen, Ateş, Çakar, of students at higher grades could be explained Ural and Acar, 2012). by the fact that it is a product of the processes of interaction that develop over time. The find- While there are social, bureaucratic and cul- ings of the study reveal that students’ image tural factors externally effecting the formation perception show a significant difference to- of professional image, there are also internal wards positive reply (“yes”) to the question: factors such as thoughts, feelings, knowledge “Do you think class teacher was effective in and behavior of the person performing the oc- endearing language and culture to the students? cupation. (Bağçeci, Çetin ve Ünsal, 2013). This (Yes/No). result over professional images of Turkish Lan- guage and Culture Teachers could be explained Liking and affection are basic conditions for by the fact that this profession is performed by a successful teaching and learning process. people who are not specialized in this specific Success can only be achieved as a result of a area as Turkish Language and Culture teachers relationship pattern that can be created by the are chosen among persons who have graduated mutual affection between teacher and student. If from different departments of education, with teacher is loved, this will make the lesson fun no bachelors degree on this specific education and create an atmosphere of trust based on af- area. If a work is to be accepted as a profession, fection (Yılmaz, 2005). there should be an accumulation of knowledge, We can state that a teacher who is thought to skills and existence of a professional culture be providing such an environment can be per- that have been acquired at the end of a particu- ceived with a high positive image by his/her lar training period in that field (Saylan, 2007). students. It is crucial that teachers, who assume This situation shows us the importance of hav- the task of representing their country and ing adequate vocational training in the field for providing healthy, effective and permanent formation of the professional image. teaching, hence enabling their students to adapt to different cultural environments, should have The study revealed that female students’ per- a positive image. In this respect, rather than ception of the image of teachers and its sub- being a technical service, teaching profession is dimensions (behavioral, Professional and visual seen as social process in which human relations images) were higher. These findings coincide are intensely experienced (Akyıldız, 1993). We with previous studies (Polat, 2011; Polat and order to advance this process positively, it is Tülübaş, 2015). The male students’ lower per- necessary to carry out educational, social, cul- ception of image of teachers could be explained tural, legal and economical activities which will by several cultural and social factors. It is ob- improve the image of teachers in a positive way. served that, due to social stereotypes imposed The perception of the teachers ’image in the on women, they prefer teaching as a profession minds of students forms only a certain part of and their attitudes towards this profession are this process. For this reason, increasing the more positive compared to males (Druddy, number of studies and applications that will 2008). In this context, we can claim that, female determine the variables affecting the image of

133 the teachers, will enable development in whole of feminisation. Gender and Education, society together with improvement in education 20(4), 309-323 systm. [15] Ehmke,W. (2005). Almanya ve Türki- ye’deki eğitim sistemleri- Bir karşılaştırma. Türkiye ve Almanya'da Eğitim Reformu- Seminer Raporları. Ankara: Konrad Aden- auer Stiftung Yayını. References [16] Harmancı, M. (2008). İş’te İmaj Faktörü. İstanbul: Nesil Yayınları. [1] Akyıldız, H. (1993). Öğretmen adayların- [17] Milas, H. (2005). Türk Ve Yunan Roman- da öğretmen imajı. Buca Eğitim Fakülte- larında “Öteki” Ve “Kimlik”. İstanbul: si Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 2 (5), 127-136. İletişim Yayıncılık. [2] Akyüz, Y. (1978). Türkiye'de öğretmenin [18] Mitchell, W.J.T. (2005). İkonoloji (Çeviri: "Öğretmen" ve Meslek İmajı. Eğitim Hüsamettin Arslan). İstanbul: Paradigma Fakültesi Dergisi,11 (1 -2), 115-121. Yayınları. [3] Arslan, M. (2006). Almanya’daki Türk [19] Ş, Özdemir.(2009). Doktorların Toplumsal işçi çocuklarının eğitim sorunları. Sosyal İmajı Afyon İlinde Bir Araştırma. Afyon Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 21. Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler [4] Bakioğlu, A. ve Bahçeci, M. (2010). Dergisi, 11(1), 179-191. Velilerin okul imajına ilişkin görüşlerinin [20] Parlak, İ. (2005). Erken Cumhuriyet Dö- incelenmesi. M.Ü. Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi nemi Tarih ve Yurt Bilgisi Ders Kitapları Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 31 (25 – 55). Üzerine Bir İnceleme. [5] Bağçeci, B., Çetin, B., Ünsal, S. (2012). https://ismetparlak.files.wordpress.com/201 Öğretmenlerin mesleki imaj ölçeği. Gazian- 4/01/kemalist-ideolojide-ec49fitim.pdf tep University Journal of Social Sciences (31.07.2016) (http://jss.gantep.edu.tr) 03.08.2016 [21] Polat, S.(2009). Öğretmen adaylarının [6] Bekir, H. Ş. (2004). Almanya’da okul Çokkültürlü Eğitime Yönelik Kişilik Özel- öncesi eğitim kurumlarına devam eden 5-6 likleri. Uluslararası Online Eğitim Bilimleri yaş grubu Türk çocuklarına uygulanan Dergisi/ International Online Journal of dil eğitim programının dil gelişimine Educational Sciences, 1 (1), 154-164. etkisi (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi). Gazi [22] Polat, S. (2011). Üniversite öğrencilerine Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, göre kocaeli üniversitesi’nin örgütsel Ankara. imajı. Eğitim ve Bilim, 36 (160): 105-119. [7] Bümen, N., Ateş, A., Çakar, E., Ural, G. ve [23] Polat, S. (2011). The Relationship be- Acar, V. (2012). Türkiye Bağlamında tween University Students’ Academi- Öğretmenlerin Mesleki Gelişimi: Sorunlar cAchievement and Perceived Organiza- ve Öneriler, Millî Eğitim. 94 (31, 32). tional Image. Kuram ve Uygulamada [8] Çakır, M. (2002-2003). Almanya’daki Eğitim Bilimleri, 11(1), 257-262. çok kültürlü ortamlarda Türkçenin ana- [24] Polat, S. Ve Tülübaş, T. (2015). Üniversite dili olarak kullanımı. Sosyal Bilimler yabancı dil hazırlık sınıfı öğrencilerinin Dergisi. okutman imajına ilişkin algı ve önem https://earsiv.anadolu.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstrea düzeyleri. Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar m/handle/11421/518/194824.pdf?sequence Dergisi, 3 (19), 17-28. =1&isAllowed=y (27.01.2016 ). [25] Robins, K. (1999). İmaj Görmenin Kültür [9] Başar, H. (2001). Sınıf Yönetimi. Ankara: Politikası. (Çeviren: Nurçay Türkoğlu). Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları [10] Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö., [26] Saylan, N. (2007). Eğitim bilim- Karadenzi, Ş. Ve Demirel, F. (2012). Bi- lerine giriş. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. limsel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Ankara: [27] Şahan, G. (2012). Almanya' da İlkokullara Pegem Akademi Yayınları. Devam Eden Türk Öğrencilerin Başarılarını [11] Çakır, Ö. (2004). Profesyonel Yaşamda Etkileyen Faktörlerin Nitel Bir Analizi Kişisel İmaj ve Sosyal Yaşam Etiketi. İs- (Doktora Tezi). Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim tanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Eğitim Bilimleri Ana [12] Dichter, E. (1985).What's In An Image, Bilim Dalı, Ankara. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 2 (1), 75 [28] Türkkahraman, M. (2004). Günümüzün – 81. Büyüsü İmaj ve Gerçek Hayat. Sosyoloji [13] Dinçer, M. K. (1998). Kişisel İmaj. İstan- Konferansları Dergisi. bul: Alfa Yayınları. http://www.journals.istanbul.edu.tr/iusosko [14] Druddy, S. (2008). Gender balancel gender n/article/view/1023004819. (31.01.2015). bias:the teaching profession and the impact

134 [29] Türkoğlu, N. (2000). Görü-Yorum. İstan- [31] Yılmaz, B. (2005). Öğretmenin Dünyası. bul: Der Yayınları. Ankara: (Ed.Murat Sünbül) Mikro [30] Ültanir, E., Ültanır , G., Canbulat, M., ve Yayıncılık. Uyanık, A. (2004). Almanya’da yaşayan http://www.eskisehir.gov.tr/sarici/ekitap/Og üçüncü kuşak Türk gençlerinin sosyokültü- retmeninDunyasi.pdf (03.08.2015). rel yetileri. XIII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri [32] Wunder, D. (1994). "Zweisprachige Er- Kurultayı, İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim ziehung". In: DGB. Frankfurt/Main. Fakültesi, Malatya.

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Classical Method and Audio-Visual Methods Identification of Learning Differences in Accounting Program Students

Akın Ölmez Lecturer Uludag University, Orhaneli Vocational High School [email protected]

Abstract. The developments in information technologies have affected the education sector as well as affecting all other professionals groups. Traditional means of education have been abandoned and audiovisual tools have begun to be used. Some of these tools are technological products such as PowerPoint presentation, white screen, projector, computer, animation, electronic board.

One of the educational departments where audiovisual tools are used is also accounting. In accounting education, audiovisual tools are widely used. It is being discussed if there are positive effects of students when they are presented with visual and audio media instead of being taught with traditional methods. This research is to establish whether the usage of audiovisual tools in accounting courses will make any difference for students learning and motivation, the interest and participation during the class and the performance of students and the teachers.

For this purpose, the literature was searched and the questionnaire study was prepared considering this framework. The designed questionnaire was applied on the students of the vocational high school accounting program. Statistical tests were applied to determine the differences that constitute the basis for the research. The data obtained from the research group were analyzed and compared in terms of the academic performances and related aspects of the students.

Keywords: Classical Method, Accounting, Accounting Education, Audio-Visual Tools, Multimedia

mean only to equip students with theoretical 1. Introduction knowledge. In addition to this, students also Developments in information and need to include skills such as problem solving, communication technologies, especially the effective use of time, and teamwork. development and widespread usage of the In traditional accounting teaching, a single Internet, have changed many things, such as teacher usually has to perform a single source business structures, production processes, and of information, using set hours, inside the marketing insights. An important area affected classroom, surrounded with four walls. by these changes is the accounting of the It has radically altered the concepts and roles business as the language. of managers, teachers and students that existed Nowadays, the developments in information within the traditional education system, which and communication technologies, especially the enabled the development of e-accounting development and widespread usage of the environments, the use of the latest technologies internet can provide the required information to developed based on the Internet and computers decision makers in a short space of time. for educational purposes. It is also important that the user has Today, new formations and applications such knowledge of how to use technology in order to as e-commerce, e-business, e-government, e- produce the required information whenever it is billing, e-declaration have begun to emerge. needed. [1] These developments have revealed that In accounting education, theory and practice accountants should be capable of developing are inseparable parts. At every stage of and implementing systems for information and education, basic information given beforehand communication technologies. It is considered must be comprehended with new information, that providing knowledge only is not going to to be integrated with each other and to be be sufficient in the future. It is even more reinforced with the applications to be made. important that students are prepared to be Providing a good accounting education does not equipped with the world of the future. In

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today's technology world, where the distances accountant have changed and it has started to between countries and people are measured, it play a role of accounting system which is is necessary to overcome the scope and purpose proportional to the information-based, of accounting education. In accounting courses, developing technology in the enterprises. As technology needs to be utilized for other technology began to play an active role in the purposes than presentations. [2] field of accounting, reflections of the use of It is important for members of the profession technological tools emerged in accounting to develop themselves in technological matters education. Hence information technology while they are still candidates. At this point, provides education diversity, flexibility and one of the stages that the vocational training is efficiency in accounting education. given, the technologies that they use in the technology education or the trainings they take 2.1. Technology Used in Accountancy in the universities will affect the knowledge and skills of the technology. Developments in information and communication technologies have changed 2. Accountancy and Technology Relation many things, such as accounting records, documents, and new concepts have emerged. These days, many organizations use While many invoices have been manually computers for accounting. Computers facilitate entered into computers before technology the accounting, reporting and analyzing tasks size of jobs has now changed with e-billing quicker. Organizations use computers to application. Many new applications such as perform tasks on production, sales&marketing, reporting on the internet, e-declaration, internet accounting&finance, Human resources banking, virtual businesses are on the agenda of management etc. accountants. In addition, technological products Accounting has an important function in the such as security control and surveillance decision-making process of corporates. software are utilized in the inspection. Therefore, the importance of knowledge and Today, besides preparing and auditing information system is great. In this context, financial reports from professional accountants, organizations need to set up accounting there will also be requests in areas such as information systems very well. Especially the system and tax consultancy, financial planning provision of accurate, complete and accurate and analytics, strategic consulting. Professional information to the past and the simultaneous members need to improve themselves to preparation of future plans play a key role in the respond to these. [4] correct and effective decision-making process.[3] 2.2. Technology in Accounting Education People who have interest in accounting require a good education to succeed and also be The International Federation of Accountants ready to adapt changes. The improvements in (IFAC) emphasized the importance of technology enable transactions to be completed educating accountants who are required to accurately and quickly. As a result of this, provide reliable financial information to the theoretical training can be easily converted into public and published educational standards. practice with the help of technology. The One of the standards that it publishes is related technological developments, competition, to information technologies. According to these market conditions, globalization and the standards, accountants should be able to control environment in which the corporates are located information technologies, design, evaluate and are constantly changing. These changes have manage information systems in addition to impact to accounting profession, and the having knowledge of general information education of accounting subject. technologies. During the development stage of the It is expected that accountants will be trained technology, the process of documenting, on topics such as electronic mail, digital reporting and storing data has changed and signatures, spreadsheet software, word gradually, it has turned into a tool to be used for processing software, file and folder planning and analyzing purposes instead of management, computer networks, electronic book-keeping. Therefore, the functions of the data transfer, software, data organization and

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input methods related to information • To improve analytical skills (MS Excel, technologies before qualification.[5] SQL applications etc.) [9] In accounting education, theory and practice Many research were done to find out how the are inseparable parts. At each stage of technology should be used in order to facilitate education, basic knowledge given beforehand and improve learning process. Especially, must be comprehended with new information, researchers have taken it very seriously when to be integrated with each other and to be researching new educational technologies, reinforced with the applications to be made. [6] computer and multimedia environments, to Providing a good accounting education does not demonstrate the impact on learning and mean only to equip students with theoretical evaluate their effectiveness. [10] knowledge. In addition to this students also Devices such as computers, computer need to include skills such as problem solving, programs and applications, such as internet and effective use of time, and teamwork. [7] projection, with the increase of the number of Computers have begun to be used as the most equipped classes or the increase of the number effective means of communication and teaching of school, portable memory, digital camera, in the educational process and are effective in digital camera, video, interactive video, CD and student success. In computer based education, DVD player etc. have become more effective information technology is complementary and tools in the learning process. [11] contributes to the development of students' Many researchers have a general belief that learning. The use of technological tools in the use of media tools in accounting courses accounting courses contributed to student affects students' positive perceptions, increases success, research perceptions, and the motivation, makes the curriculum more performance of students and teachers were entertaining, facilitates the work of the positively influenced. accounting educator, positively affects the In traditional accounting teaching, a single performance of the student and the trainer, and teacher usually has to perform in a single so many things can be worked effectively. [12] source of information, using set hours, inside Nevertheless, many researchers argue that the classroom, surrounded with four walls It has accounting courses should be taught in classical radically altered the concepts and roles of ways. managers, teachers and students that existed within the traditional education system, which 3. Research enabled the development of e-accounting environments, the use of the latest technologies developed based on the Internet and computers 3.1. Goal of Research for educational purposes. [8] On the methods used in education, The studies have been proven that the technological developments and especially multimedia presentation have improved the computer technology have a great effect. In the student’s perception, their motivation and lessons visual materials have more importance. excitement and increased their interest towards The research reveals that learning with visual the lesson. materials is much more efficient in reaching the educational purpose. Information technology in education is used 3.2. Tools for the following purposes: • To get the student do self-studying instead In the first half of the first term, the classical of passive learning method has been taught, white board solutions • To provide learners with access to have been made and lectures have been given in information, problem solving, knowledge the form of oral presentation. As of the second processing and presentation skills, and how to half of the school term; In addition to using use information technology tools in everyday tools like computer, projection, white screen, life, also audio and video animations are used in • To provide all students with the ability to order to improve presentation quality. In use the right information technology tool at the addition, presentation slides are prepared with right time and place different presentation richness, aiming to • To facilitate understanding of the course, increase your visuals.

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4. Research Method and Classical method in terms of course perception". The research was applied to the students who "H3: There is a statistically significant took the 1st Class and 1st trim to General difference between Audiovisual Instruments Accounting courses in Accounting and Tax and Classical method in terms of the judgments Applications and Office Management of the students". Programme and Executive Assistance Programs in Uludag University Orhaneli Vocational 7. Research Results School. In the classical method, the lectures were The total number of students in the survey is carried out in the form of lectures on the white 127. 96.85% of the total students answered the board and the lectures were supported by other questionnaire in accordance with the methods such as question-answer, discussion, questionnaire. Of the total 127 students, 69 application solutions. Lecture presentations are (54,3%) were male and 58 (45,6%) were prepared in the lecture by using audiovisual female. The attendance of the students to the tools; slides prepared in the classrooms are lectures was observed at 90%. projected on the screen with the help of It has been determined that 74 of the students projection. In addition, lectures, question- have a tablet or a tablet where they can follow answer, discussion, student-centered sample classes. solution activities are also occasionally It appears that more than half of the students included. have informed they have their own computers, Part 1 of the survey used in the survey smart phones and access to Internet. The consists of 6 questions about demographic question that we asked the students about characteristics. Sections 2 and 3 of the whether they use any of the technological tools questionnaire were compiled from a previous in the accounting courses they have taken up to survey. In these sections, a Likert scale of 5 is now is determined to be done with the used. There are 8 questions in the 2 nd chapter PowerPoint program only with projection. and 6 questions in the 3. Section. The Instead of classical narration in accounting questionnaire was administered to selected courses, narration should be preferred with groups during the last week of classes. presentation programs; the students who have used any technological tools by the instructors 5. Data Collection and Analysis who teach in the accounting courses they are taking participate in the presentation of the The data required for the research were presentations instead of the classical narration collected by a questionnaire consisting of 20 in the accounting courses by using the programs items. The items in the scale are rated at the and audio-visual tools. level of Totally Participating, Participating at The relationship between students' Large Scale, Partially Participating, perceptions of accounting education according Participating, Never Participating. Mean, to the methods of purchasing general standard deviation, chi-square and t-test were accounting course were analyzed by used for statistical analysis of the data. Independent Sample T Test and Levene Test. In Statistical analyzes were performed using the the perceptions of students about accounting SPSS 17.0 program in a computer environment. education according to the method they take Significance level was taken as 0.05. General Accounting course; Classical methodology has led to the finding that 6. Hypotheses accounting training courses are more monotonous, more boring, more interesting, "H1: There is a statistically significant more entertaining, more relaxing and more difference between the audiovisual tools and mobile. However, with the audiovisual method, the classical method in terms of the the result of the classical method of finding demographic characteristics of the students". accounting education courses more interesting, "H2: There is a statistically significant more fun and more mobile than the course difference between Audiovisual Instruments participants has been found to be more beneficial.

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In order to measure students' thinking about Table 2: Influence of the Use of Audiovisual the method they took General Accounting Tools in the Course of General Accounting course, 12 expressions were asked, 5 of which Yes % No % were positive and 5 were negative. When the averages were examined, the students who took the classical course gave more answers The course is more 88 12 indicating the negative situation than the understandable students who took the lesson with the audio- It's easier to follow the lesson 89 11 visual presentation, but they answered that they were participating in less positive statements. Easier to keep notes 94 6 The students who took lessons in classical More practices are made 96 4 method in the first 5 expressions which are positive expressions about how the general Lessons become more 90 10 accounting course was taught by the lecture enjoyable method were less positive than the students who The use of technology 88 12 took the courses by using the audiovisual tools. provided love of accounting The last 5 statements are negative statements, and students who took lessons using Audio- Technology use increased my 86 14 Visual Tools gave fewer answers than classical performance in accounting students. courses Students who took courses by using the classical method participated less frequently in When the table is evaluated in general; it is the courses that were learned by using possible to say that the use of audiovisual tools Audiovisual tools, "Lesson is more has increased the interest, perception, and understandable", "Lesson is more memorable", enjoyment of the students' interest in General "Active participation is increased" and "Lesson accounting courses. is creating irrationality". Students who took courses using Audio-Visual tools, however, 8. Conclusion participated more frequently in classroom- based accounting lessons than "It is easier to A student’s level of accounting knowledge follow the lesson", "It is easier to keep notes", and the teaching quality that they will get from "We do not understand what comes from" and accounting will benefit them when they look for "We have difficulty communicating with the a suitable job and the success that they will teacher". have in their role. In this case, it is related to the

ability of the student to transfer the knowledge Table 1: Preferences of General gained during the theoretical accounting Accountancy Lecture by Students education to the business life and to express Which method did you choose? himself well. The main purpose of accounting education is Classic (Whiteboard and Oral) 16 13 % to improve the student’s profile and to support With Audio-Visual Tools 107 87 % them for their personal and professional development in society by motivating them to When we look at the results of the achieve their learning thorough out their life. characteristics of being preferred by students in Today, in order to fulfill this task, an the method of giving general accounting course information-based education model should be education, it is seen that the preferred rate of preferred by creating an interactive classical method is 13%. With the Audio-Visual environment that keeps the attention of the Vehicles technique, the rate of choice of student constantly. narration method increased by 87%. It has been revealed that students who take lessons with the Visual-Auditory Instruments technique become more useful because of the more interesting, more fun, easy to follow, more applications and more useful when the students are examined in terms of perception of

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General Accounting lessons. Students who have [6] Erol, M. ve Erkan, G. Lisans düzeyinde taken classes in a classical manner found the muhasebe eğitimi alan öğrencilerin lesson more monotonous, more boring and başarılarını etkileyen faktörlerin more exhausting than the other group. The belirlenmesine yönelik Biga iktisadi ve difference between the two groups was idari birimler fakültesinde bir araştırma. statistically significant. In this case, it can be Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey Üniversitesi said that the lesson with the audio-visual İİBF Dergisi, 10, 2008 p.14. instruments technique influenced the overall [7] ERDOĞAN M., N.TEK, M.ŞAKRAK ve perception of the student positively. C.Ş. MUĞAN “Teknolojik Gelişmelerin Applying student perceptions positively to Muhasebe ve Muhasebe Eğitimine the audiovisual instrument technique may be a Etkileri”, Muhasebe Bilim Dünyası starting point for increasing the quality of this Dergisi, Sayı: 2, Aralık, 2010, p.4. course. For this reason, it can be said that the use of multimedia tools related to Audiovisual [8] Özdener, N. ve Özçoban, T. Bilgisayar Tools in accounting lessons, increasing the Eğitiminde Çoklu Zeka Kuramına Göre financial support of the institutional Proje Tabanlı Öğrenme Modelinin Öğrenci administrations, and educating the instructors Başarısına Etkisi, Kuram Ve Uygulamada about multimedia techniques will increase the Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(1), 2004, pp. success of this model. 147-170. In this case, it is possible to say that lectures [9] Yanpar Ş. ve Yıldırım, S. Öğretim using audiovisual tools have changed the way Teknolojileri ve Materyal Geliştirme, Anı students look at accounting courses. Yayıncılık, Ankara, 1999, pp. 22-24. [10] Savoy,A., Proctor, R.W. & Salvendy, G. References Information retention from powerpoint and traditional lectures. Computers & [1] BUTLER, J. B. & MAUTZ, R. D. Education, 52 (4), 2009, pp. 858–867. Multimedia presentations and learning: a laboratory experiment. Issues in [11] Gelişli, Y. PowerPoint ile Yapılan Ders Accounting Education, 11 (2), 1996, pp. Sunumlarının Etkililiği. Ahi Evran 259–280. Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), 10 (2),2009, pp.55-168. [2] HACIRÜSTEMOĞLU, R. “Bilgi Çağında Muhasebe Eğitimi”, Muhasebe Bilim [12] Dinç, E. ve Çankaya, F. PowerPoint ve Dünyası Dergisi, C:3, 2008, p.1-6. klasik usulde muhasebe eğitimi alan öğrenciler arasındaki farklılıkların tespiti: [3] Aşkar, P. “Teknoloji ve Eğitimdeki Rolü”, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesinde bir Önce Kalite Dergisi, Yıl:17, Sayı:128, araştırma. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sosyal 2008, p. 50. Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 17 (1), 2009, [3] Mısırlıoğlu, İsmail U. “Teaching and pp. 28 – 52. Learning Experience in Accounting

Education: A UK Perspective, Muhasebe Bilim Dünyası Dergisi, Cilt:10, Sayı:4, İstanbul, 2008, p. 27. [4] IFAC, Handbook Of International Education Pronouncements, http://www.ifac.org/publications- resources/ies-1-entry-requirements- professional-accounting-education, 2011, Access: 11 December 2016. [5] İpek, İ. Bilgisayarla Öğretim Tasarım, Geliştirme ve Yöntemler, Tıp Teknik, Ankara, 2001, pp. 66-67.

141 FROM LUDDISM TO NEO-LUDDISM: THE CRITIQUE OF TECHNOLOGY AT WORK

Selcan Peksan, M. Seyyid Yelek and Fatma Tosun Istanbul University, Labour Economics and Industrial Relations Department

Abstract. At the present time, technology, which is thought to be almost equal to human development in sophistication, and often referred to in uncritically positive terms, has had varied and unfavourable reactions throughout history. Due to the uncontrolled development of technology within the globalization process, uneasiness regarding ecological concerns, ideals surrounding sustainable life and other ethical discussions are increasingly being expressed. The aim of the paper is to analyze the effects of technology on working life, and to draw attention to the reasons of movements against technology. In this paper, using a literature review methodology, Luddite movements at the start of industrialization, related to known machine-breakers, will be examined. By taking into consideration the position of advanced technology in post-industrial working life, the authors will explore: technology’s potential negative impact on the global labour market; Neo-Luddite movements that have taken on new forms related to differing forms of social change; and the similarities and differences between Luddite movements themselves. The criticism of the paper is that technology emerges as the decisive factor, rather than being only one part of a variegated production process and in the organization of working life. In addition, it is important to distinguish that Luddite and Neo-Luddite groups have not reacted to technology itself, but the prioritization of technology over human life.

Keywords: technology, working life, luddism, neo-luddite, machine breaking, anti-technology

Introduction significance.

Technological development affects working However, there are other standpoints which life in two main aspects. One of the impacts argue that technology, since it creates new technology has over the working life concerns professions and business opportunities, might employment volume. Technological play an important role in creating jobs in the unemployment is basically the situation in which long term albeit by inducing short term technology not only replaces labour in the unemployment. manufacturing process but also it causes a de- growth in employment volume by causing The second aspect regarding the relation of certain jobs and lines of work to lose their technology and working life concentrates on the

142 quality/characteristic of labour. One view to the fact that automation paves the way to the suggests that, technological advancements expiration of working societies. That, augment the quality of labour since it demands a unemployed and deskilled workers, who handed skilled labour force. On the other hand, it is also over the work to machines would thereby face claimed that, with these advancements, workers ostracization, anxiety and a sense of lose their control over the production process, meaninglessness. thus, giving way to deskilling labour force. In the beginning of the 2000’s, a group who A historical inquiry would indicate that, each called themselves Neo-Luddites expressed their technological development stage witnessed the concerns on the matter by manifesting that above mentioned discussions. Following the technologic innovations have lately turned out to industrial revolution, the first stages of be a tool of control and begun to be a threat to automation resulted in mass unemployment and humanity. The accelerated innovations in the deskilling of workers. Hence, the reactionary various technological fields, such as artificial movement called Luddism emerged. intelligence, robotics, genetics, nano-technology Nevertheless, one can state that, industrialization and bio-technology, have the potential to alter and technological advancements, due to both not only the relation of human beings and their causing an increase in productivity and creating labour but also all aspects of human life. a new line of jobs, helped to increase Consequently, this paper aims to examine the employment and welfare in the long run. reasons of opposition to technological change As of the 1970’s, corresponding to new based on Neo-Luddites’ point of view. It technologies, discussions on the effects of attempts to understand the grounds of their automation technologies on employment objection to a phenomenon which provided accelerated. Labour and work have a drastic endless opportunities to humankind while transformation both quantitatively and searching the reasons why they named qualitatively especially after the 1980’s. One themselves as such. Since the movement made a approach regarding this transformation entailed reference to Luddite, our paper will include a ideas and hopes that human beings would have brief look on them too. In conclusion, it will more free time on their hands for their creative speculate on the ways in which contemporary and productive activities as a result of replacing technological advancements will effect future technology with labour power. On the other work life. hand, there were also claims that draw attention

143 Technology and Work: Industrial Revolution quantities of cloth. In fact, none of these cases and Luddite Movements were directly against the machines as such. Wrecking was simply a technique of early trade- Technology, prior to Industrial Revolution, unionism. The main purpose of the protestors was referring to techniques the craftsmen, was to force employers to raise their wages workers and farmers used for centuries. Up until (Jongerden, 2006, p.65). In addition to that, that point, techniques and tools have been these actions also served as a reaction to the considered merely as complementary elements poverty and misery of long ages. In 1800 and of production. As advancements in technology 1801, a rash of rioting had broken out lead to automation, technology began to throughout England. Most of these riots were substitute labour force (Sayın, 2010, p. 150). food riots provoked by scarcity and soaring This rigid social transformation not only caused prices (Thompson, 1966, p. 472). Furthermore, mass unemployment but also confined masses, the people who lost their lands and properties as including women and children, to harsh working a result of Enclosure Acts began to lose their and poor living conditions. Machines were seen jobs with the arrival of new machinery as threats to workers’ livelihood; this was the (Linebaugh, 2012, p. 8). The workers, who were atmosphere that lead to opposition and attacks deprived of every legal right to organize with the on machines. implementation of Combination Acts, made

In 1811 and 1812, English textile workers and their voice heard by attacking machines. weavers who referred to themselves as followers Hobsbawm called these attacks “collective of Ned Ludd (or Captain Ludd), a semi-mythical bargaining by riot” (Hobsbawm, 1952, p. 59). figure, attacked factories and mills that used new technology (Thompson, 1966, p.472). The There was a machine-breaking tradition long Luddites, as they labeled themselves, protested before the Luddite movement. (Hobsbawm, the technological change by using hammers to 1952, pp. 58-59; Marx, 2011, p. 410; Randall, destroy mechanical weaving machines which 1998). Although related, the Luddite movement they accused of taking their jobs and destroying must be distinguished from that tradition for their communities and lives. being much more organized and having a completely different political context. As There were numerous accounts of miners Thompson emphasized, Luddism was a quasi- burning machinery, shear-men burning hayricks, insurrectionary movement, although it was not a barns, and kennels or destroying mills and large wholly conscious revolutionary movement, it

144 had a tendency towards becoming such Neo-Luddism of Globalisation Period (Thompson, 1966, pp. 552 - 553). All the stages of technological development

that took place since Industrial Revolution While the essence of Luddism is far from caused significant changes in the production violence, it has generally been perceived as processes, including employment volume as merely an opposition to the technology. In fact, well as quality and value of labour. it rejected the mechanistic approach to humanity as it dignified the things that make us human. “It The 1970’s, with widespread usage of is a philosophy that values tradition, intuition, microprocessors, computer and spirituality, the senses, human relationships, the telecommunication technologies, marked a new work of the hand, and the disorderly and stage of advancement that differed widely from unpredictable nature of reality, as opposed to a the automation period and is called the “third mechanistic or reductionist construct of the industrial revolution”. The innovations in micro- world. It rejects materiality. In this sense, electronic technology enabled automation and Luddism is a critique of the domination of hence lay the technical foundations of flexible science and the elevation of efficiency to a automation. superior value” (Fox, 2002, p. xii). Moreover, The rise in international competition that was Luddites only rose up against the kind of triggered by globalization and neoliberal politics, technology that they believed would destroy led to innovations in manufacturing systems and traditional modes of work and customary bonds management techniques. These innovations that of household, community and marketplace that aimed to increase the profits reshaped and had endured for centuries (Sale, 2006, p. 73). changed the relations of labour and technology. Workers’ direct contact with the machines or the Although the Luddite movement lasted for a product has almost completely disappeared. relatively short period of time, their influence continued throughout years. Luddism holds its After 1970’s, the transformation of the importance for it presents a romantic ideal that working life by technology accelerated while would serve as a base for movements that technology triggered social, cultural and criticize technology. Moreover, it crystallized a ecological outcomes. Today, we are still watershed, as Randall puts it, in the attitudes of undergoing this transformation. The the State towards industrial protest and industrial 2000’s witnessed global reactions towards regulation (Randall, 1998). these transformations. One of the groups that

145 opposed the effects of technological outcomes and the ones that do should be developments identified themselves as Neo- reformed or virtually restrained. In other terms, Luddites. they demand more ecologic restraints regarding

The Neo-Luddite movement was born during future technology. a “Teach-In on Technology and Globalization” The movement was against technologies that that was held at Hunter College by the were having an adverse impact on the International Forum on Globalization. Neo- environment and on human society. Certain Luddites were concerned about “technology’s technological developments pose threats on life symbiotic relationship with corporate power”. in general as they create a risk of causing According to IFG head Jerry Mander and other nuclear and biochemical hazards; or contaminate neo-Luddites, “globalization” refers to what they natural resources like soil, rivers, and claim is a self-evident centralization and groundwater by wastes; or trigger climate expansion of “corporate power” (Bailey, 2001). changes. Moreover, the faster the advances take Their main emphasis was on ecologic concerns place, the more cancer, diabetes, asthma and and sustainable life demands. Thusly, when the other lung disorders emerge. (Fox, 2002, p. xiv). life on the planet in general has been threatened, The technological enhancements are often neo-Luddite movements undertook an celebrated and claimed to have made life more environmental movement’s position. In other healthy, comfortable, beautiful and pleasant by words, neo-Luddites’ criticisms are beyond the improving living standards, providing jobs, and effects that technology has over working life. reducing the time spent at work. However, none The emphasis of the movement is not on of these have a direct relation to happiness, technology itself, instead on the risks it creates security, or human satisfaction. Nor do they on human life; as a result, they draw attention on make human life sustainable. In fact, as Marshall destructive aspects of nuclear, chemical, Sahlins and others have pointed out, stone-age biogenetic and electromagnetic technologies. societies had more than twice the amount of Neo-Luddites goal is to question the methods of leisure time we do today, which they used to a livable world. These techno-rebels argue that pursue spiritual matters, personal relationships, the biosphere of earth is very fragile and and pleasure (Mander, 1992, p. 26). technology poses a risk of creating irreversible Developments in technology, in time, turned damage to our planet. In conclusion, Neo- into a tool of domination over environment and Luddites demand that all technologies should be human beings instead of making life easier. War examined in respect to having dangerous

146 and energy technologies that risk destroying the technologies from the perspective not only of human use, but of their impact world and chemical technologies that disturb the on other living beings, natural systems, balance of nature, dragging nature and human and the environment. This proposition presents the precise essence of the Neo- beings toward a fragile future. Values and goals Luddite critique. of the movement that emerged in 1990’s The shift from the original historical Luddism, proposes three principles (Glendinning, 1990) which targeted unfair labor practices, to recent (Frobish, 2002, p. 212): Neo-Luddism, a philosophy against technology as an abstract force, is summed up by Edward Neo-Luddites are not anti- technology, they oppose only technologies, argues Tenner as “the indignation of nineteenth century Glendinning in “Neo-Luddite producers” being replaced by “the irritation of Manifesto”, “that serve the perpetuation of that society and its goals of efficiency, late-twentieth-century consumers” (Tenner, production, and marketing.” Neo- 1997, p. 4). Neo-Luddism, simply a response to Luddites oppose the kinds of technologies that are destructive to the modern global marketplace, came to the human lives and communities. public’s attention just as the first demonstrations All technologies are political. Jerry of the antiglobalization movement were being Mander proposes in Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television that televised. Although Neo-Ludditte movement technologies are not neutral tools and was a coalition of “green” (ecology activists), they can be used for good or evil depending on who uses them. These are “red” (leftists), and “black” (anarchists), there means to serve perpetuation of mass were also self-identified neo-Luddites in many technological society. Their goal is to increase efficiency, production, of these groups. These movements share the distribution, marketing, and profit. opinion that Western technology was as both Hence, the social structures resulting from this can not be controlled or cause and effect of the global dominance of overthrown by people. capitalism (Jones, 2006, p. 24). The personal view of technology is dangerously limited. Technologies While Luddism tried to protect their place in should be considered along with their the production process in order to sustain their effects on the ones created and those who use them. A critical approach existence, Neo-Luddites were striving to towards technologies and their negative demonstrate the destruction that was caused by outcomes, as well as the positive ones, are fundamental. As Mander points out, consuming habits of its era (Jones, 2006, pp. 3, producers of technologies tend to 24). introduce their creations in upbeat, utopian terms. However, one should also The Neo-Luddite movement reveals an effort consider the losses technology causes as well as the gains, while evaluating to create an image that both borrows and

147 distances itself from the historical image of the the wind and the rustle in the grass but to the original Luddites. Although the movement has a whirs and chirps and hums and pings of the genealogical connection with the original machines. But the struggle to adjust is not Luddite rebellion, it also realizes that their without consequences. It shows itself in our image is crucial in achieving their ends. Thus, anxiety, our uneasiness, our rage (Fox, 2002, p. Neo-Luddites assumed a different identity than x). Rapid advances in digital technologies have their predecessors. Instead of breaking profound implications for work. Many middle machinery, the Neo-Luddites pursued a peaceful, and low skill jobs have been lost, contributing to yet critical examination of technology’s social increasing inequality, falling labor force implications (Frobish, 2002, p. 207). participation and stagnating median incomes (MacCrory, Alhammadi, Westerman, &

Conclusion and Remarks Brynjolfsson, 2014).

It is claimed that today that we are near the Starting from the Industrial Revolution, start of a Fourth Industrial Revolution. technology has been creeping up on human life Improvements in genetics, artificial intelligence, gradually, seductively, incrementally, until it robotics, nanotechnology, 3D printing and now overwhelms all aspects of our lives, our biotechnology, and so forth, are all expanding on thinking, our desires, and our actions in ways and intensifying each other. These developments that could not have been anticipated and of are thought to establish the foundation for a which we are scarcely aware. It has, in a way not revolution more comprehensive and all intentionally or precisely considered, reshaped encompassing than anything we have ever seen and reordered our general surroundings to its (Schwab & Samans, 2016). own measure. Over those two centuries, the relationship between human and tools has While the forthcoming change holds great shifted dramatically. The extent to which we promise, the patterns of consumption, now attempt to adapt our lives to the production and employment created by it also requirements of the machine is unknown. We pose major difficulties requiring proactive adjust automatically, willingly, bravely: adjustment by corporations, governments and remembering our identification numbers, fitting people. Concurrent to the technological our hands to the keyboards, fixing our eyes not upheaval are an arrangement of more extensive on the horizon or the movement in the bush but socio-economic, geopolitical and demographic on the screen; our ears tuned not to the sound of drivers of change, each interacting in multiple

148 directions and intensifying one another. As educational attainment. According to their entire industries adjust, most occupations are estimate, about 47 percent of total US experiencing a fundamental change. While some employment is at risk and wages and educational jobs are threatened by redundancy and others attainment exhibit a strong negative relationship grow rapidly, existing jobs are also going with an occupation’s probability of through a change in the skill sets required to do computerization (Frey & Osborne, 2013, p. 1). them (Schwab, 2016, p. 8). A similar research shows that Sweden is on A survey research of World Economic Forum, the same level as the US. On the other hand, one covered a data account for about 1.86 billion third of Norwegian employment is highly workers. Around 65% of the world’s total susceptible to computerization in the next workforces’ current trends could lead to a net decade or two. This high rate is at the same level employment impact of more than 5.1 million as in Finland and over ten percentage points less jobs lost to disruptive labour market changes than the corresponding share in the United States. over the period 2015–2020, with a total loss of The difference between the similar levels in 7.1 million jobs— two thirds of which are Finland and Norway, on one hand, and the concentrated in the Office and Administrative similar levels in US and Sweden, alternately, job family—and a total gain of 2 million jobs, in reflects differences in the occupational structures. several smaller job families (Schwab & Samans, Low wage and low skill occupations appear the 2016, p. 13). most threatened. Service and public sector jobs are relatively more sheltered than manufacturing Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne and private sector jobs. To some extent from Oxford Martin School examine how computerization will nevertheless affect all susceptible jobs are to computerization by occupations (Pajarinen, Rouvinen, & Ekeland, relating technical possibilities of computerizing 2015), including traditionally high skill various job tasks and then deriving a probability occupations requiring specialization such as of computerization for each occupation in their doctors, lawyers, teachers, accountants, tax research ‘The Future of Employment’. Their advisers, management consultants, architects, research covers 702 detailed occupations. They journalists. analyse the possible impacts of future computerization on US labour market outcomes It is expected in a technology-based Internet and the relationship between an occupation’s society that machine learning and artificial probability of computerization, wages and intelligence, operating on their own or with non-

149 expert users, will take on many of the tasks that All these researches highlight a forthcoming have been the historic preserve of the fundamental transformation that might change professions. This will lead in the end to a most aspects of our lives. It is the main critique disassembling of the traditional professions. In of this paper that technology, as well as easing any event, increasingly capable machines will human life, has potential to dominate human life convey changes and transformations to and nature. On the other hand, as we discussed professional work that will resemble the effect earlier, technologic developments predominantly of industrialization on traditional craftsmanship. effect working life. Thus, in the light of current Susskind & Susskind claim that we are on the innovations, it is compulsory to revisit the edge of a period of fundamental and irreversible critiques of neo-luddite movement. This is the change in the way that the expertise of the reason this paper aims to trigger ethical professions is made available in society. discussions regarding technological Technology will be the main driver of this advancements. change and in the long run, increasingly capable machines will transform the work of References professionals, giving rise to new ways of sharing Bailey, R. (2001). Rage Against the Machines practical expertise in society. The shift itself can Witnessing the Birth of the Neo-Luddite be characterized in many ways: as the Movement. Retrieved from http://reason.com/archives/2001/07/01/r industrialization and digitization of the age-against-the-machines/singlepage professions; as the routinization and Fox, N. (2002). Against the Machine: The commoditization of professional work; as the Hidden Luddite Tradition in Literature, Art, and Individual Lives. Washington: disintermediation and demystification of Island Press. professionals. Whatever terminology is preferred, Frey, C. B., & Osborne, M. A. (2013). The it is claimed that, eventually, the traditional Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to professions will be dismantled, leaving most Computerisation? Oxford Martin School. professionals to be replaced by less expert Retrieved from http://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/down people and high-performing systems. Even loads/academic/The_Future_of_Employ though new roles will arise, but it is not known ment.pdf website: how long they will last, because these too, in due Frobish, T. S. (2002). Neo-Luddites and Their Rhetorical Paradox. Peace Review, course, may be taken on by machines (Susskind 14(2), 207-215. & Susskind, 2015, pp. 2, 303 - 305). doi:10.1080/10402650220140247

150 Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes Toward a Neo- Sayın, F. (2010). 1990’dan Günümüze Luddite Manifesto. Ulne Reader, March Türkiye’de Teknolojik Değişmenin / April 82 - 88. İstihdama Etkisi. (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Hobsbawm, E. (1952). The Machine Breakers. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Manisa. The Past and Present(1), 57 - 70. Schwab, K. (2016). Dördüncü Sanayi Devrimi Jones, S. E. (2006). Against Technology: From (Z. Dicleli, Trans.). İstanbul: Optimist the Luddites to Neo-Luddism. New Yayınları. York: Routledge. Schwab, K., & Samans, R. (2016). The Future of Jongerden, J. (2006). Luddities, or the Politics in Jobs: Employment, Skills and Workforce Technology: An Introduction. Tailoring Strategy for the Fourth Industrial Biotechnologies, 2(1), 63 - 68. Revolution. World Economic Forum. Linebaugh, P. (2012). Nedd Ludd & Queen Global Challenge Insight Report. Mab: Machine-Breaking, Romanticism Susskind, R., & Susskind, D. (2015). The Future and the Several Commons of 1811-1812. of the Professions: How Technology Oakland: Pm Press. Will Transform the Work of Human MacCrory, F., Alhammadi, Y., Westerman, G., Experts Oxford: Oxford University & Brynjolfsson, E. (2014). Racing With Press. and Against the Machine: Changes in Tenner, E. (1997). Why Things Bite Back: Occupational Skill Composition in an Technology and the Revenge of Era of Rapid Technological Advance. Unintended Consequences. New York: Thirty Fifth International Conference on Vintage Books. Information Systems. Thompson, E. P. (1966). The Making of English Mander, J. (1992). In the Absence of the Sacred: Working Class. New York: Vintage The Failure of Technology & the Books. Survival of the Indian Nations. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Marx, K. (2011). Kapital I. Cilt: Ekonomi Politiğin Eleştirisi (M. Selik & N. Satlıgan, Trans.). İstanbul: Yordam Kitap. Pajarinen, M., Rouvinen, P., & Ekeland, A. (2015). Computerization and the Future of Jobs in Norway. Retrieved from http://nettsteder.regjeringen.no/fremtide nsskole/files/2014/05/Computerization- and-the-Future-of-Jobs-in-Norway.pdf Randall, A. (1998). The ‘lessons’ of Luddism. Endeavour, 22(4). Sale, K. (2006). The Achievements of 'General Ludd': A Brief History of The Luddities. Tailoring Biotechnologies, 2(1).

151 Confederation Of Nationalist Trade Unions In The Labour History Of Turkey

Samet Yaşar PhD. Student in Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Istanbul University, TURKEY

Abstract: In the literature of Turkish labour history, the Confederation of Nationalist Trade Unions (Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu-MİSK) has been regarded as a violent actor only during the controversial times in 1970s despite its organizational capabilities and mobilization of conservative labourers. The aim of this study is to focus on the ideological approach and activities of MİSK and to determine its position in Turkish labour history between 1970 and 1980. During this period, MİSK, founded in 1970 and was the third largest confederation, continued its activities until the September 12, 1980 military coup. MİSK became active again in 1984. But, it has not been effective in trade unionism and lost many members. MİSK changed its name as YURT-İŞ Confederation in 1987. However it is closed down again in 1988 because of the fact that it was incapable of fulfilling the legal requirements. There were several new confederations established by the former executives of MİSK under new titles in the following years. However, these confederations were unable to have strong effect on the trade unionism. Therefore, this study will focus on between 1970 and 1980 since the period was the heyday of MİSK. MİSK was established and organized in a way related to the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) after the protests of 15-16 June in 1970, organized by Confederation of Revolutionary Workers' Unions (Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Konfed- erasyonu - DİSK), an ideologically socialist-oriented confederation. It is possible to classify MİSK as a reactive organization. Traces of reactivity may be observed in the policies of MİSK, which was defining itself as a part of the anti-communist block, tries to position itself against DİSK. Major principles of MİSK were refusing class conflict between labour and capital, considering labour and capital were the two complementary elements, and protecting labour against capital. By doing so, strike was the last choice in labour disputes and only one national type trade union should be established in each sector and membership must be compulsory, according to MİSK. MİSK, as a confederation that was popular mostly in conservative and nationalist cities where rural workers live, achieved a remarkable organizational power in the second half of 1970s. However, the lack of experience in trade unionism and the poor conditions following the 12th September military coup led to the end of its existence. Keywords: Trade Unionism, Nationalism, Labour History, Labour movements

1. Introduction pleted its organizational structure in the first half of The Confederation of Turkish Nationalist Trade the 1970s and in the second half it began its activi- Unions of Turkey (MISK) was established with re- ties. After September 12 1980 coup d’etat, its activi- actionary objectives after 15-16 June Events in 1970. ties were suspended immediately. In 1984, MISK 15-16 June Events were large protest movements started its activities but was unable to return to its against the legal regulations on the abolishment of powerful days and by 1988 it was discharged. Alt- the Confederation of Revolutionary Trade Unions of 1 Turkey (DISK). MISK, established in 1970, com- is expressed as 1977 with a reference to Milliyet newspaper. There is a mistake in the statement. 1 Yıldırım Koç, “Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Kon- MISK is formally established in 23 July 1970. federasyonu: MİSK”, Kebikeç Dergisi, Ankara, No: See, Milliyet (Daily Newspaper), "Misk'de Yedek 5, 1997, p. 207. Yönetim Kurulu İş Başı Yaptı”, 1 August 1979, p. 9 In Jacob M. Landau's article titled "The National- and Jacob M. Landau, "The Nationalist Action Party ist Action Party in Turkey" published in Journal of in Turkey", Journal of Contemporary History¸ Contemporary History, year of foundation of MISK Vol. 17, No. 4 (October, 1982), p. 595.

152 hough the managers of the Confederation have tried formed working life. Rights of unionization, collec- to establish new trade unions under the same name, tive labour agreement, strike and lockout were guar- the attempts have failed.2 anteed legally. The aim of this study, which will deal with Legal regulations, including advanced provisions MISK’s unionist approach and activities, is to dislike multi-level collective bargaining and collective cuss the role of the union that were more or less effi- labour agreement, right to be a member of multiple cient for creating an agenda of struggle for social trade unions, check-off system that financially em- and economic rights for the right-wing nationalist powers the unions vitalized the unionism in 1970s worker under 1970s’ politically polarized atmos- and there was significant increase in unionization phere. rates. There are two different approaches to MISK in the literature of Turkish labour history . First, focus- Table 1. Number of Workers and Trade Union ing on confederation’s historical position of MISK Workers in 1970s either very superficially or make no word about it.3 Second approach prejudicedly defines MISK as YEA NUMBER OF NUMBER OF ‘fascist commando units’, ‘nationalist gangs’ or RS WORKERS COV- UNIONIZED 4 ERED BY LABOUR WORKERS ‘movement for de-organizing working class.’. This LAW study seeks to critically examine the two approaches according to confederation’s primary resources. 1970 1,406,100 2.088.219 This paper has been divided three parts. The first part presents a brief overview trade unionism in 1971 1,448,108 2.362.787 Turkey when MISK was active and MISK’s position 1972 1,562,580 2.672.857 and relations with violence in 1970s. The second part will deal not only with MISK’s opinions and 1973 1,612,579 2.658.393 suggestions related to unionist approach but also with its demands about social and economic rights. 1974 1,718,551 2.878.624 In the final part, results will be given about MISK’s fundamental union activities such as strike, collec- 1975 1,819,456 3.328.633 tive labour agreement and union training activities. 1976 1,580,000 3.269.356 As aforementioned above, the deficiencies of the dominant perspectives on MISK within the literature 1977 1,970,000 3.807.577 will be questioned. Answers will be sought for the questions of to what extent MISK’s role poses sig- 1978 2,205,056 3.897.290 nificance in Turkish labour history, that at whether it 1979 2,152,411 5.465.109 is convenient that to approach to the confederation through putting the armed conflict at the centre and 1980 2,204,807 5.721.074 that of whether it is apt to define MISK a confederation, which was established for weakening working (Source: Ülkü İleri, Türkiye’de Toplumsal class movement. Değişimin Çalışma İlişkileri Üzerindeki Etkileri, Ankara, Türk Ağır Sanayii ve Hizmet Sektörü Kamu 2. Trade Unionism in 1970s in Turkey and İşverenleri Sendikası Yayını, Ankara, 2009, p. 272.) MISK The data given in Table 1 released by Ministry of The principals of the working life in 1970s were Labour formulated with references to the declara- based on the Trade Unions Act no.274 and the Col- tions of trade unions. The point to be highlighted is lective Labour Agreement, Strike and Lock-out Act the fact that fake membership was a common prac- no.275 that were legislated within the framework of tise among trade unions. So, trade union statistics 1961 Constitution. Those had fundamentally trans- presented in Table 1 is far from real unionization rates. However, it should also be noted that workers 2 “MİSK (Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Konfeder- could become a member of more than one trade un- asyonu)”, Türkiye’de Sendikacılık Ansiklopedisi, ion and that it was their preference especially during Vol.2, İstanbul, 1993, p. 425. the collective labour agreement processes. At the 3 M.Şehmus Güzel, Türkiye’de İşçi Hareketi same time, unionized informal workers must be tak- 1908-1984, İstanbul, Kaynak Yayınları, 1996. en into consideration. Therefore, it would be more 4 Yüksel Akkaya, “Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi ve reliable to use the number of workers within the Sendikacılık”, Özgür Üniversite Forumu, No: 13, scope of collective labour agreement to reach real 2011; “MİSK (Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Konfeder- unionization rates. asyonu)”, 1993, op. cit.; Yıldırım Koç, “MİSK’in Önlenebilen Yükselişi”, Mülkiye Dergisi, Vol. 13, No: 107, pp. 6-12.

153

Table 2. Scope of Collective Labour Agreement in 1970s Table 3. Strikes in 1970s

NUMBER OF COLLECTIVE NUMBER OF WORKERS Num- Workers Number of LABOUR AGGREMENT WITHIN THE SCOPE OF COLLECTİVE LABOUR ber of went on Days on Strike AGREEMENT Strikes strike

PUB PRI- TO PU PRI- TO 1970 111 25.963 260.338 LLIC VATE TAL BLIC VATE TAL

1 2.309 2.727 5.0 334. 216.2 550 1971 97 20.016 295.950 970 36 708 43 .951 1972 14 7.158 147.585 1 978 3.564 4.5 188. 153.9 342 971 42 583 67 .255 1973 22 12.284 479.857 1 1.504 1.878 3.3 254. 153.7 408 972 82 440 97 .237 1974 45 21.046 470.088

1 4.211 2.098 6.3 249. 193.3 443 1975 90 25.398 1.102.682 973 09 901 89 .210

1 1.880 2.443 4.3 427. 174.4 601 1976 105 32.899 1.768.201 974 23 300 79 .779 1977 167 59.889 5.778.205 1 1.051 3.877 4.9 91.3 209.2 300 975 28 16 02 .518 1978 175 27.208 1.598.905 1 2.757 2.419 5.1 204. 209.3 413 976 76 428 45 .773 1979 190 39.901 2.217.347

1 2.498 3.981 6.1 369. 220.7 590 977 79 324 74 .098 1980 227 46.216 5.408.618

1 1.530 3.787 5.3 230. 155.7 385 (Source: 1991 Petrol-İş Yıllığı, Petrol-İş Yayın- 17 140 37 978 .877 ları, 1992, İstanbul, p.202.) 1 4.781 8.496 13. 93.0 278.3 371 979 277 06 31 .337 The statistics in the Table 3 strike rates are not 1 2.578 1.488 1.0 215. 63.88 279 high as comparing to the developed countries. 980 66 443 4 .327 However, if the fact is taken into account that union rights were legally guaranteed completely just in (Source: 1991 Petrol-İş Yıllığı, Petrol-İş Yayın- 1963, it can be argued that those years were dynamic ları, 1992, İstanbul, p.198.) for the unionist activities and strikes in Turkey.

During those years, number of MISK members is According to the data presented in Table 2, ap- given in Table 4. It should be noted that, the num- proximately an average of 430.000 workers were bers given in the Table 4 also might not reflect the within the scope of collective labour agreement for reliable statistics. However, these numbers are still each years of 1970s. It is seen that workers within important to observe change in the number of mem- the scope of collective labour agreement were large- bership. ly employed in public enterprises. Although the number of collective labour agreements were more TABLE 4. Number of MISK Members in the private enterprises but the number of workers, YEARS NUMBER OF MEMBERS benefiting from collective labour agreement, were 1971 4.776 less than the workers within the scope of collective 1975 117.980 labour agreement in the public enterprises. It can be 1976 225.571 seen that unionization in the private enterprises was 1977 332.127 concentrated in the small or middle scale enterprises. 1979 285.496 1980 21.856 In this period, approximately one fourth of work- 1985 4.750 ers under Labour Law were in the scope of collec- (Source: “MİSK (Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Kon- tive labour agreement. Thus, when the scope of col- federasyonu)”, 1993, op. cit., p. 424.) lective labour agreement is taken into consideration, it can be said that the real unionisation was in fact As it is seen in the Table 4, there is a significant about 25% in the 1970s and statistics of Ministry of increase in the number of MISK members after 1975. Labour are very far from reality. One of the reasons for this was that “The First Na- It is important to note that number of strikes as tionalist Front Government” (I. Milliyetçi Cephe the indicators of unionist activities, it is seen that at Hükümeti) including the MHP was in charge. The an average of 30.000 workers went on strike in each governments facilitated the organization of the con- year.

154 federation in public enterprises. 5 It should be also - Intra-union democracy: Fundamental organs noted that, CHP governments in 1970s had negative of the union should be determined by democratic attitudes toward MISK.6 Its activities were suspend- procedures with the involvement of whole workers. ed after September 12, 1980 coup d’etat. A trustee - Continuity of the union: It is important for the was appointed in 1980 and identified that the real effective and stable management, the maintenance of number of the confederation members as 21.586. the accumulation of the union and the prevention of After 1984, MISK was re-activated but suffered frequent changes in the union’s code. from losing members and never reached its previous In addition to these three fundamental principles, power. In 1987, it changed its name to Yurt-İş to one of the significant principles of the nationalist cover its relations with MHP but in 1988 it was social unionism was the dissemination of the eco- abolished due to the lack of statutory obligations. nomic democracy. According to this, participation of Afterwards, in 1993 its old managers established a a worker to the management and partnership of confederation with the name of MISK yet has never workers in the enterprises and getting share from the become active.7 profit are among the fundamental principles.11 Organization of Principles of MISK;12 3. MISK and Violence - Nationalist type union: Only one union should be authorized in each sector. Collective labour In 1970s that was marked with the bloody con- agreement should be made at the level of sector at flicts, MISK’s buildings in 18 different cities were national scale not at the workplace level. The bombed 38 times. 127 MISK members were assassi- branches should be established on locally but their nated. Besides the attacks, in a letter written by authorities should remain limited. This model is ad- MISK members to the president, it is claimed that vocated mostly with reference to the German prac- 15,000 workers were fired and 11,000 were forced tice. to resign because of their membership to MISK. -Single Unionism: There should be only one un- MISK accused the government for not taking pre- ion in each sector since the competition among un- cautionary measures to prevent the attacks and de- ions cause weakness. It is argued that this model is manded constantly that the attacks had to investigat- better for the combination of union’s aims and na- ed. It is claimed that most of the attacks were com- tional development. mitted by DISK or in related with leftist groups.8 It - Compulsory Unionism: A worker in any sector is also claimed that MISK and ‘Nationalist Workers has to become member of a trade union of the sector. Assosiation’ (Ülkücü İşçiler Derneği), which were MISK, while advocating these principles, it re- associated with each other, were behind attacks to jects class unionism, class struggle and considers the DISK members.9 However, due to the fact that there relation between employer and employee as a mutu- was an array of unsolved assassinations, it is hard to ally complementary one. One of the remarkable ob- reach a clear statement about the perpetrators of the jectives of MISK was not only to ensure a fair dis- attacks. tribution of income, but also to increase the regulatory role of the state. Also MISK’s emphasizes on 4. Trade Union Model of MISK occupational development, strong state and social harmony as a unionist objective 13, may be led to MISK defines its unionist approach as “nationalist construct some similarities between MISK’s union and social unionism”. According to this approach, model and Italian fascist corporation model.14 How- trade unions are instruments for the defence of oc- ever, the modern unionist principles such as intra- cupational interests, for the increase and fair distri- union democracy, right to collective labour agree- bution of the national income. Here are the funda- ment and to strike, fair distribution of income and mental principles of this approach on unionism:10 getting organized independently were also common- - Autonomy from the executive branch: Trade ly used terms in MISK’s discourse. In this regard, it unions should act independently from the political is not proper to define MISK as an explicit supporter parties and the governments. of fascist corporation model. Unionist approach of MISK has certain weaknesses and inconsistencies. It is seen that the union- 5 Yıldırım Koç, 1997, op. cit., s. 209. ism model and practises of MISK had been con- 6 “Hür Sendikacılık Ecevit’i Rahatsız Ediyor”, structed in a reactionary way due to the political İşçi – Ülkücü İşçiler, No:8, September 1976, p.1. 7 “MİSK (Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Konfeder- asyonu)”, 1993, op. cit., p. 425. 11 Hüsnü Çetiner, “Türk Sendikacılığının Tarihçe- 8 MİSK, Bombalanan ve Kurşunlanan MİSK, si”, MİSK’den Haber, November 1977, p. 2. 1979, p. 24,30. 12 Ibid, p. 92-98. 9 Yüksel Akkaya, op. cit., p. 142-146. 13 “Misk’in İlkeleri- Sendikacılık Anlayışımız”, 10 Mustafa Kemal Erkuvan, Sendikacılık Tarihi MİSK’den Haber, October 1979, p. 4-5. ve Milliyetçi Toplumcu Sendikacılık, Ankara, 14 Ahmet Makal, Ameleden İşçiye, İstanbul, Emel Matbaacılık Sanayi, 1974, p. 89-91 İletişim Yayınları, 2011, p. 78-79.

155 polarization atmosphere of that period. On the one union’s approval.20 These demands, at the same time, hand, it argues that there is no need for a right to were the demands of the Türk-Iş in “National Col- strike as regulated by 1963 acts (Act of 274 and lective Agreement” (Toplum Sözleşmesi) in 1978.21 275)15 and also state should regulate working life The approach of MISK on the strike actions were over all; on the other hand, it stands for right to unique and but also inconsistent. While going on a strike as a last option and actively goes on strike 16. strike with 20.000 workers, MISK also has calculat- While, there is emphasis on strong state as an objec- ed the costs of the strikes, organized by the DISK to tive of the union, it also lets its members to go on the national economy. 22 Similarly MISK’s stance strike against the state in the public enterprises.17 towards strikes was a result of its reactionary atti- MISK argues that this union model can only be tude and therefore it has not escaped from falling achieved in a nationalist order and in this sense it is into contradictions on certain issues. like a utopia. However, the infrastructure of this In addition, MISK expressed various demands re- utopia has not been established powerfully and it has garding general social issues such as percentages of been largely prepared inconsistently with a reaction- wage raise, economic condition, inflation rates and ary attitude. tax regulations. 23 For instance, MISK frequently expressed demands like the provisions of housing 5. MISK’s Unionist Approaches loan to the workers by the state and having legal regulation for the increases in house rents.24 For MISK, minimum wage and social security were the most important social and economic issues. 6. Unionist Activities of MISK One of the significant demands of the confederation was to have the agricultural workers under social There is not much of reliable quantitative on the security. Since 60% of the population used to live in number of strikes and collective labour agreements the countryside and working in the agricultural sec- of MISK. Only some information may be gathered tor, there was no social security and therefore it had from the bulletin of “News From MISK” become one of the most important problems to deal (“MİSK’den Haber”), published for three years with. MISK worked to shape public opinion regard- (1977-1980).25 Those years would be explanatory to ing the necessity of a legal regulation and that the understand the activities of the confederation since general health insurance had to cover the whole so- MISK was very active in those years. ciety.18 During that three year period, trade unions affili- Other demands of MISK regarding the minimum ated with MISK signed collective labour agreements wage were tax-exempt, abolishment of different in 79 workplaces. These workplaces were mostly minimum wage limits for agricultural and industrial small and medium scale enterprises. They also workers and creating an equality between the two signed collective labour agreements in big enterpris- sectors’ workers, reflection of the rise in minimum es employing 1800, 900, 650, 550 and 400 workers. wage to collective labour agreements and preventing Besides, they signed collective work protocols in commission of minimum wage from political im- some workplaces. pacts.19 In addition to this, they got authorization in 58 Demands regarding the legal regulations on trade new workplaces during these years. While most of unionism and labour law also reflected frequently. them were in small cities, some of them were in the These demands were the abolishment of the article big cities and in the large-scale enterprises. For in- defining the employer’s right to terminate labour stance they got authorization in various workplaces contract without notice, resolution of the authority having 1800, 900, 200, 150 workers. conflicts among unions with a referendum at the workplace scale and leaving the benefit of collective labour agreement via paying solidarity dues to the 20 “MİSK Başbakana Mektup Vererek İşçi Mese- lelerinin Kısa Zamanda Çözümlenmesini İstedi”, MİSK’den Haber, December 1979, p. 8-9. 21 Cahit Talas, Bir Toplumsal Politika Belgesin- 15 MİSK, MİSK Ne Dedi?, 1977, p. 27. in Yorumu – Toplumsal Anlaşma, Ankara, Ankara 16 MİSK, Genel Başkan Mete Beşen’in Dördü- Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayınları, ncü Olağan Genel Kurulu Açılış Konuşması, An- 1982, p. 46-51. kara, 1984, p. 22. 22 “Kanunsuz Grevlerle 2560 İşgünü ve 103 Mi- 17 “Van’da Afetzedelere Ev Yapımında Çalışan lyon Kaybedildi”, İşçi-Ülkücü İşçiler, No: 8, Sep- 20.000 İşçi İçin Grev Kararı Alındı”, Milliyet, tember 1976, p. 4. 30.10.1977, p. 12. 23 MİSK, 1978, op. cit., p. 259, 335, 341, 358. 18 MİSK, 1977, op. cit., p. 21. 24 MİSK, 1977, op.cit., p. 87. 19 MİSK, Üçüncü Genel Kuruluna Sunulan 25 MİSK’den Haber, November 1977, May 1978, Çalışma Raporu, İstanbul, 1978, p. 252-255, 259, August 1978, July 1979, August 1979, October 1979, 329. December 1979, January 1980.

156 Gathered from MISK’s bulletin show that trade References unions affiliated with MISK carried out 11 strikes in these years. The most significant one was carried [1] Akkaya, Yüksel, “Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi ve out with 20.000 workers in Van while building Sendikacılık”, Özgür Üniversite Forumu, No: apartments by government after the earthquake. An- 13, 2011, pp. 123-181. other large scale strikes were in Amasya with 80 [2] Erkuvan, Mustafa Kemal, Sendikacılık Tarihi workers and 930 workers in Çorum. ve Milliyetçi Toplumcu Sendikacılık, Ankara, In addition to these fundamental trade union ac- Emel Matbaacılık Sanayi, 1974. tivities, MISK carried out unionist activities such as [3] Güzel, M. Şehmus, Türkiye’de İşçi Hareketi organizing rallies and protests, establishing workers’ 1908-1984, İstanbul, Kaynak Yayınları, 1996. cooperatives, 26 organizing social activities for la- [4] İleri, Ülkü, Türkiye’de Toplumsal Değişimin bourers and providing unionism and labour law Çalışma İlişkileri Üzerindeki Etkileri, Ankara, training at workplaces. Türk Ağır Sanayii ve Hizmet Sektörü Kamu İşverenleri Sendikası Yayını, Ankara, 2009. 7. Conclusion [5] İşçi – Ülkücü İşçiler, (Montly Newspaper of Nationalist Workers Association), No:8, Sep- When the activities of MISK are considered, its tember 1976. ideas on unions and the era it was established, it can [6] Koç, Yıldırım, “MİSK’in Önlenebilen Yükselişi”, be argued that the confederation had politically reac- Mülkiye Dergisi, Vol. 13, No: 107, 1989, pp. 6- tionary objectives more than unionist ones. Hence, 12. the weaknesses and inconsistencies in its views on [7] Koç, Yıldırım, “Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Kon- trade unionism, its formation with a strong political federasyonu: MİSK”, Kebikeç Dergisi, Ankara, tone and its relation with the MHP confirm the ap- No: 5, 1997, pp. 207-219. proach. The relation between the MISK and the [8] Landau, Jacob M., "The Nationalist Action Party MHP was reciprocally instrumental. While the MHP in Turkey", Journal of Contemporary History, was trying to broaden its political ground with the Vol. 17, No: 4, October 1982, pp. 587-606. help of MISK, the union had been utilizing from [9] Makal, Ahmet, Ameleden İşçiye, İstanbul, MHP to express its trade unionist demands in the İletişim Yayınları, 2011. political arena and to influence lawmakers. In this [10] Milliyet (Daily Newspaper), 1 August 1979, relation, MISK was more instrumental, compared to 30 October 1977 MHP. [11] MİSK, Üçüncü Genel Kuruluna Sunulan However, besides its engagement with MHP it is Çalışma Raporu, İstanbul, 1978. known that MISK was seeking for an original trade [12] MİSK, Bombalanan ve Kurşunlanan union model and raised demands about social and MİSK, 1979. economic rights of the working class and whole so- [13] “MİSK (Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Kon- cial groups. In this regard it was active in collective federasyonu)”, Türkiye’de Sendikacılık Ansi- labour agreements and strike issues. MISK also had klopedisi, Vol.2, İstanbul, 1993, pp. 424-425. a role in the activities such as creating public opin- [14] MİSK’den Haber, (Bulletin of MISK) ion on socio-economic issues November 1977, May 1978, August 1978, July MISK has a certain importance with its role in 1979, August 1979, October 1979, December introducing the unionization and the concepts like 1979, January 1980. “struggle for social and economic rights”, “trade [15] Talas, Cahit, Bir Toplumsal Politika Bel- unionism” to the right-wing nationalist-conservative gesinin Yorumu – Toplumsal Anlaşma, Anka- people. Regarding the distance of these people with ra, Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi unionization and struggle, bloody conflicts and Yayınları, 1982. political polarization was the basic reason of the [16] 1991 Petrol-İş Yıllığı, Petrol-İş Yayınları, weakness of its unionist activities. Therefore It is 1992, İstanbul. much more correct to see MISK as a struggle of right wing nationalist masses’ search for a trade unionization in the 1970s instead of defining as “gang”.

26 “MİSK Yapı Kooperatifine Bakanlıkça Arsa Tahsis Edildi”, MİSK’den Haber, November 1977, p. 8.

157 Informal Employment and Trade Unionism in Turkey

Uygar Ekim ICMEZ PhD. Student in Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Istanbul University, TURKEY

Abstract. In most countries, informal employment is obtaining as a widespread social problem. Despite the development of various models for the organization of informal workers who represent a large social segment, the nature of the informal economy, workplace characteristics, inter-employee relations and legal regulations may hamper the organization of these persons. While trade unions need to reach the capability, would be generated from organization of informal workers, informal workers also need the experience of trade unions. Despite the mutual need, with few exceptions, trade unions around the world do not own the problems of the informal workers and there is no consensus on approaches that argue the problems of informal workers can be solved by the trade unions. Trade unions established in Turkey are no exception and cannot organize informal workers properly. In the publications of confederations and trade unions and in the statements of their administrators, official authorities have been pointed out as the solution authority for the problem of informal employment. Nevertheless, the corporate economy-based trade unions have conducted a limited number of activities to organize informal workers. But these activities had not been implemented in conclusive ways. A significant number of trade union activities were terminated shortly, while others ended due to governmental precaution. The trade unions, established by informal workers or established to organize these persons directly, are also exposed with legal restrictions. Some trade unions were closed because of legal principle that allows trade unions to consist only industrial level, while others had been in judicial processes cause negative effect on organization struggle. In Turkey, trade unions should reorganize their activities against informal economy by making sectoral distinction. Informal workers in the agricultural sector should be organized in cooperatives, which would be established under the leadership of trade unions, because of self-employed and unpaid family workers’ dominance on this sector; meanwhile non- agricultural informal workers should be organized directly by registering as union members.

Keywords: Trade Unionism, Informal Employment, Organizational Barriers, Unregistered Workers

1. Introduction In this study, the term “informal” has been used to correspond with the term “unregistered”, which is often used in Turkey, and the relation- The density of informal employment and cor- ship between unionism and informal employees respondingly the restricted access to social has been analyzed. For this reason, at first theo- rights are the leading problems in socio- retical background has been explained and sub- economic problems in Turkey. The situation sequently informal employees in Turkey, activi- which leads to decrease in the power of labor ties of labor unions for these employees and the unions also provides a contrariwise opportunity: organizational experiences of employees have current trends in unionization in Turkey could been analyzed. be reversed by means of organization of informal employees.

158 2. From Informal Sector to Informal formal sector due to the fact that informality Economy does not take place in a special sector in economic activities, but controversially takes place The term informal sector has attracted aca- in many sectors within permanent and mutual demic interest since it started to be used instead dependency.2 of the term traditional sector at the beginning of 1970s. Some other meanings have been attributed to the term which was initially used in 3. Employees, Labor Unions and Keith Hart’s studies and ILO reports. These Organization Barriers in Informal Economy meanings have been determined depending on some criteria such as the size of the workplace, Employees in informal economy are general- self-employment and unpaid family labor. In ly sorted according to occupations such as some cases, broad definitions have been made waste collector, coiffeur, carpenter, etc. How- to cover even criminal offenses, such as drug ever, to identify appropriate organization type, dealers. The basic meaning of informal sector is the analytic segregation of dependent and inde- any paid activity which is qualitatively legal but pendent employees is required. While coopera- which is not notified or is underreported to pub- tive organization type is effective for independ- lic authorities.1 ent employees and unpaid family workers in The term informal economy includes all the informal economy, workers who are ultimately economic activities which should be included in working in the production of goods or services national record but is not notified. In this re- completed or sold in the formal economy must spect, this term, which has a past as long as the be organized in unions. In addition, it may be history of humanity, is called with some attribu- possible to organize "membership-based organ- tives such as dark, unofficial, secret, shadow, izations of the poor" such as workers' commit- parallel, gray, dual, moonlight, and under- tees, producer groups, labor clubs, local and ground. The prediction claiming that economic slum organization, which are appropriate for development would abolish informal economy "multi-livelihood and survival strategies.3 hasn’t come true. On the contrary, the fact that informal economy continues its existence even in developed countries has revealed the truth 2 Z. A. Khotkina, “Employment in the Informal that it is the by-product or a complementary of Sector,” Anthropology & Archeology of Euroasia, formal economy or an alternative to it. Capital Vol. XLV, No: 4, Spring 2007, p. 54. Constantine P. stock of all the countries has become dependent Danopoulos, Boris Znidaric, “Informal Economy, on informal economy in different forms. The Tax Evasion, and Poverty in a Democratic Settings: Greece,” , Vol. XVIII, term informal economy has replaced the term Mediterranean Quarterly No: 2, Spring 2007, p. 67-71. Colin C. Wiliams, “A Critical Evaluation of Competing Representations of 1 Tahir Baştaymaz, "Çocuk Emeğinin Kullanımı the Relationship Between Formal and İnformal Engellenebilir mi? Ipec Projesine Eleştirisel Bir Work,” Community, Work & Family, Vol. XI, No: Bakış", Prof. Dr. Nusret Ekin' e Armağan, Ankara, 1 February 2008, p. 106. Tijen Erdut, “İşgücü Türk Ağır Sanayii ve Hizmet Sektörü Kamu İşveren- Piyasasında Enformelleşme ve Kadın Emeği,” leri Sendikası Yayını, 2000, p. 294. Faruk Sapancalı, Çalışma ve Toplum, No: 3, 2005, p. 11. Kristina “Sosyal Politika Açısından Kentsel Enformel Flodman Becker, The Informal Economy, Stock- Sektörün Analizi,” Kamu-İş, Vol. IV, No: 1, 1995, holm, Sida, 2004, p. 8. p. 118. Tuncay Güloğlu, The Reality of Informal 3 Johnston Birchall, Organizing Workers in the Employment in Turkey [Türkiye’de Kayıtdışı Informal Sector: A Strategy for Trade Union- İstihdam Gerçeğine Bir Bakış], Ithaca, New York, Cooperative Action, Coop Working Paper 01-1, Cornell University ILR School, Visiting Fellow International Labour Office, 1999, p. 18-19. Martha Working Papers, 1.1.2005, p. 2. Keith Hart, “Infor- Chen, et al., “Membership-Based Organizations Of mal Income Opportunities and Urban Employment The Poor: Concepts, Experience and Policy,” Mem- in Ghana,” The Journal of Modern African Stud- bership-Based Organizations, New York, ies, Vol. XI, No: 1, 1973, pp. 61-89. 1 International Routledge, 2007, p. 4-7. Stirling Smith, Let’s Or- Labour Organization, Women and Men in the In- ganize!: A SYNDICOOP Handbook For Trade formal Economy: A Statistical Picture, Geneva, Unions and Cooperatives About Organizing International Labour Office, 2002, p. 10. Tekin Workers In The Informal Economy, A Joint Pub- Akgeyik et al., İstanbul’da Enformel Sektör lication of the ILO-ICA-ICFTU, 2006, p. 37-38. İşportacılar: Eminönü İlçesinde Bir Alan Swasti Mitter, On Organising Workers in the In- Araştırması, İstanbul, 2004, p. 27. formal Sector: A Report Prepared for the Inter-

159 The type of organization can be determined eral secretary of NATA: “Informal workers according to target and strategy. Unions are for need the organizational experience of the un- the first organization, collective bargaining and ions while unions also need the vast number of representation rights; Cooperatives are pre- informal workers to build more power to lever- ferred to improve economic conditions; Non- age more concessions on larger macroeconomic governmental Organizations and communica- issues.”5 tion networks should be preferred for the pro- Although informal workers are the primary tection of political rights and social welfare ones that need organization most, they face studies. The efficiency of other organizations many problems in organization. These prob- can also be increased by their establishment lems result from the quality of informal em- under the leadership of unions. However, alt- ployment, features of workplace, and relation- hough traditional unions are paying more atten- ships between workers, the understanding of tion to the workers in informal economy, they union administrators and some legal restrictions do not concentrate on the acts to organize them applied in some countries. The main barriers directly. Unions confine themselves with the caused by the quality of informal economy can limited acts of dialogue and help with the au- be listed as: workplaces are small; there is a tonomous organizations of the workers in in- small number of workers; workforce and oper- formal economy.4 ating cycle is high; the employers are aware of In informal economy, workers and unions are the fact that they have the mechanisms to pre- in mutual need. For workers, not like any other vent organizational attempts; they can apply the organization type, unions are radical, cumula- policy to go out of the business; they can con- tive, multifunctional and poverty-reducing or- tinue their actions with other workers in differ- ganizations. The need for the facilities that un- ent places and there are many subcontractors ions offer is generally a lot higher among informal wage workers casual, unpaid family 5 Recep Kapar, “Enformel Ekonomide Çalışan- workers, industrial outworkers and homework- ların Örgütlenmesi ve Sendikalar,” Çalışma ve Top- ers. The ability of the unions to survive depends lum, No: 1, 2007, p. 85-99. Manuel Rosaldo, Chris on overcoming organizational problems of in- Tilly, Peter Evans, “A Conceptual Framework on formal employees. Informal working conditions Informal Work and Informal Worker Organizing,” decrease the representation and bargain power Experiences Organizing Informal Workers: A of unions which are limited to formal economy. Comparative Investigation, March 2012, p. 4. The unions are organizations based on human Christine Nathan, “Informal Work: From Concept to rights from the outset and cannot limit their ac- Action,” Unprotected Labour: What Role for Un- tivities to only their members. Unions, which ions in the Informal Economy, 2002, ILO Bureau for Worker’s Activities Labour Education No. 127, p. do not have any social activities, cannot protect 1-2; Manuel Simôn Velasco, “Editorial,” Unpro- the rights of their members duly because of the tected Labour: What Role for Unions in the In- unfair competition caused by informal economy. formal Economy, 2002, ILO Bureau for Worker’s The fact that unions operate in downgrading the Activities Labour Education No. 127, p. V. Stirling informal economy can also play a part in over- Smith, Let’s Organize!, p. 25, 43-44. International coming the doubt towards unions in Turkey. Labour Organization, The Role of Trade Unions in The mutual need mentioned can be summed up the Global Economy and the Fight Against Pov- with the words of David Ajetunmobi, the gen- erty: International Workers’ Symposium Back- ground Paper, Geneva, Bureau for Workers’ Activ- ities, 17-21 October 2005, p. 23. International La- national Confederation of Free Trade Unions, bour Organization, Decent Work and the Informal Bruseles, ICFTU, 1989, p. 32-34. Ahmet Makal, Economy, Geneva, Internatıonal Labour Office, “Sosyal Politika, Sendikal Haklar ve Demokrasi,” I. 2002, p. 73. Dan Gallin, “Organizing in the Informal Ulusal Sosyal Politika Kongresi, Ankara, Devrimci Economy,” Unprotected Labour: What Role for İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu Yayını, 2004, p. Unions in the Informal Economy, 2002, ILO Bu- 175. reau for Worker’s Activities Labour Education No. 4 Susan J. Schurman, Adrienne E. Eaton, Trade 127, p. 27. Betül Urhan, “Türkiye’de Sendikal Örgü- Union Organizing in the Informal Economy: A tlenmede Yaşanan Güven ve Dayanışma Sorunları,” Review of the Literature on Organizing in Africa, Çalışma ve Toplum, No: 1, 2005, p. 82. Christine Asia, Latin America, North America and West- Bonner, Dave Spooner, “Organizing in the Informal ern, Central and Eastern Europe, Report to the Economy: A Challenge for Trade Unions,” Interna- Solidarity Center, Rutgers University, 2012, p. 11- tional Politics and Society, No: 2, February 2011, p. 12. 102.

160 because of the visibility of the workplace and 4. Informal Employment in Turkey insufficient financial potential. Moreover, insuf- ficiency of informal workers’ experiences in Although informal employment has de- class oriented group actions also decreases the creased relatively in recent years, it is still a power of the connection between organizations socio-economic problem. It is not possible to and workers in formal economy. For this reason, measure it certainly as it is related to the work the administrators in unions often claim that which is not notified at all or which is underre- informal workers cannot organize and problems ported to public authorities. Therefore, the rates can be solved with official cautions and super- are important to provide an idea rather than ex- visions. Union administrators often justify that pressing precision. The dimension of informal the sources should mainly be used for the for- employment in Turkey can be traced over the mal workers who can be organized easily and rates which are explained according to the re- they might underestimate the organization ca- sults of household labor force survey by Turk- pacity of informal workers. Unionists think that ish Statistical Institute (TSI). However, accord- informal economy is a local and marginal phe- ing to TSI, “the ones who are not registered to nomenon and miss the point that it is part of any social security institutions due to the core global production network. According to a business that they are doing only in reference study conducted by ILO and ICFTU, 25% of week are assessed within the scope of informal national unions have not made any attempt to- employment.”7 Three important labor groups wards informal workers. Many direct or indirect that work informally but are not included in legal arrangements might also prohibit organi- official statistics stand out. The first group con- zation. It might be forbidden for some special sists of the workers whose work is misreported worker categories like agriculture labors to or- or underreported to social security institution. ganize independently in many countries. How- There are a large number of workers, who are ever, these barriers are not too strong for unions frequently observed in everyday life, such as to come over and other types of organizations those who are informed of the minimum wage among informal workers such as clubs, associa- by granting wage differentials in person, and tions and cooperatives are founded under the those who are reported to work based on a part- leadership of unions in principle.6 time job contract despite full-time employment. The second group includes the ones who work for more than one job but are insured for one of 6 Nurul Amin, The Informal Sector in Asia the jobs. As it is mostly seen in practice, the from the Decent Work Perspective, Genova, In- ones who work for more than one part-time job ternational Labour Office, Employment Paper and the ones who have an extra job with their 2002/4, p. 65. International Labour Organization, full-time jobs are included in this group. Be- World Labour Report 1997-98: Industrial Rela- tions, Democracy and Social Stability, Geneva, sides, child workers are not included in statis- Internatıonal Labour Office, 1998, p. 6. International tics due to the fact that the statistics include Labour Organization, Trade Unions and the In- workers aged over 15 in parallel with the mini- formal Sector: Towards A Comprehensive Srate- mum work age regulation of Labor Law. As a gy, Geneva, International Labour Organization Bu- result of this and many other reasons, it can be reau for Workers’ Activities, 18-22 October 1999. concluded that the informal employment in Dan Gallin, “Propositions on Trade Unions and In- Turkey is a lot higher than official statistics. formal Employment in Times of Globalisation,” This conclusion reveals the importance of in- Antipode, Vol. XXXIII, No: 3, July 2001, p. 531- formal employment in Turkey when it is evalu- 532. Marilyn Carr, Martha Alter Chen, Globaliza- ated with the fact that even official findings tion and the Informal Economy: How Global Trade and Investment Impact on the Working correspond with high rates and numbers. De- Poor, WIEGO, 2001, p. 6-7. International Labour spite this deficiency, TSI statistics are main Organization, Decent Work and the Informal sources for distribution rate of sectors, gender Economy, p. 71. Pat Horn, Chris Bonner, Elaine and professional positions which affect unioni- Jones, “Lessons from Practical Experiences of Or- zation directly. ganizing Workers in the Informal Economy in Afri- ca, Asia, Latin America and Beyond: The World of Work, Livelihoods and Socially and Environmental- 7 T.C. Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu, ly Sustainable Development,” GLU Conference in İşgücü, İstihdam ve İşsizlik İstatistikleri: Soru- Campinas, Brazil on Global Development: Chal- larla Resmi İstatistikler Dizisi-1, Ankara, Türkiye lenges for Union Strategies, [January 2008], p. 25. İstatistik Kurumu Matbaası, 2007, p. 26.

161 When the progress of informal employment mal employees according to sectors should be in Turkey is examined, it is seen that it is at the analyzed. level of 60% at the end of the 1980s but Informal work in the agriculture sector, dropped below 50% after 2004. Finally, accord- which is 82.2% in total, is not very different in ing to the household workforce statistics in July terms of regular or casual employees in agricul- 2016, the ratio of informal workers was 82,2% ture; it is seen as 80% for this group. Although in agricultural sector, 21,8% in non-agricultural this percentage is quite high, it will be mislead- sector and 34,4 % on average.8 However, un- ing unless regular or casual employees are ions haven’t had an effect on the decrease in evaluated together with their percentage in total recent years. In this period, there has not been a and informal agricultural employment. Because substantial alteration in unionization or organi- the percentage of informal employment of agri- zational activities. Informal employment is still cultural workers is 9.5% in total agricultural up in high percentages due to relatively high employment, and 11.5% in total informal em- cost of employment, the effects of problems ployment in agriculture. When the distribution resulted from social security system, the chang- of informal employment according to occupa- es arisen because of competitive pressure in tional position in agricultural sector is observed, labor market, problems in perceiving the quality it is seen that the main weight is in unpaid fami- of social security services, inefficiency of col- ly employment (56.6%) and self-employed laboration and coordination between relevant workers (31.4%). 0.5% of informal employ- institutions, knowledge deficiency of workers ment is share of employees. and lack of an active control mechanism.9 Only 12% of informal employment in agri- According to TSI data, it is seen that in gen- culture is based on employees and employers. eral the rate of women in total employment is Moreover, only 12.9% of workers in agriculture rather low in comparison with men in Turkey, are employees or employers. For this reason, in but their informal employment rate is high. The order to improve the conditions of informal main reason causing this is that informal em- workers in agriculture sector, the activities of ployment is higher among self-employed wom- cooperative type organizations to be established en and unpaid family worker women. Because under the leadership of trade unions will be while informal employment makes a 2 point more active. difference between regular or casual employee The situation differs in nonagricultural sec- against women, it is 3.2 points lower for female tors and the relationship of employees and em- employers. While informal employment of fe- ployers turns into the dominant motif in em- male employers is considerably low compared ployment form. 81.2% of personnel in industri- to men in non-agricultural sector, it is seen that al sector (including the construction sector) and there is no substantial discrimination based on service sector are workers and 5.6% of them are sex in terms of regular or casual employees. employers. Thus, both the number and percent- Although it is possible to interpret statistics age of workers who are part of informal emin different ways, the first point that takes atten- ployment in industrial and service sectors are tion is that informal employment is quite high quite high. In these sectors, nearly 3.000.000 (21.8%) in non-agricultural sectors when it is worker are employed informally. Informal considered in terms of unionization problem. workers constitute of 13.5% of total nonagricul- In this general frame, percentage of regular or tural employment and 61.7% of informal em- casual employees in total employees and infor- ployment. The distribution of informal employment according to the occupational position is as follows: self-employed workers (25.1%), 8 T.C. Başbakanlık Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu, unpaid family workers (9.4%) and employees “Hanehalkı İşgücü İstatistikleri, Temmuz 2015- (3.6%). 2016,” Haber Bülteni, No: 21574, 17.10.2016. “Tü- The fact that about 62% of informal em- rkiye’de Kayıt Dışı İstihdam,” Atılım Üniversitesi ployment in industry and service sectors belong Siyasi ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Laboratuvarı, to workers ruins the idea that unionization will (Online) http:seal.atilim.edu.tr/turkiyede-kayit-disi- not come true due to the internal dynamics of istihdam. 9 informal economy. Another point is that 16.6% Toker Dereli, “Informal Employment in Tur- of workers in these sectors are informal. Given key,” Sosyal Siyaset Konferansları, No: 53 Prof Dr. that the total number of unionized workers is Haşmet Başar’a Armağan Özel Sayısı, 2007/2, p. 71-75. 1,499,870 according to the latest business sta-

162 tistics, it is seen that the informal workers have ing the cost of labor by lowering the income tax doubled the total number of union member rate and ratio of social security contributions, workers. In respect to this, it has turned into an simplifying the Social Security Institution pro- obligation that unions take acts in organization cedures, increasing enforcements, making it of informal workers. obligatory for each worker to get a number Looking at the distribution of informal work from Social Security Institution before he/she in the industry and service sectors by sex, it is starts work. According to this, the governments seen that the distribution is similar to the labor “do not address the problem of making people force participation rates and there is no substan- work illegally”. Even though the points that are tive distinction. Accordingly, there are 2.215 mentioned in the report are mostly true, the de- million (72%) men and 823 thousand (28%) ficiency of the fact that there is no approach women out of 2.948 million informal employ- developed regarding the responsibilities of un- ees. On the contrary to general understanding, ions shades this truth. The deficiency that is gender should not be the fundamental criteria mentioned is based on the consideration that for unions to determine the acts to organize in- unions will not be engaged in the activities informal employees. However, different organiza- tended for informal employees and the legaliza- tion tactics should be implemented to the section of union deficiencies is understood in this tors, where gender based discrimination has way. According to the administration of Con- sprung, provided that they should be limited to federation of Turkish Trade Unions, “informal those sectors. employee cannot make use of the rights of or- When the geographical distribution of infor- ganization, collective bargaining, and strike. It mal employment is viewed, it is seen that in- is impossible to make informal employees formal employment has spread country-wide, it member of unions.” Thus, it is government’s has occurred with high percentages in every responsibility to collaborate with unions and the region. However, while it is higher in the re- role of the unions is limited to this. The effect gions where economic activities are based on of unions on preventing informal employment agriculture, it is lower in the areas where indus- emerges as an indirect result of general organi- try is common. Informal employment is rela- zation activities: “One of the most important tively low in metropolitan cities and industrial aims of Confederation of Turkish Unions in cities.10 their struggle to remove the barriers is to prevent informal employment.”11 As a reason for not undertaking a specific ac- 5. The Activities of Unions to Prevent tivity for informal employees, it is often argued Informal Employment in Turkey that this area is an indirect extension of general union organizing activities. According to 5.1. Activities at Confederation Level Süleyman Çelebi, the Chairman of Confedera- tion of Progressive Trade Unions in his period To understand the activities at confederation “the most important activity that is done by the level, their approach to problem solution should Confederation and unions against informal embe analyzed. When union publications and dis- ployment is unionization effort (…) Each new course of unionists are evaluated in this direc- unionized workplace and each unionized work- tion, it seems that the issue is not adequately er is a hit to informal employment.” According owned. For example; while the negative effects to this, the activities of Confederation of Pro- of informal employment on national economy, gressive Trade Unions against informal em- social insurance system and unionism are listed ployment are limited to “the activities that aim in the report called “Informal Employment and to inform public opinion and raise awareness.” Prevention of Employing Foreign Workers” by Apart from this, speeches are limited to the Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions, the ones such as legal amendments from official solution to the problem, similar to employers’ authorities and to “Ministry’s taking action and attitude, can be summarized in a manner to impose duty to official authorities such as reduc-

10 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu (Online) http://www.sgk.gov.tr/wps/portal/sgk/tr/calisan/kayit 11 TÜRK-İŞ, Kayıtdışı İstihdamın ve Yabancı disi_istihdam/kayitdisi_istihdam_oranlari. İşçi Çalıştırılmasının Önlenmesi, n. d. p. 15-23.

163 activities to control formal employment by effi- sitivity of member unions towards child labor, cient supervision activities”.12 to mold public opinion, to organize cultural According to Mustafa Kumlu, the Chairman events for child workers, to provide health of Confederation of Turkish Trade Union in his screening, and to supply clothing, food and time, the things that should be done are “to in- course material rather than organisation of child crease enforcement aimed at informal employ- labor.15 ment (…) supervision that is done effectively Another activity which is held at confedera- (…) to increase the institutional capacity of So- tion level is “Project of Combating Unregis- cial Security Institution (…) to create joint tered Employment By Means of Organizing working groups with countries related to labor Media”, which was developed to be applied in emigration to make an agreement”, not that un- Trabzon, Rize and Giresun by HAK-IS Trade ions play a more active role in activities to pre- Union Confederation. Within the scope of this vent informal employment.13 project ,in which Trabzon, Rize and Giresun Salim Uslu, former Chairman of HAK-IS Trade and Industry Chambers were the partners, Trade Union Confederation, also offers some informing seminars, “Panel of Combatting Un- solutions depending on overall legal changes registered Employment By Means of Social and revising general security mechanism. How- Dialogue” were conducted and round tables to ever, Uslu’s approach also includes a reasona- combat informal employment and analysis of ble and limited claim: “local professional union state were determined, two spot films were shot representors should be authorized to monitor to promote formal employment, a handbook and report to respective departments in order to about the advantages of formal employment detect informal employment”.14 was published, and a website At confederation level, Confederation of (www.kayitdisiistihdam.org), which is not ac- Progressive Trade Unions of Turkey comes to tively used anymore, was set up by taking the the forefront with its “non-covered employ- informal employment in agricultural sector and ment” campaign experience among the activi- the distribution of unpaid family employment in ties aiming informal employees. Non-covered target cities into consideration. The general aim employment campaign, which started in Octo- of the project, which started on 15th July 2010 ber 1994 – considered to be late- and which is and lasted for 12 months, was to promote and started to create an agenda in public opinion encourage formal employment, to ensure that against informal employment and to help uni- employees were under social security umbrella, sured workers to defend their rights by raising to improve work environment and occupational awareness among them, is more common in the health safety by activities to raise awareness in business lines including textile, metal, plastic, three cities and by facilitating coordination be- tourism, trade-bureua and leather which are rich tween relevant public institution at public level in informal employment. The campign lasted and social stakeholders. Its special purpose was for a short time - just 15 days- although it was defined as to increase capacity and awareness extended to 22 cities by disturbing posters, no- through visual and written media in all sections tices and anoouncements in industrial zones and of the society by promoting cooperation be- neighborhoods. The activities against informal tween socail partners and creating multilateral employment by Confederation of Turkish Trade local mechanism to combat informal employ- Unions are mostly for child labor. Within the ment.16 confederation, “Child Labour Burue” has been founded and some projects in colloboration with ILO and UNICEF have been conducted. The purpose of these projects is to enhance sen- 15 Fatma Ülkü Selçuk, “Enformel Sektörde Örgü- 12 “DİSK Genel Başkanı Süleyman Çelebi,” tlenme Deneyimleri,” TES-İŞ Dergisi: Kayıtdışı Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, Yıl: 1, No: 2, Bahar 2009, İstihdam, Haziran 2006, p. 73-75. p. 18. 16 HAK-İŞ, Medya Örgütlenmesi Yoluyla 13 “TÜRK-İŞ Genel Başkanı Mustafa Kumlu,” Kayıtdışı İstihdamla Mücadele Projesi, p. 1-5. Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, Yıl: 1, No: 2, Bahar 2009, (Online) p. 11. www.hakis.org.tr/index.php?view=article&catid=17 14 “Hak-İş Genel Başkanı Salim Uslu Kayıt Dışı %3Aprojelerimiz&id=181%3Akaytd-stihdam- İstihdamı Önlemek İçin,” Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, pro- Yıl: 1, No: 2, Bahar 2009, p. 14. jesi&format=pdf&option=com_content&Itemid=81 .

164 5.2. Activities of Unions at Industrial Level organizations such as United Workers Union18, which organizes all the subcontracted and unin- There are also a few activities for informal sured labors regardless of industry (branch of employees at union level. The common point of activity) and the unemployed, and organizations these activities is that they are shaped around such as TÜTÜN-SEN, ÜZÜM-SEN, HUBU- the request for notification to the Social Insur- BAT-SEN, AYÇİÇEK-SEN, and HAY-YET- ance Institution. TUMTIS in Gaziantep ware- SEN, 19 where mainly self-employed workers houses, Deri-İş in Tuzla Organized Industrial based on agriculture organizes. Closure cases Zone, Dev Maden Sen in Yatağan, Soma and were started for a significant part of these or- Tavşanlı have been involved in activities related ganizations: United Workers Union which was to the organization of uninsured workers and established in 2001 and started a campaign for insuring them, and some local and limited gains informal workers and informed the Istanbul have been achieved. The most effective of the Regional Directorate of Labor about 21 estab- activities carried out by the unions is the organ- lishments that employed workers without insur- ization of "workers' houses" established under ance was closed in 2003;20 the case filed on the the leadership of the Basın-İş Union of Confed- application of the Governorship of Izmir under eration of Progressive Trade Unions of Turkey. the request of the closure of TÜTÜN-SEN was In 1996, for the purpose of reaching the em- rejected by the decision of the 4th Civil Law ployees in İstanbul, with workers’ houses pro- Office of the Supreme Court of Appeals dated ject, one of which was established in Kartal and 12.12.2012 after 8 years and the union was not Ümraniye districts, some activities were en- closed.21 Although it is forbidden for unions to gaged to organize free labors and informal be established at craft-occupation and work- workers in cooperation with local opposing place level and to register the ones who do not group. After two years of activity, workers' actively work such as retirees as members ac- houses were closed by the Governor's Office on cording to collective labor law legislation, paid the ground that there was no provision in the employees are regarded as employees according union statute for the establishment of a body in to work, transportation, attorney, publication, 17 this status. The workers’ houses project, commission and ordinary company agreement. which was closed down by administrative In this case, there is no legal obstacle for these measures contrary to the general principle of people, who are not considered as workers ac- restricting trade union activities by court deci- cording to the Labor Code, to use the collective sions, came to an end without the desired result, rights and to organize in unions. However, even despite the partial improvement. if there is no closure decision is made at the end,

18 5.3. Activities of Unions Established by Birleşik İşçi Sendikası-Vereinte Arbeiter- Informal Employees Gewerkschaft, Wer Wir Sind und Was für Ziele Wirhaben, n. d., p. 10. The organization of informal workers in Tur- 19 TMMOB, “Çiftçiler Sendikalarında Örgütleni- key by unions can also be achieved through the yor,” 25.07.2005, (Online) establishment of new organizations by informal www.tmmob.org.tr/icerik/ciftciler-sendikalarinda- employees as well as the activities of unions orgutleniyor . established by institutional economies to organ- As it is understood from the news dated 2007 ize informal workers in different times and and 2010, despite closure decision, the union pur- forms. Organizations established by employees sues its activities, even if they are limited, under the directly are generally seen to be organized at name of “Turkish United Workers Union”: “İkitel- li’de Faşist Saldırı,” Alınteri, 26.11.2007, (Online) local level and under the pressure of various www.alinteri.org/6383.id, 20 Haziran 2015; “Türkan legal regulations. An important part of these Albayrak’ın Direniş Çadırına Saldırı ve Cevap ‘Tüm organizations, which can be established under Baskılara, Zulümlere Karşı Direniş Çadırındayım!’,” names such as local, association, cooperative or Yürüyüş, 15.08.2010, p. 16. club, is established under the name of union: 20 Atilla Özsever, “Sigortasız İşçiye Sendika İmkânı,” Milliyet, 18.08.2002. 21 “Mahkeme Son Noktayı Koydu: Tütün-Sen Sendikadır, Kapatılmayacak,” Sendika.org, 11.01.2013, (Çevrimiçi) www.sendika.org/2013/01/mahkeme-son-noktayi- 17 Fatma Ülkü Selçuk op. cit., p. 77-77. koydu-tutun-sen-sendikadır-kapatılmayacak/ .

165 the fact that the closure cases against agricul- ers in industry and service sectors should be ture informal workers' organizations last many organized in unions at industry unionism level. year leads these organizations, which are established to solve their problems, to be ineffective. In order to overcome such problems, it is neces- References sary for the unions to be established by informal employees to act in accordance with the [1] Akgeyik, Tekin et al, İstanbul’da Enformel basic principles such as industry unionism and Sektör İşportacılar: Eminönü İlçesinde Bir Alan Araştırması, İstanbul, 2004. registering the active employees. [2] Alınteri, “İkitelli’de Faşist Saldırı,” Alınteri, 26.11.2007, (Online) www.alinteri.org/6383.id [3] Amin, Nurul, The Informal Sector in Asia 6. Conclusion from the Decent Work Perspective, Genova, International Labour Office, Employment Paper A small number of unions are involved in the 2002/4. prevention of informal work around the world. [4] Atılım Üniversitesi, “Türkiye’de Kayıt Dışı İsti- These activities vary according to the unique hdam,” Atılım Üniversitesi Siyasi ve Ekonomik conditions of countries' informal economy. In Araştırmalar Laboratuvarı, (Online) this respect, there are limited but unique experi- http:seal.atilim.edu.tr/turkiyede-kayit-disi- ences and successful examples in front of the istihdam unions. In Turkey, it is possible to say that un- [5] Baştaymaz, Tahir, "Çocuk Emeğinin Kullanımı Engellenebilir mi? Ipec Projesine Eleştirisel Bir ions take place within the vast majority that do Bakış", Prof. Dr. Nusret Ekin' e Armağan, An- not embrace the problem in terms of their ap- kara, Türk Ağır Sanayii ve Hizmet Sektörü proaches to informal employment. Despite the Kamu İşverenleri Sendikası Yayını, 2000, pp. limited experience in the organization of infor- 291-302. mal employees, both the lack of continuity of [6] Becker, Kristina Flodman, The Informal Econ- these activities and, more importantly, the fact omy, Stockholm, Sida, 2004. that unionists do not believe that informal em- [7] Birchall, Johnston, Organizing Workers in the ployment can be solved by unions, they do not Informal Sector: A Strategy for Trade Union- own the problem and point official authorities Cooperative Action, Coop Working Paper 01-1, as solution authorities have caused unions to be International Labour Office, 1999. [8] Birleşik İşçi Sendikası-Vereinte Arbeiter- insufficient and deficient in the activities for Gewerkschaft, Wer Wir Sind und Was für informal employees in Turkey. Ziele Wirhaben, n. d. When we look from the viewpoint of infor- [9] Bonner, Christine, Dave Spooner, “Organizing in mal employees, it is seen that two possible or- the Informal Economy: A Challenge for Trade ganization types cannot be achieved well. In the Unions,” International Politics and Society, first type, informal employees of unions estab- No: 2, February 2011, pp. 87-105. lished in institutional economies are not cov- [10] Carr, Marilyn, Martha Alter Chen, Global- ered by those organizations as they do not ization and the Informal Economy: How choose to organize. In the second type, it is im- Global Trade and Investment Impact on the possible to establish local, craft-occupational, Working Poor, WIEGO, 2001. [11] Chen, Martha et al., “Membership-Based general or workplace unions because the unions Organizations Of The Poor: Concepts, Experi- founded on informal employees' own initiatives ence and Policy,” Membership-Based Organi- are obliged to register and operate members at zations, New York, Routledge, 2007, pp. 3-21. industrial level, and they confront with long [12] Danopoulos, Constantine P., Boris Znidaric, litigation processes and are generally closed. In “Informal Economy, Tax Evasion, and Poverty this respect, it can be seen that informal emin a Democratic Settings: Greece,” Mediterra- ployees in Turkey are suppressed between the nean Quarterly, Vol. XVIII, No: 2, Spring 2007, disinterest of established unions and legal re- pp. 67-84. strictions, and cannot be organized mainly for [13] Dereli, Toker, “Informal Employment in this reason. However, in spite of all negativities, Turkey,” Sosyal Siyaset Konferansları, No: 53 Prof Dr. Haşmet Başar’a Armağan Özel Sayısı, it is impossible to claim that informal employ- 2007/2, pp. 65-82. ees do not have chances to organize in Turkey. [14] Erdut, Tijen, “İşgücü Piyasasında En- Informal employees in agricultural sector formelleşme ve Kadın Emeği,” Çalışma ve Top- should be organized in cooperatives to be estab- lum, No: 3, 2005, pp. 11-49. lished under the guidance of unions and work-

166 [15] Gallin, Dan, “Organizing in the Informal [26] Kapar, Recep, “Enformel Ekonomide Economy,” Unprotected Labour: What Role Çalışanların Örgütlenmesi ve Sendikalar,” for Unions in the Informal Economy, 2002, Çalışma ve Toplum, No: 1, 2007, pp. 83-117. ILO Bureau for Worker’s Activities Labour Edu- [27] Khotkina, Z. A., “Employment in the In- cation No. 127, pp. 23-27. formal Sector,” Anthropology & Archeology of [16] Gallin, Dan, “Propositions on Trade Unions Euroasia, Vol. XLV, No: 4, Spring 2007, pp. and Informal Employment in Times of Globali- 42-55. sation,” Antipode, Vol. XXXIII, No: 3, July [28] Makal, Ahmet, “Sosyal Politika, Sendikal 2001, pp. 531-549. Haklar ve Demokrasi,” I. Ulusal Sosyal Politika [17] Güloğlu, Tuncay, The Reality of Informal Kongresi, Ankara, Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Employment in Turkey [Türkiye’de Kayıtdışı Konfederasyonu Yayını, 2004, pp. 167-176. İstihdam Gerçeğine Bir Bakış], Ithaca, New [29] Mitter, Swasti, On Organising Workers in York, Cornell University ILR School, Visiting the Informal Sector: A Report Prepared for Fellow Working Papers, 1.1.2005. the International Confederation of Free Trade [18] HAK-İŞ, Medya Örgütlenmesi Yoluyla Unions, Bruseles, ICFTU, 1989. Kayıtdışı İstihdamla Mücadele Projesi, [30] Nathan, Christine, “Informal Work: From (Online) www.hakis.org.tr/index.php? Concept to Action,” Unprotected Labour: view=article&catid=17%3Aprojelerimiz&id=18 What Role for Unions in the Informal Econ- 1%3Akaytd-stihdam- omy, 2002, ILO Bureau for Worker’s Activities proje- Labour Education No. 127, pp. 1-3. je- [31] Özsever, Atilla, “Sigortasız İşçiye Sendika si&format=pdf&option=com_content&Itemid=8 İmkânı,” Milliyet, 18.08.2002. 1 [32] Rosaldo, Manuel, Chris Tilly, Peter Evans, [19] Hart, Keith, “Informal Income Opportuni- “A Conceptual Framework on Informal Work ties and Urban Employment in Ghana,” The and Informal Worker Organizing,” Experiences Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. XI, Organizing Informal Workers: A Compara- No: 1, 1973, pp. 61-89. tive Investigation, March 2012, pp. 1-20. [20] Horn, Pat, Chris Bonner, Elaine Jones, [33] Sapancalı, Faruk, “Sosyal Politika Açısın- “Lessons from Practical Experiences of Organiz- dan Kentsel Enformel Sektörün Analizi,” Kamu- ing Workers in the Informal Economy in Africa, İş, Vol. IV, No: 1, 1995, pp. 117-136. Asia, Latin America and Beyond: The World of [34] Schurman, Susan J., Adrienne E. Eaton, Work, Livelihoods and Socially and Environ- Trade Union Organizing in the Informal mentally Sustainable Development,” GLU Con- Economy: A Review of the Literature on Or- ference in Campinas, Brazil on Global Devel- ganizing in Africa, Asia, Latin America, opment: Challenges for Union Strategies, North America and Western, Central and [January 2008], pp. 1-25. Eastern Europe, Report to the Solidarity Center, [21] International Labour Organization, Women Rutgers University, 2012. and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statisti- [35] Selçuk, Fatma Ülkü, “Enformel Sektörde cal Picture, Geneva, International Labour Office, Örgütlenme Deneyimleri,” TES-İŞ Dergisi: Ka- 2002. yıtdışı İstihdam, Haziran 2006, pp. 72-77. [22] International Labour Organization, The [36] Sendika.org, “Mahkeme Son Noktayı Role of Trade Unions in the Global Economy Koydu: Tütün-Sen Sendikadır, Kapatılmayacak,” and the Fight Against Poverty: International Sendika.org, 11.01.2013, (Online) Workers’ Symposium Background Paper, www.sendika.org/2013/01/mahkeme-son- Geneva, Bureau for Workers’ Activities, 17-21 noktayi-koydu-tutun-sen-sendikadır- October 2005. kapatılmayacak/ [23] International Labour Organization, Decent [37] Smith, Stirling, Let’s Organize!: A SYN- Work and the Informal Economy, Geneva, In- DICOOP Handbook For Trade Unions and ternatıonal Labour Office, 2002. Cooperatives About Organizing Workers In [24] International Labour Organization, World The Informal Economy, A Joint Publication of Labour Report 1997-98: Industrial Relations, the ILO-ICA-ICFTU, 2006. Democracy and Social Stability, Geneva, Inter- [38] Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, “DİSK Genel natıonal Labour Office, 1998. Başkanı Süleyman Çelebi,” Sosyal Güvenlik [25] International Labour Organization, Trade Dergisi, Yıl: 1, No: 2, Bahar 2009. Unions and the Informal Sector: Towards A [39] Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, “TÜRK-İŞ Genel Comprehensive Srategy, Geneva, International Başkanı Mustafa Kumlu,” Sosyal Güvenlik Labour Organization Bureau for Workers’ Activ- Dergisi, Yıl: 1, No: 2, Bahar 2009. ities, 18-22 October 1999. [40] Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, “Hak-İş Genel Başkanı Salim Uslu Kayıt Dışı İstihdamı

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168 Applying ISO 9126 Quality Model to Evaluate the Website Quality of Turkish Mobile Telecommunication Companies

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Neşe Yalçın and Res. Asst. Burcu Şimşek * Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Turkey * Corresponding Author, E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Since websites play a major role in internet technology, the quality of websites has a great importance for businesses which they offer their products, services, etc. through their own websites. Therefore, businesses should take the quality of their websites into account to predominate over their competitors in today’s complex environment. Although there are a large variety of frameworks for evaluating website quality in the literature, ISO 9126 Quality Model (QM) is rarely recognized and applied as quality standard to specify and evaluate the attributes of websites. In addition, a website quality evaluation framework based on ISO 9126 QM can be seen as a multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) problem due to its multidimensional structure. The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the website quality of three pioneer Turkish mobile telecommunication companies based on ISO 9126 QM developed for the mobile telecommunications sector using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), a well-known MCDM method, in a fuzzy environment. The results reveal that which criteria are crucial in evaluating website quality in the mobile telecommunications sector, and also which mobile telecommunications company has the best website quality in the sector.

Keywords: Website quality, telecommunications sector, ISO 9126 QM, fuzzy set theory, FAHP

1. Introduction In addition, due to the rapid increase in website usage, the evaluation of website quality Parallel to the development of internet remains a challenging area of researchers. In technology, there has been a notable boom in evaluating the quality of websites, lots of the usage of websites in recent years. Users factors should be considered depends on the have various aims in the use of websites such as sector in which businesses operate. Although shopping, researching, learning, communicating, there are numerous website quality models etc. Such that, many businesses will switch developed in the literature, there is no any their business models from the physical to the comprehensive mechanism for systematically virtual market [20]. Also, the popularity of assessing the various factors of a website [36]. website usage makes quality of websites critical Some of these models are generated for for business success. Since a website is a assessing software quality such as McCall window to the outside world [26], businesses model, Boehm Model and ISO 9126 QM while attach importance to their websites and try to some models are for website quality evaluation enhance the quality of their own websites to models such as Web-QEM, 2QCV3Q (7Loci), predominate over their competitors. In the Minerva and MiLE [32]. When the quality circumstances, websites quality of businesses models are examined, we have seen that these should be improved in line with the models use general quality factors that cannot expectations and desires of end users. To build describe particular website domain. Therefore, customer satisfaction in long term, assessing it becomes a lack of justification for particular and monitoring website quality is substantial. software product or website in a specific domain [27]. On the other hand, according to

169

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ec ision . codn t te nomto and Information Authority 3 the in subscribers 74.457.474 totally the Technologies has market telecommunication Turkish (ICTA), users. to end Communication of requirements According considers that telecommunicationsmobilesector forQM 9126 a no ISO on is based model evaluation quality there website authors, the of knowledge best 32] [27, websites academic 17], [2, websites e-learning evaluate mostly that studies website a as used modelevaluation quality rarely been has QM 9126 ISO that seen is it comprehensively, literature 1). businesses on the operatedmethodbased (Table fuzzy and and model both universallyaccepted no is there FAHP combining relatedliterature,fromthe seen is it AsTOPSIS. by industry healthcarein electronicqualityservice analyzed osai e a. 3] ae ple AP to AHP applied have managers/designers. [35] al. and et of Moustakis view customers point the online and from travel websites of electronic quality the evaluating for Kozar and [38] Lee by method a as the used been the has weighting for aimed AHP Moreover,AHP models. these offactors quality used have academic and for [27] websites model quality al. of improvement et Rochimah sector. banking of quality website the assess to COPRAS- and AHP combining by approach hybrid a build to aimed has [8] Ecer instance, website approaches based on individual preferences. For the assess subjective using alternatives to decision of quality employed been have especially of aspects quality different websites. the examine to used (TOPSIS), be can etc. CompromiseELECTRE (VIKOR), Solution Solution and Optimization Ideal Multi-criteria to Similarity by Process Preference Network of Order for Technique and Analytic(ANP), (AHP), Process vlae te est qaiy f ak by and EL banks (FAHP methods of MCDM two quality integrating website the have [29] evaluated Greece. Kahraman and in Kaya providers Furthermore, three service the phone of websites cellular the assess and weight market share, and Turk Telecom Mobile is the 31.3 is Mobile Telecom and Turk and share, customers market million 23.3 next with the one is Vodafone share, market 44% and theis market leader with 32.8 millioncustomers Turkcell that reports ICTA Moreover, 2016. of n diin we rveig h related the reviewing when addition, In n h ltrtr, ifrn MD methods, MCDM different literature, the In CR) Bykza ad iti [1 Çiftçi and Büyüközkan ECTRE). AHP n is uz vrin (FAHP) version fuzzy its and in a limited number of number limited etc rd . To the To . quarter ] have 1] 170 % G last one with 18.4 million customers and 24.7% consensus on devising a standard framework market share [41]. Even though the and evaluating method for this sector. telecommunications sector is one of the rapidly changing and developing sectors, there is no

Table 1. Literature Review Authors & Year Year Sector Base Model Criteria Method Travel -DeLone and Information Quality, Service Lee &Kozar [38] 2006 related McLean’s IS Quality, System Quality, AHP website success model Vendor-Specific Quality Right and understable content, complete content, Büyüközkan & Ruan & Fuzzy 2007 e-learning - personalization, security, Feyzioğlu [12] VIKOR navigation, interactivity, user interface Reliability Academic Usability, content, reliability, Tsigereda W. Mebrate [32] 2010 ISO 9126 Analysis, Website efficiency, functionality WEBUSE Navigability, speed, links, DEMATEL, National relevancy, richness, currency, ANP; Tsai & Chou & Lai [36] 2010 park - attractiveness, security, VIKOR, website personalization, responsiveness WVA Fuzzy AHP, Customer service, information, Kaya & Kahraman [29] 2011 e-banking - Fuzzy product ELECTRE Usability, content, reliability, Sugiyanto & Rochimah & Academic 2016 ISO 9126 efficiency, functionality, AHP Sarwosri [27] websites activity

The aim of this study is to construct a website 2. Methodology quality evaluation framework for mobile telecommunications sector by determining the Multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) is website quality factors with the help of ISO one of the widely-used methods of decision 9126 QM and to measure and evaluate the methodologies in the sciences, business, website quality of three leader Turkish mobile government and engineering world to improve telecommunication companies (Turkcell, the quality of decision by making the decision Vodofone, and Turk Telekom Mobile formerly making process more explicit, rational, and Avea) by using these factors. Since the efficient [37]. The aim of MCDM is to obtain evaluation criteria of our decision making the optimum choice that has the highest degree problem has only qualitative criteria which of satisfaction for all of the relevant explain the subjectivity and are difficult to attributes/criteria [33]. In many multi-criteria describe in crisp values. This problem requires decision analyses, decision problems have often method that can handle qualitative criteria imprecise and fuzzy data because of the criteria [7].With this purpose in mind, the website containing imprecision or vagueness inherent in quality of these three companies are evaluated the information. Therefore, the application of by using the fuzzy (FAHP), the fuzzy extension the classical MCDM method may face serious of AHP. practical constraints in real-world decision The remainder of this paper is organized as situations [4]. Because of the vagueness and follows. Section 2 introduces the methodology ambiguous are inherent of the human by explaining firstly fuzzy sets and systems and judgments and preferences, real life situations then the fuzzy MCDM method (FAHP) cannot adequately be modeled by using the employed in this study. Section 3 gives the exact numerical values. The fuzzy set theory application. Lastly, Section 4 provides originally proposed by Zadeh [21] might be the researchers with summary of the study and most common method in dealing with some potential suggestions for further research. uncertainty in the multi-criteria decision

171 analysis. To resolve the ambiguity frequently 0, x l or x u arising from human judgments and preferences, ~ A x x l m l, l x m (1) the fuzzy set theory has been incorporated into many MCDM approaches, including Analytic x u m u, m x u Hierarchy Process (AHP) referred as fuzzy A triangular membership function ~ x is AHP (FAHP). A shown in Figure 2 [14].

2.1. Fuzzy sets and systems

~ (x) Fuzzy set theory deals with problems of A subjective uncertainty stemmed from the linguistic variables expressed by verbal words 1.0 r(y) or sentences in a natural or artificial language to Al(y) A describe a problem (or an event). The concept of a linguistic variable is very useful in dealing with situations, which are too complex or not 0.0 M well defined to be reasonably described in l m u A conventional quantitative expressions [15]. The Figure 2. A triangular membership function adoption of linguistic variables has recently become widespread and is used to assess the linguistic ratings given by the evaluators. An alternative description of a TFN, by Furthermore, linguistic variables are also defining the interval of confidence level α, can employed as a way to measure the achievement be shown as in Equation (2): of the performance value for each criterion. ~ Since the linguistic variables can be defined by ∀ ∈ 0,1 A l ,u m-l l,u - m u (2) the corresponding membership function and the fuzzy interval, it can be naturally manipulated 2.2. Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process the fuzzy numbers to deal with the fuzzy (FAHP) MCDM problems in order to take into consideration subjective uncertainty. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) A fuzzy number is a special fuzzy set initially proposed by Saaty [34] has a wide , ~ , , where x takes its values A x A x xR range of applications in MCDM methods. The on the real line R : x and ~ x is a decision problem of the AHP is structured A hierarchically at different levels and each level continuous mapping from R to the closed consists of a finite number of elements [22]. interval [0, 1]. In fuzzy MCDM problems, two AHP, by using pair-wise comparisons of all different notations of fuzzy numbers called as criteria related to subjective judgments of triangular and trapezoidal have an extensive decision makers, is a systematic process to usage in both theoretical and practical determine the weights (relative importance) of a applications. Triangular fuzzy numbers (TFNs) criteria set [28]. Although AHP is a popular are more useful in terms of application studies MCMD method, its conventional statement has regarding to its calculation simplicity and a serious deficiency due to the fixed value owned features, so they are used for judgment usage of decision makers. To representing the linguistic variables in the compensate this deficiency, fuzzy set theory is application of this study. ~ incorporated into the pairwise comparison of A TFN can be denoted as A l, m,u ; where the AHP, and this technique is referred as fuzzy l m u and l, m, and u describe the smallest AHP (FAHP). possible value, the most promising value, and The first study with FAHP has been proposed the largest possible value of a fuzzy event, by Van Laarhoven and Pedrycz [25]. Since then, respectively. And, its membership function many FAHP methods has been proposed and ~ x: R 0,1 can be expressed as in used by various authors to solve the hierarchical A fuzzy problems in many different domain of Equation (1): MCDM problems [3, 5, 6, 9-11, 13, 14, 16, 19, 23, 24, 39]

172 In this study, FAHP method proposed by more important, very strongly more important, Ayağ [40] is utilized as a decision analysis and extremely more important. Although the technique to determine the weights of the discrete scale of one to nine has the advantages evaluation criteria. In this approach, TFNs used of being simple and easy to use, it does not take by Saaty [30] as fundamental scale in pair-wise into account the uncertainty associated with the ~ ~ comparison, 1 to 9 , are preferred to represent mapping of one’s perception or judgment to a subjective pair-wise comparisons of the number. Therefore, this scale can easily be evaluation criteria in order to capture the converted to fuzzy numbers considering the vagueness. uncertainty of human judgments. In line with ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ In conventional AHP, the pair-wise this nine-point scale, five TFNs ( 1,3,5,7,9 ) comparison is made using a ratio scale. A with the corresponding membership functions frequently used scale is the nine-point scale (Table 2) are defined to take into consideration [31] which shows the participants’ judgments the imprecision of the qualitative assessments or preferences among such options as equally of the experts. important, moderately more important, strongly

Table 2. Definition and membership function of fuzzy scale [30] Intensity of importance Fuzzy number Definition Membership function ~ 1 1 Equally important (EI) (1, 1, 2) ~ 3 3 Moderately more important (MI) (2, 3, 4) ~ 5 5 Strongly more important (SI) (4, 5, 6) ~ 7 7 Very strongly more important (VSI) (6, 7, 8) ~ 9 9 Extremely more important (EMI) (8, 9, 10)

~ ~ In this study, TFNs, 1 to 9 , are used both to Step 3. Solve the fuzzy eigenvalue. A fuzzy ~ indicate the relative strength of each pair of eigenvalue, , is a fuzzy number solution to: ~ ~ elements in the same hierarchy and to establish A~x ~x (4) ~ ~ fuzzy decision matrix for evaluation of the where is the largest eigenvalue of A telecommunication company alternatives to max and ~x is a non-zero n 1 , fuzzy vector capture the vagueness. ~ The computational procedure of the FAHP containing fuzzy number xi . To perform fuzzy [40] approach used in this study has mainly multiplications and additions by using the four steps given as follows: interval arithmetic and α-cut, the equation ~ ~ Step 1. Compare the performance score. A~x ~x is equivalent to: Linguistic terms are used to indicate the relative strength of each pair of elements in the same ai1l x1l , ai1u x1u ⊕⊕ainlxnl , ainu, xnu hierarchy. (5) , Step 2. Construct the fuzzy comparison xil xiu matrix. By using TFNs, via pair-wise where ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ comparison, the fuzzy judgment matrix A is A aij , x x1 , xn , constructed as given below: a~ a , a , ~x x , x , (5) ~ ~ ~ ij ijl iju i il iu a11 a12 a1n ~a ~ ~ ~ l , u ~ a21 a22 a2n A (3) for 0 ≤ 1 and all i, j, where i 1,2,,n, j 1,2,,m . a~ a~ a~ m1 m2 mn where if i is equal to j aij 1 , otherwise The α-cut is known to incorporate the experts ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 or 11, 31, 51, 71, 91 that or decision maker(s) confidence over his/her ij preference. The degree of satisfaction for the shortly means i is not equal to j. ~ judgment matrix A is estimated by the index of optimism μ. A larger value of the index μ

173 indicates a higher degree of optimism. The (alternatives). The three alternatives, namely, index of optimism is a linear convex Vodafone (VDFN), Turkcell (TRKCLL) and combination defined as [1]: Turk Telekom Mobile (TTM) are selected ~ because they are the leader Turkish companies aij .aiju 1 aijl , ∀ ∈ 0,1 (6) in the telecommunications sector. Since these When α is fixed, the following matrix can be three companies develop so rapidly and have obtained after setting the index of optimism, , capacity to compete with each other, evaluating in order to estimate the degree of satisfaction: their website quality will be great significance ~ ~ ~ a11 a12 a1n in their competitiveness. The decision making ~ ~ ~ group from which data are collected consists of a21 a22 a2n ~ five website experts who have authority on their . . (7) A own branches. In the application, firstly an . . evaluation framework of the website quality a~ a~ a~ based on ISO 9126 QM for mobile n1 n2 nn telecommunications sector is developed by The eigenvector is calculated by fixing the considering both literature review and experts’ value and identifying the maximal eigenvalue. opinions supported by previous studies. Step 4. In order to ensure the consistency of The hierarchical structure of the decision subjective perception and accuracy of the model is shown in Figure 3. As seen in Figure 3, comparative weights, the consistency ratio (CR) the hierarchy of the evaluation framework is calculated to estimate the consistency of each consists of three main-criteria, namely, usability pair-wise comparison matrices directly. It (U), content (C) and functionality (F), and a should be less than 0.01 (CR ≤ 0.01) for an total of nine sub-criteria belong to these three acceptable comparison, otherwise the main-criteria. According to the hierarchical comparison should be necessarily modified by structure, firstly fuzzy evaluation matrices are decision makers to achieve the acceptable formed with the questionnaires and evaluated comparison. by the experts to determine the relative importance of the website quality evaluation criteria. By applying the computational 3. Application procedure of the proposed FAHP method, the priorities of all the comparison matrices are In website quality measurement, the goal is found. The evaluation matrices are given in to find out the best website quality from the Tables 3 - 17. mobile telecommunication companies

To find out the best website quality

Usability (U) Content (C) Functionality (F) (0.106) (0.682) (0.091)

Accessibility (U1) Learnability (U2) Quality Information (C1) Suitability (F1) Operability (U3) Understandability (C2) Security (F2) Attractiveness (U4) Navigation (U5)

Vodafone (VDFN) Turkcell (TRKCLL) Turk Telekom Mobile (TTM)

Figure 3. The evaluation framework of the website quality based on ISO 9126 QM for mobile telecommunications sector

174 Also in Table 7, the local weights and the sub-criteria, while the most important sub- global weights of the sub-criteria are shown. criterion is Quality Information (C1), the least According to the global weights of the nine important one is Accessibility (U1).

Table 3. Evaluation of the main-criteria with respect to the goal Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms U C F U C F U - 1 (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) C SI - MI (4, 5, 6) 1 (2, 3, 4) F MI - (2, 3, 4) (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WG = (0.106, 0.682, 0.212)

Table 4. Evaluation of the sub-criteria with respect to Usability (U) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U1 - 1 (1/8, 1/7, 1/6) (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) (1/8, 1/7, 1/6) U2 VSI - MI MI EI (6, 7, 8) 1 (4, 5, 6) (4, 5, 6) (1, 1, 2) U3 SI - MI (4, 5, 6) (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) 1 (4, 5, 6) (1/2, 1, 1) U4 MI - (2, 3, 4) (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) 1 (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) U5 VSI EI MI - (6, 7, 8) (1/2, 1, 1) (1, 1, 2) (4, 5, 6) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WU = (0.042, 0.372, 0.202, 0.106, 0.278)

Table 5. Evaluation of the sub-criteria with respect to Content (C) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 - SI 1 (4, 5, 6) C2 - (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WC = (0.830, 0.170)

Table 6. Evaluation of the sub-criteria with respect to Functionality (F) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 - 1 (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) F2 SI - (4, 5, 6) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WC = (0.170, 0.830)

Table 7.Summary for the measured weights of the website quality sub-criteria. Main-criterion Sub-criterion Local weights Global weights Rank Usability (U) 0.106 Accessibility (U1) 0.042 0.004 9 Learnability (U2) 0.372 0.039 4

Operability (U3) 0.202 0.021 7

Interface attractiveness (U4) 0.106 0.011 8

Navigation (U5) 0.278 0.029 6

Content (C) 0.682 Quality Information (C1) 0.830 0.566 1 Understandability (C2) 0.170 0.116 3

Functionality (F) 0.212 Suitability (F1) 0.170 0.036 5 Security (F2) 0.830 0.176 2

Table 8. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to accessibility (U1) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - MI 1 (1/8, 1/7, 1/6) (4, 5, 6) TRKCLL VSI - EMI (6, 7, 8) 1 (8, 9, 10) TTM - (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) (1/10, 1/9, 1/8) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WU1 = (0.190, 0.749, 0.060)

Table 9. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to learnability (U2) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - VSI 1 (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) (6, 7, 8) TRKCLL SI - EMI (4, 5, 6) 1 (8, 9, 10) TTM - (1/8, 1/7, 1/6) (1/10, 1/9, 1/8) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WU2 = (0.244, 0.700, 0.056)

175 Table 10. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to operability (U3) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - SI 1 (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) (4, 5, 6) TRKCLL MI - VSI (2, 3, 4) 1 (6, 7, 8) TTM - (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) (1/8, 1/7, 1/6) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WU3 = (0.290, 0.636, 0.074)

Table 11. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to interface attractiveness (U4) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - 1 (1/8, 1/7, 1/6) (1/10, 1/9, 1/8) TRKCLL VSI - (6, 7, 8) 1 (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) TTM EMI MI - (8, 9, 10) (2, 3, 4) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WU4 = (0.057, 0.302, 0.642)

Table 12. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to navigation (U5) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - VSI 1 (1/6, 1/5, 1/4) (6, 7, 8) TRKCLL SI - EMI (4, 5, 6) 1 (8, 9, 10) TTM - (1/8, 1/7, 1/6) (1/10, 1/9, 1/8) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WU5 = (0.244, 0.700, 0.056)

Table 13. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to information quality (C1) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - MI 1 (1/2, 1, 1) (2, 3, 4) TRKCLL EI - MI (1, 1, 2) 1 (2, 3, 4) TTM - (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WC1 = (0.376, 0.474, 0.150)

Table 14. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to understandability (C2) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - EI 1 (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) (1, 1, 2) TRKCLL MI - MI (2, 3, 4) 1 (2, 3, 4) TTM - (1/2, 1, 1) (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WC1 = (0.233, 0.583, 0.185)

Table 15. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to suitability (F1) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - EI 1 (1/2, 1, 1) (1, 1, 2) TRKCLL EI - EI (1, 1, 2) 1 (1, 1, 2) TTM - (1/2, 1, 1) (1/2, 1, 1) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WC1 = (0.328, 0.412, 0.260)

Table 16. Evaluation of the alternatives with respect to security (F2) Matrix in linguistic terms Matrix in fuzzy terms VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN TRKCLL TTM VDFN - MI 1 (1/2, 1, 1) (2, 3, 4) TRKCLL EI - MI (1, 1, 2) 1 (2, 3, 4) TTM - (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) (1/4, 1/3, 1/2) 1 The weight vector is calculated as WC1 = (0.376, 0.474, 0.150)

Table 17.Final ranking result with respect to website quality of alternatives 0.004 0.039 0.021 0.011 0.029 0.566 0.116 0.036 0.176

Alternatives U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 C1 C2 F1 F2 VDFN 0.190 0.244 0.290 0.057 0.244 0.376 0.233 0.328 0.376 TRKCLL 0.749 0.700 0.636 0.302 0.700 0.474 0.583 0.412 0.474 TTM 0.060 0.056 0.074 0.642 0.056 0.150 0.185 0.260 0.150 Alternatives U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 C1 C2 F1 F2 Alternative priority weight VDFN 0.001 0.010 0.006 0.001 0.007 0.213 0.027 0.012 0.066 0.343 TRKCLL 0.003 0.028 0.014 0.003 0.021 0.268 0.067 0.015 0.084 0.502 TTM 0.000 0.002 0.002 0.007 0.002 0.085 0.021 0.009 0.026 0.155

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178 Cloud Based Accounting Startups and Their Effects on the Profession of Accounting in Turkey

Assist. Prof. Dr. Burak Özdoğan Manisa Celal Bayar University / Business Adm. Dep. *Corresponding Author e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: With the help of the advancements in the field of communication and information technologies, the number of IT based software have rapidly increased and the capabilities of high budget Enterprise Resource Plan- ning (ERP) software widely used by large enterprises have begun to be offered to SME’s with the help of cloud computing. In this paper, cloud-computing based accounting startups are covered, and the effects of these highly increasing startups on SME’s and the profession of accounting have been addressed. In this study, a company named Paraşüt has been selected as a cloud based accounting startup from Turkey and the establishment of the company, current situation and future goals have been discussed in the light of the data obtained from the company. In conclusion, it has been predicted that the number of technology startups that accounting professionals and entrepreneurs with an expertise on information technologies will come together and establish will increase in the future, and cloud based accounting initiatives will shape the future of this profession.

Keywords: Accounting, Cloud Based Start-ups, SaaS,

1. Introduction counting software. As organizations grew in size and as their structures became increasingly more Reaching back thousands of years, renewed complex, the practice of accounting has been and transformed while becoming more important under equal pressures to adapt to those changing with all the major changes affecting humanity, dynamics. These complex processes have em- accounting profession today, is inside an im- phasized the significance of accounting infor- portant transformation again. Advancing tech- mation and allowed them to become a strategic nology and new business models are bringing decision making tool. One of the most critical the accounting and the accountancy to a new and valuable executive assets that helped com- dimension, centuries after the double entry sys- plex business systems to be rendered more effi- tem brought to accounting by Italian mathemati- cient has been so-called “Enterprise Resource cian Luca Pacioli who also known as the teacher Planning (ERP)” systems [18-4]. of Leonardo da Vinci’s. However, high setup and operational costs of With the widespread use of computer technol- these systems have prevented small and medium ogy subsequent to a long period of manual book- enterprises (SME) to benefit the advantages of keeping, accounting profession has forged closer them. Today, on the other hand, the develop- ties with contemporary technological advancements on communication technologies field ments through the adoption of cutting-edge ac- makes the operational costs of data storage,

179 transfer and other communication processes • Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): It is the lower than before. As a consequence of this situ- offering of infrastructure hardware like server ation, high technology has become accessible for and storage to businesses as a service. It allows SME’s and consequently start-ups with new businesses to hire these resources and avoid pur- generation business models have joined to tradi- chasing costs [10]. tional markets. With the help of Cloud compu- • Database as a Service (DaaS): It is the cloud ting technology and “Software as a Service service that allows storage and management of (SaaS)” business model, new generation ac- data required by businesses in a form that can counting start-ups have emerged and the benefits instantly be used [16]. of ERP systems that were only for large enter- • Platform as a Service (PaaS): It is the cloud prises have been offered to SME’s with lower service that provides all the conditions that busi- costs which has led accounting to become a stra- nesses require for performing application devel- tegic decision making tool for them. opment, testing, management and publishing processes [15]. • Software as a Service (SaaS): It is the 2. New Generation Business Models providing of software that businesses require in different areas as a service with a specific sub- According to a report prepared by the collabo- scription fee. ration of Intuit and Emergent Research in 2010, containing projections for the future, in the next The benefits of cloud computing for business- 10 years the importance of digital will increase es can be summarized as follows [12]: and IT-integrated products and services will • It significantly reduces the costs of SME’s benefit from low IT costs as well as high per- that wish to benefit from computed aided analy- formance [7].Same report foresees that by 2020, sis tools that large enterprises use. SME’s will answer market opportunities with • Without having to bear any additional in- new niche products having dynamic pricing, and vestments, it allows businesses to gain access to “collaboration” will become the common meth- hardware resources. od of conducting business for both small and • It removes the barrier of reach between medium enterprises and large enterprises [7]. businesses and innovative resources, and speeds In the current century, five factors that will up the birth of new startups. bring technology to a sustainable organizational • Cloud computing allows applications and reputation are schematically depicted as follows software to be offered to businesses that were [19]: previously not possible. Most important instrument of cloud computing for SME’s is SaaS, “Software as a Service”. With the help of SaaS, most of the software used by large enterprises have been offered to the use of SME’s. Software that businesses obtained by bearing significant costs, can now be offered to Among these five factors shown in the figure, businesses without and installation or operation- cloud technology can be shown as the most al costs, through subscription systems and rela- prominent development. Cloud computing or tively much lower costs [9]. cloud, in its simplest form, is offering any IT Results of a survey study conducted in 2015 resources based on demand, from applications to on 305 startups with a SaaS revenue model data centers, for use over the internet with usage shows that the average annual revenue of fees [6]. Services provided with cloud- startups that employ a SaaS model is around 4 computing can be grouped in four main catego- million Dollars, and company revenues are in- ries [15]: creased by 44% compared to 2014 [13]. Accord-

180 ing to another research, cloud computing reve- formation systems improve organizational per- nues that were 48.8 billion Dollars in 2014 are formance [8]. expected to reach 112.8 billion Dollars by 2019 In a report published by CPA Australia, it has [14]. been predicted that in a recent future, accounting Especially accounting and ERP software that offices will conduct their business without using businesses had to purchase in the past brought physical documents, and mostly via communi- significant costs and created important burdens cating with their customers from online plat- in terms of infrastructure and human resources. forms. It has been noted that these accounting With cloud-computing technology, these soft- firms will also provide products and services to ware packages are now offered to businesses as their customers online [20]. a service with a subscription system, and not According to another survey conducted on only installation costs, but also operational costs 400 accounting professionals by “CPA.com”, a and subsequent infrastructure costs are eliminat- sub-organization of American Institute of Certi- ed. While there was only access to related data fied Public Accountants (AICPA), 90% of ac- from computers with the particular software in- countants mention that the digital future is fast stalled, after cloud-computing, managers and approaching, while only 8% mention that the executives can access the data and reports they profession is ready for the future today [2]. Sur- want, from all devices connected to the internet, vey results related to technological advance- regardless of time and space. All these developments are listed as follows [2]: ments have reflections on the field of accounting, • Accountants need to work harder to complete as in many other areas. their preparations for the future, • Accountants need to understand and embrace new technologies, 3. Development of Accounting Profession and • A significant change period awaits accountants the Effects of Cloud Computing on the so that they can achieve the agility needed by Profession future markets, • Accountants need to increase their awareness Accounting is a profession that can adapt it- on innovations like cloud computing and big self most quickly to the conditions of the era and data in order to be able to adapt to future busi- century it finds itself in. In the previous decades, ness models, computers were only used for basic accounting • Accountants need to increase their awareness functions since their capabilities were limited. towards the effects of mobile communication The level of this interactivity has increased in and digital business models. time and the transformation of accounting into an information system has been started [3-17]. Just as in-house accounting systems, web- It is possible to explain the changes happening based accounting information solutions vary in in accounting information systems with these terms of their components. Most important com- three factors [11]: ponents are financial accounting, project based • Technology accounting, stock management, invoices and • Management application and models receipts management, budgeting and forecasting, • Accounting rules fixed asset accounting and payment management It is known that the usage of information [1]. technologies have a positive impact on account- According to another report of Intuit, while ing information system and therefore company the rate of SME’s using cloud computing in performance [1]. According to a research con- 2014 is 37%, this rate is expected to reach 78% ducted with 310 participants consisting of SMEs, in 2020. In another report of the same company, it is argued that investments on accounting in- it has been noted that smart devices with access to cloud provides accountants the ability to offer

181 instant support to their clients, and provides an these are accounting startups or not, and their advanced decision support system while per- revenue models are individually classified. Upon forming instant data collection and processing thorough investigation, 213 startups have been [5]. The results of another research which con- found to be operating towards various account- ducted in Australia on 300 accounting and tax ing components. business in the SME scale, and 200 SME’s from Within these startups, that are all cloud- different sectors shows that 27% of SME’s are computing based, and have an online business using cloud-based accounting services while model, there are startups that serve complete 76% state that benefit from cloud computing ERP systems to SME’s with a SaaS model, services more [19]. while there are also startups that focus on a par- Aforementioned studies along with many oth- ticular accounting problem and provide software ers following similar track demonstrate that the or application services on this area. number of SMEs particularly utilizing cloud- It has been observed that 68% of the investi- based decision support systems and the corre- gated accounting startups prefer the SaaS model, sponding number of new cloud-based startups while the remaining startups use project based targeting those SMEs are on a significant rise. pricing, commission or other revenue models. 47% of the startups are USA based, while 37% are established in Europe. There are 3 cloud 4. Cloud-Based Accounting Start-Ups’; based accounting startups from Turkey in the list. Parasut.com Case 92% of the startups are operating exclusively for SME’s, while 6% are offering services to large Companies that are providing traditional ac- enterprises as well as SME’s. Remaining counting services for SME’s need to be trans- startups are composed of companies established formed into innovative business models in order to provide a service to “freelance” workers. to meet the expectations of especially newly es- There are different software services that have tablished technology-oriented start-ups with a variety of functions among the startups that high growth potential. were examined, such as software at the micro As the number of technology-oriented startups level that can only be used for tracking invoices have increased in recent years, the number of or asset management, as well as cloud based accounting startups adopting cloud computing as services that allow pre-accounting transactions a business model as and SaaS as a revenue mod- to be conducted fully as cloud-based. el described in the previous section, are rapidly From the 3 Turkey based startups in the list, increasing. In order to explain this argument “Muhsis” and “Paraşüt” are focusing on pre- with quantitative data, companies that define accounting, while “HDS Karas” comes into themselves as Accounting Startups have been prominence in the field of tax return. Among pulled out from the database consisting of these startups, Paraşüt, which we could get the 1.071.826 startups at “Angel.co”, an internet detailed information of, and was founded in website founded to globally monitor startups, 2013, is currently providing service to 100 thou- investors and company valuations within differ- sand businesses. Through the internet startup ent sectors, and have been included in this re- that is specializing its software on different sec- search. tors like services, manufacturing, wholesale, 472 Startups in the list are taken into the study. retail and other sectors, services like invoice A total of 486 investors have invested at differ- tracking, current account monitoring, income ent levels to these startups until this time, and and expense tracking, reporting, e-billing, online the average value of the startups in the list have collection and inventory tracking are offered to been determined to be 3.9 million USD. Web- SME’s as cloud-computing based services. sites of 486 startups taken into the study have SME’s that sign up to the startup working with a been individually visited and confirmed whether

182 SaaS model can benefit from pre-accounting 5. Conclusions and Recommendations for services for a fixed monthly fee. Future Studies In order to gain more detailed information on the establishment and working principles of The fact that there are only 472 companies Paraşüt, the company has been contacted and listed as accounting startups in Angel.co plat- company officials have been requested to an- form globally listing 1.071.826 startups demon- swer an open-ended question set consisting of strates that this field is still very new, but also eight questions. Question set has been sent to the there are opportunities in this field. Since the company on 14.07.2016 via e-mail, and the an- number of high growth potential, high technolo- swers have been received on 08.08.2016 via e- gy businesses referred to as startups are increas- mail. In the light of the answers, following con- ing globally, it has become necessary for com- siderations have been reached; panies operating with a business-to-business • Paraşüt was founded by three partners with the (B2B) model to change their way of doing busi- idea to develop software that would basically ness. provide invoice tracking and management to Accounting profession, which can be evaluat- companies, and then cover the entire process of ed in this context, is affected by advancing tech- pre-accounting. nologies in terms of free accountancy as well as • Observing the problems in providing and ana- accounting units within enterprises. With the lyzing the data required to meet need for busi- number of accounting-oriented new generation ness growth for companies have been an im- internet startups increasing, small businesses portant reason for the decision of offering an will be able to use their accounting data to make accounting-oriented business model with a strategic decisions and have better management cloud-based software. capabilities just like large enterprises. Given as • While company employees do not contain any an example for startups operating in this field accounting professionals like SMMM or YMM, within Turkey, when the rapid increase in the it has been carefully paid attention that all em- number of clients and the progress of Paraşüt is ployees have accounting - finance experience, considered, individuals and organizations that and constant consultancy has been received are carrying on their accounting professions in during the development of the software from a the traditional sense are also required to perform Certified Public Accounting firm and its part- a digital transformation with a similar process. ners, and new features to be added are tested In this context, the number of technology initially by the clients of this consulting com- startups that accounting professionals and entre- pany. preneurs with an expertise on information tech- • While primarily companies with fewer than 10 nologies will come together and establish will employees but high operational movement increase in the future. (few employees but high levels of cash flow) For future studies, in order for the gap in this are targeted to use the Paraşüt software, in the field and the awareness to be further measured long term, Paraşüt is aimed to become software in detail, a research on accounting professionals that can meet all expectations of growing busi- working in Turkey can be conducted to demon- nesses with regard to finance technologies as strate their readiness level for digital transfor- well as pre-accounting. mation, awareness level on cloud computing and new generation business models, and more com- • The company is foreseeing a transition to cloud computing in all areas businesses require prehensive opinions and recommendations on software, not just pre-accounting, accounting the future of this sector can be formed. and finance technologies.

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184 A Research on the Effect of Social Marketing Techniques on Behavioral Change

Asst. Prof. Dr. Ceylan Bozpolat Department of Banking and Finance, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Turkey E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. Obesity is community health care threats and it is also a preventable heath problem which leads to the reduced quality of life in the lives of millions of people. In many countries, particularly USA, campaigns have been run as a part of fighting against obesity and some informative activities for a healthy life and diet are being carried out continues with an increasing determination since 2006 in Turkey as well. The aim of this study is to analyze effect of social marketing implications on the behavior of adopting the philosophy of a healthy diet and a active life that organized by The Ministry of Health as part of “Fighting Against Obesity” Campaign in Turkey. Explanatory factor analysis, which is constructed according to research aim, reveals that there are six dimensions related to social marketing implications namely, public government responsibilities and sample applications, promotion methods, campaign effectiveness, informing, physical activity implications and mass media. Multiple regression analysis is used for testing research model which is constructed by these dimensions. According to research findings, dimensions of public responsibilities and model implications, campaign efficiency and mass communication have a positive impact on the behavior of adopting the philosophy of a healthy diet and an active life. Finally, some research constraints are emphasized and some suggestions are offered for following researchers.

Keywords: Social Marketing, Social Campaigns, Obesity, Public Healthy, Behavioral Change

1. Introduction thought change by reaching the widest masses in the fastest way, with the aim of increasing Obesity ,is a serious and chronic disease the influence of the campaign against obesity, which is considered as the plague of the age promoting healthy diet and physical activity. By and has genetic and environmental interactions. means of the practices such as advertising films, Obesity, caused by the fact that there are more public spots, physical activity activities, medi- than normal amounts of fat in the body, de- cal support, action plans have been implement- pends on a number of factors and requires med- ed to describe the health risks caused by obesity. ical treatment [1]. Together with the numerous The main purpose of such studies is to raise diseases that it leads to, obesity causes millions healthier generations and to increase preventive of people to lose their lives every year in the health care practices. It has been supported by world. In these struggles against obesity which various studies that the cost of treatment of dis- is a great danger for community health have eases caused by obesity is higher than those of been seen by many countries to resort to social activities for social awareness. Moreover, the marketing activities. In Turkey, whose health requirement and significance of such practices system has undergone a comprehensive reform, arise when the social benefits to be derived there are a number of projects aimed at protect- from the contributions of healthy individuals to ing and improving health. The "Fight Against their countries in their working and social lives Obesity" campaign, which the Ministry of are taken into account [2]. In this context, this Health initiated jointly with other related units, research was carried out with the purpose of is also one of such challenges. revealing the effect of social marketing practic- It has been applied to social marketing applies within the scope of the "Fight Against Obesi- cations, which is one of the most effective tech- ty" campaign on the behavior of adopting the niques in achieving the desired behavior and philosophy of a healthy diet and a active life.

185 2. Literature Review can be given for health-related social marketing practices. 2.1. Emergence of Social Marketing Concept Social marketing is the traditional marketing activities in the analysis, planning, implementa- At the end of the 1960s, with the changing tion and control processes carried out during the consumer demands and needs, the develop- design of programmes aimed at attracting the ments in marketing approach caused the enter- target group to desired behavior in order to in- prises to make a start on both social responsibil- crease individual and social welfare [10]. Ac- ity and social marketing approaches [3]. The cording to a definition given about by which social and economic conditions of the 1970s institutions or organizations social marketing and 1980s, consumer dissatisfaction, environ- can be carried out, social marketing is an initia- mental problems, the danger of the complete tive undertaken by state institutions and organi- destruction of natural resources, various legal zations, non-profit organizations (associations and political influences have driven marketing and ministries) and profit-oriented gender or- management to act with social responsibility [4]. ganizations [11]. Often, social marketing is In this context, the concept of social marketing confused with social marketing. Social market- was first considered as a discipline in the work ing is aimed at changing specific ideas and be- of Kotler and Zaltman. Social marketing is de- haviors of individuals and institutions in a way scribed by Kotler and Zaltman as follows; So- that can create benefit. In other words, the main cial marketing is the design, implementation, aim of social marketing is social change. As for and control of programs calculated to influence social marketing, it acts upon taking the inter- the acceptability of social ideas and involving ests of society into account. However, it is not considerations of product planning, pricing, the main aim of social marketing that marketing communication, distribution, and marketing practices create social change among the con- research. [5, 6]. sumers [10]. As a result of Maslow's “self-realization” stage which is the fifth stage in his theory of 2.2. Types of Social Marketing Campaigns Hierarchy of Needs, societies are moving towards individual based approaches, resulting in The campaign is defined, in TDK Dictionary, the expansion of the traditional boundaries of as a period of activity for a certain period in the marketing and the importance of social excel- fields of economy, culture, social etc. [12]. So- lence [7]. Social marketing emerging as a con- cial marketing campaigns are divided into clas- sequence of this social direction is defined as ses according to the types of the desired behav- the use of marketing techniques for the adop- ior of the target group. Issues existing within tion of the behaviors that will enhance the qual- the community and desired by the target group ity of life of target audience or the whole com- prepare the ground for campaigns that would munity [8]. possibly be implemented [13]. In this context, Institutions and organizations realize that by the types of campaigns are classified as educa- using marketing techniques, they will be able to tional, action-oriented, behavioral and value- reach their goals more easily and that they will oriented campaigns in terms of their impacts on be more successful in making the target audi- the target audience [14]. ence adopt the desired behavior. Similar to con- In educational campaigns, first of all, the ventional marketers who sell goods and ser- questions such as what (on which subject), vices, social marketers also sell behavior when (the day on which the education will be change. Social marketing does not dwell on given, hour etc.), how (which methods and making profits, but on the techniques to influ- tools will be used), where (the place where the ence social behavior in order to benefit the tar- education will be given) who (the person that get group or the collective in general [9]. These will give the education) must be answered thor- techniques are widely used especially in inter- oughly [15]. Such campaigns are aimed at in- national health programs. The studies on the forming society about a certain social problem subjects such as the use of contraceptive meth- [14]. For example; the importance of regular ods, avoidance of starting to use drugs and and balanced feeding is emphasized in a cam- smoking, organ donation and struggle with obe- paign of fight against obesity. Feeding habits sity are among the most common examples that are shaped the changes ongoing throughout the ages, and changing habits can be possible

186 through the application of long-term behavior main point in the individual behavior cam- modification methods [15]. The continuity of paigns is to change the behavior causing the behavior shows the success of educational cam- social problem at the individual base. Best paigns. known campaigns related to changing individu- Action-oriented campaigns are designed to al behavior are the campaigns of using seat encourage the target audience to take action on belts, smoking cessation and reducing sub- a specific topic [13]. Red Crescent’s campaigns stance abuse. Community action campaigns to increase blood donation or healthy diet and raise awareness about a problem that is prob- active life walk activities organized by the Min- lematic for society and contribute to the crea- istry of Health in many cities in the context of tion of legal frameworks necessary to abolish the fight against obesity can be evaluated in this the problem by means of law [13]. An example framework. of this is the application of fines to smokers in Behavioral campaigns, one of the social mar- closed areas as part of the cigarette quit cam- keting campaign types, are used extensively in paign. the health sector. Behaviors of the individuals Finally, value-oriented campaigns aim to directed to the protection of health and the change the inaccurate knowledge, attitudes and things they do when health problems occur are thoughts existing in society. These campaigns generally defined through the term of health aimed at removing prejudices about any social behavior. Individuals show some behaviors issue are effective in changing the wrong ideas with reference to various individual and social and attitudes resulting from lack of information resources related to preserving their health [16]. [19]. For example, it can be evaluated in this The change in health behavior begins with con- context to replace false information and ideas vincing the individual. At this stage, besides the existing in the society and create new attitudes communication formed by behavior campaigns, and value judgments instead of having the nec- other elements such as need priorities, personal essary intervention in the donation of organ do- preferences, alternative attitudes and behaviors nation in religious terms or in the case of emer- can also be added [17]. The attitude that is the gency organ donation [13]. For example, chang- preliminary step of the behavior change is de- ing the inaccurate information and ideas which fined as the predisposition of a mental, emo- exist in the society that organ donation is eccle- tional, and behavioral response that the individ- siastically wrong or the organ donors cannot ual organizes based on any object, social sub- take the necessary treatments and creating new ject, or experience, knowledge, emotion, or mo- attitudes and standards of judgment can be tive in the self or its surroundings [18]. Behav- evaluated within this scope.[13]. ioral campaigns have an important place in the As a result of the literature survey on social transformation of behavior to attitude. Behav- marketing campaigns, the research results in ioral campaigns are divided in itself into two as Table 1 were reached. individual and social behavior campaigns. The Table 1:Literature Review By this study it has been found that anti-smoking campaigns have a decreasing effect Warner [20] on cigarette consumption. Analyzes conducted before and after the campaign showed that annual cigarette consumption per person decreased to 4% from 5%. With this research 156 public service announcement (psa) with political content polit- Joslyn [21] ical content have been analyzed and it has been found that public service announcements may have an influence on potential voter behavior. In the study, it was suggested that the use of alcoholic beverages could be reduced by Tay [22] mass communication campaigns. As a result of the analyzes made, great savings have been achieved in medical costs. This study, whereby the effectiveness of health communication campaigns is evaluat- Snyder [23] ed, has shown that it is possible to change feeding behaviors through communication activities such as feedback, effective message content and presentation. In this work carried out in the USA, the members were informed about organ donation and by means of a platform developed on Facebook, and those who agreed to Cameron vd. [24] become donors enrolled to the organ donation list via their own state records. As a result of the research, the number of donors which was 616 at the beginning increased to 13.054.

187 This study on the abortion law in India has revealed that developing awareness and perception about correct communication interventions and abortion law will result in Banerjee vd.[25] beneficial behavioral change.

3. Methodology a frame similar to the 5-Likert scale. Sequence in this scale type is as the following: 1 = I ab- 3.1. Sample solutely disagree ... 5 = I strongly agree. In the second part, demographic questions about the The universe of the study constitutes indi- people who participated in the survey are in- viduals aged 18 and over residing in 21 locali- cluded. Cronbach's Alpha coefficient was used ties in Turkey / Nevşehir city center. In the de- in order to test the reliability of the Likert termination of the number of samples, the ratio scales. By means of calculating the mean cor- of the neighborhood population to the total relations of the scale-forming expressions in population was calculated and it was targeted the test, the coefficient α, which indicates the that the sample numbers taken represent the internal consistency of the measure, is between neighborhood population. For the different 0 and 1. As a result of the reliability analysis, it universe sizes at the 95% confidence level, a is expected that the value of the coefficient α sample frame has been determined in the direc- be over 0.70 to be able to say that you can say tion of the universe size corresponding to the that the scale is reliable [29]. According to the number of principal masses required for the results of the reliability analysis, the calculated study, based on the sample size table, with an α coefficient of the scale is found to be 0.88. error rate of 5% [26]. The universe of the study Therefore, the internal consistency and reliabil- contains a total of 63,752 people aged 18 years ity of the scale used can be said to be quite and over residing in the Nevşehir Center. Since high. the universe size is in the range of 50,000 to 100,000, the sample size corresponding to 5% 3.3. Research Model error at 95% confidence level has been determined as 400. The questionnaire forms were Specific information is being studied in this distributed in the determined neighborhood to study. For this reason, the research is a defini- those who were aged 18 years and older and tive and descriptive research. With the aim of who agreed to respond to the questionnaire in demonstrating the effect of the campaign the determined neighborhood according to against obesity, which is one of the social mar- convenience sampling which is one of the non- keting applications carried out in health field, random sampling methods. on social behavior descriptive research model has been used. Descriptive researches include a 3.2. Scales wide range of areas. Its aim is to obtain accurate and accurate information about the target The questionnaire form was developed by audience [30]. Figure 1 presents the research using the social marketing attitude scale devel- model showing the effect of independent vari- oped by Develi and tested for reliability and ables on the dependent variable. Independent validity [27]. The social marketing scale relat- variables in the research model were formed as ed to obesity was developed by the author him- a result of factor analysis. Hypotheses were self based on the nutrition knowledge and doc- constituted based on the assumption that each umentation of the Ministry of Health of the independent variable in model has a positive Republic of Turkey [28]. effect on the behavior of adopting the philoso- The 30 statements in the first part of the sur- phy of a healthy diet and an active life vey form used in the survey were developed in

188

Figure 1: Research Model

3.4. Analysis of Data 3.5. Findings of the Research and Evaluations The data collected through the questionnaire form was evaluated by computer assisted SPSS Descriptive information related to the demo- package program. For the demographic infor- graphic characteristics of the individuals par- mation in the questionnaire descriptive statisti- ticipating in the survey is shown in Table 2. cal methods such as frequency distribution, According to Table 2, 58.7% of the individuals percent, mean, standard deviation were used participating in the study were normal individ- and for the expressions related to social mar- uals with ideal body weight, and 8.5% were keting applications with obesity campaign. obese individuals. Approximately 10% of the factor Analysis, Pearson Correlation Analysis sample is made up of obese individuals. and Regression Analysis were used.

Table 2: Demographic Characteristics of the people Taking Part in the Research Gender n % Level of Education n % Male 212 53,0 Primary education 22 5,3 Female 188 47,0 High School 119 29,8 Total 400 100,0 Two-year degree 63 15,8 Bachelor's degree 157 39,3 Marital Status n % Post Graduate 39 9,8 Single 169 42,2 Total 400 100,0 Married 231 57,8 Total 400 100,0 Distribution of the Professions n % Independent business 75 18,7 Level of Income n % Labor 28 7,0 Yok 9 2,3 Civil Servant 73 18,3 Less than 1000 TL 68 17,0 Retired 17 4,3 1001-2000 TL 87 21,8 House Wife 31 7,8 2001-3000 TL 117 29,3 Student 130 32,5 3001-4000 TL 81 20,2 Tradesman 30 7,5 4001TL and over 38 9,4 Other 11 2,7 Total 400 100,0 Unanswered 5 1,2 Total 400 100,0 Age Range n % 18-24 100 25,0 Body-mass Index n % 25-31 88 22,0 Between 16-18,49 (Thin) 16 4,0 32-38 79 19,8 Between 18,50-24,99 (Normal) 235 58,7

189 39-45 78 19,5 Between 25-29,99 (Over weight) 115 28,8 46 and over 55 13,7 30-40 and over (Obese) 34 8,5 Total 400 100,0 Total 400 100,0

3.6. Factor Analysis These ratios mean that the dimensions (scales) that come together with factor analysis In this study, explanatory factor analysis was are reliable [30]. Six factors explain 55,589% conducted according to the basic component of the total variance. In social sciences, it gains method and Varimax transformation in order to acceptance that the total variance is generally a sublime the 30 expressions, developed to de- value over 50% [32]. Factor 1 (government termine the thoughts of the residents of responsibilities and sample applications) ac- Nevşehir city center on social marketing prac- counts for 12,96% of the total variance, factor tices done as part of the campaign of fight for 2 (promotion methods) 10,106%, factor 3 obesity, under certain factors. (campaign effectiveness) 9,912%, factor 4 (in- It is desirable that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin forming) 9,437 %, Factor 5 (physical activity Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) coef- implications) 7,512%, Factor 6 (mass media) ficient be 0.60 or greater so that the data used 5,981%. in the study can be appropriate in terms of fac- Moreover, to take advantage of factor analy- tor analysis [31]. As a result of the KMO test sis, we looked at the correlation matrix and done it has been found that the coefficient was observed a high correlation between the factors. 0,89 and Barlett test was As a result of the correlation analysis, it has 3340,143. been determine that there is a relation between As a result of the factor analysis, 6 factors "government responsibilities and sample appli- with a factor load of 0.50 and an eigenvalue of cations" (r = 0,395, p <0.01), " promotion one or more were obtained. Considering the methods" (r = 0,392; p <0.01), "campaign ef- factors that constitute the factors, 6 factors are fectiveness" (r = 0,346; p <0.01), "informing" named as government responsibilities and (r = 0,214, p <0.01), "physical activity implica- sample applications, promotion methods, cam- tions" (r = 0,289, p <0.01), "mass media" paign effectiveness, informing, physical activi- which are included in the research model and ty implications, mass media. When the number the behavior of adopting the philosophy of of factors is determined, factors with one or "healthy diet” and “active life". more eigenvalues are included in the calculation, while others are not included in the model. 3.7. Regression Analysis For this, the variables were subjected to rota- tion 9 times. As a result of the content analysis, The results of the multiple regression analy- 3 expressions with a factor load of less than sis conducted in order to find out the effects of 0.50 were extracted from the scale. For this the dimensions of social marketing practices reason, the model was analyzed with 6 groups within the context of the obesity fighting cam- of 27 expressions determined by factor analy- paign on the behavior of adopting the philoso- sis. The Cronbach's Alpha values for each fac- phy of healthy diet and active life are as pre- tor are 0.816, 0.778, 0.779, 0.702, 0.7446, sented in Table 3. 0.752, respectively. It is seen that the reliability coefficients are in the range of 0,70 <α <0,816.

190 Table 3: Multiple Regression Analysis Indicating the Effects of the Dimensions related to the Practices of Social Marketing on Philosophy of Adoption of a Healthy Diet and Active Life Not standard- Standard- Statistics of Internal ized Coeffi- ized Coeffi- relations Independent Variables in cients cients t value p the Model Stand Tolerance VIF B ard Beta(β) values Value error Invariable 1,066 ,329 3,235** ,000 Government Responsibil- ities and Sample Applica- ,220 ,092 ,183 2,384* ,018 ,564 1,772 tions Promotion Methods ,152 ,087 ,143 1,752 ,081 ,498 2,008 Campaign Effectiveness ,136 ,057 ,162 2,367* ,019 ,709 1,411 Informing ,031 ,059 ,035 ,531 ,596 ,777 1,287 Physical Activity Impli- ,087 ,061 ,096 1,412 ,159 ,715 1,398 cations Mass Media ,124 ,055 ,132 2,267* ,024 ,971 1,030 R ,487 R2 ,237 Corrected R2 ,217 Estimated Standard Error ,68678

F(6-236) 11,921 The Level of Meaningful- ,000 ness Durbin-Watson 2,079 Dependent Variable: The behavior of Adopting Philosophy of Healthy Diet and Active Life *p< 0.05. **p< 0.01.

Variance Inflation Factors (VIFs) values sample applications (β = 0,183, p <0,05), cam- were calculated for each regression equation so paign effectiveness (β = 0,162; p <0,05) and as to examine the multiple correlation problem. mass media (β = 0,132; p < have a positive The maximum VIF value in the model is 2,008. effect on the behavior of adopting a healthy This is well below 10 which is regarded to be diet and a philosophy of active life. H1, H3 the upper limit [33]. The lowest tolerance val- and H6 hypotheses were accepted. ue is 0.498, and it is much higher than the low- The effects of promotion methods (p = 0,143, est limit value of 0.10 [29]. The Durbin- p> 0,05), informing (β = 0,035, p> and physi- Watson coefficient is about 2. For this reason, cal activity implications (β = 0,096; p> 0,05) there is no multiple correlation problem in the on the behavior of adopting the philosophy of multiple regression model. The positive value healthy diet and active life are not statistically of the beta coefficient indicates that the effect significant. Hence, H2, H4 and H5 hypotheses is positive. A significance level of 0.00 indi- have been rejected. cates that the research model is statistically significant. The research model, in which 6 factors de- 4. Conclusion and Suggestions termined as a result of the exploratory factor analysis and the behavior of adopting the phi- Individuals who form society must abandon losophy of healthy diet and active life were their harmful habits, learn new habits and gain accepted as dependent variable, is statistically new ways of behaving in order to increase significant. According to the model, the inde- individual and social utility. Social marketing pendent variables account for 32.35% of the campaigns, however, serve as a bridge in this dependent variance. As a result of the analysis, change. The campaigns to fight obesity, it has been determined that in dependent varia- designed to inform and raise awareness of the bles of as government responsibilities and community on healthy nutrition, obesity and

191 physical activity, and provide healthy eating • Keeping the health problems caused by and regular physical activity habits, are also obesity constantly on the agenda through the among the social marketing campaigns. mass media can create a rise in consciousness Individuals are influenced by social marketing or at least raise awareness about the issue. practices within the scope of the campaign to combat obesity, while reflecting healthy eating Like every social research, this study has and lifestyle philosophy into their behaviors. In some limitations. First, the results obtained this study, the effect of the social marketing with this study are be intrinsic to Nevsehir practices being carried out on the behavior of province, and cannot be generalized for all of adopting a healthy diet and a philosophy of Turkey. Further research is needed to see moving life was analyzed within the scope of whether the same conclusions can be reached the campaign "Fight Against Obesity". in the country, and what different conclusions When the research findings are examined, it can be reached. Secondly, there is a need for is seen that government responsibilities and new research in different sectors, cultures and sample applications, campaign effectiveness environments to test the validity of the social and mass media affect the behaviour of adopt- marketing scale developed by the author on ing the philosophy of healthy diet and active obesity in this study. For those who will make life. However, it has been found that the pro- research on this subject in the future, it may be motion methods, informing and physical activ- advisable to analyse the effect of social mar- ity do not have an influence on the behaviour keting practices on women's behaviour. of adopting a healthy diet and a philosophy of active life. The following suggestions can be References made to increase the effectiveness of the campaign against obesity in the light of determina- [1] Altunkaynak, B.Z. and E. Özbek, Obezite: tions made in this research: Nedenleri ve Tedavi Seçenekleri. Van Tıp Dergisi, 2006. 13(4): p. 138-142. • The activities of healthy diet and active life [2] Tengilimoğlu, D., A. Güzel, and E. walks organized by the Ministry of Health Günaydın, Sosyal Pazarlama should be carried out continuously and in a Kapsamında Dumansız Hava Sahası: planned manner. Örnek Bir Uygulama. İktisadi ve İdari • People should be plainly and clearly in- Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2014. formed, and effective use of the equipment 15(2): p. 1-26. should be ensured. [3] Kurtoğlu, S., Sosyal Pazarlama Kavramının Analizi. Sosyal Bilimler • The public spots broadcast on TV with the Dergisi, 2007(1): p. 125-134. purpose of conveying the messages of the ads [4] Mucuk, İ., Pazarlama İlkeleri. 13. Basım. of the campaigns related to the fight against 2001, İstanbul: Türkmen Yayınevi. obesity must be such as to encourage for [5] Bayın, G. and Y. Akbulut, Sağlık healthy diet and physical activities. Sektöründe Sosyal Pazarlamanın • Promotional methods that enable the cam- Kullanımı. Ankara Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 2012. (1): p. 53-71. paign to reach the target audience should be 1 [6] Kotler, P. and G. Zaltman, Social revised and communication tools which are Marketing: An Approach to Planned appropriate to the target audience characteris- Social Change. The Journal of tics should be utilized Marketing, 1971: p. 3-12. For example, when the criterion of age is [7] Lazer, W. and E.J. Kelley, Social used as base, the use of different marketing Marketing: Perspectives and techniques for different age groups will be ef- Viewpoints. 1973: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. [8] Weinreich, N.K. What Is Social Marketing. fective in reaching the goal of the campaign. 1999 /08.09.2015 http://www.social- For this reason, it is necessary that the market- marketing.com/whatis.html. ing managers of the campaign carry out de- [9] Eser, Z. and F.B. Özdoğan, Sosyal tailed descriptive research on the target audi- Pazarlama: Toplumun Refahı ve ence.

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193 Social Media Use in Business-to-Business: A Theoretical Analysis

Yusuf ESMER*1, Faruk DAYI2, Onur ŞAYLAN3 1. Lecturer in Tourism and Hotel Management, Sinop University, TURKEY 2. Lecturer in Foreign Trade, Kastamonu University, TURKEY 3. Doctor in Business Science, TURKEY *Corresponding Author, E-mail: ([email protected]), TEL: 00903682715738-6682

Abstract. Marketers provide online communication support to the customers in order to sell products and services and continue the relationships between them. However, while these services, which provided in the past, have been restricted with a one-way communication channel, in recent years online communication channels, which enable two-way interaction, have started to be used between B2B marketing professionals and B2B partners. Among those social media sites, which are most used and have growing potential, are increasingly receiving marketers’ attention. Thus, these sites have widely started to be used as marketing communication tool. While social media sites have been successfully adopted and used in the B2C context, B2B companies have difficulty to practice successful social media strategies and it is thought that those social media sites are not effectively implemented in B2B marketing. This is due to the nature of the products offered within the B2B, the distinctness of sales efforts of B2B products, end users of B2B products and perception of poor usability of social media sites in the B2B sector. In this context, the objective of the study is to reveal how effectively social media applications use in digital media strategies that are within promotion strategy of B2B companies. The results have showed that B2B companies should effectively use social media platforms in their marketing communication efforts.

Keywords: Social media, B2B, B2C, marketing

1. Introduction B2B customers need more information, support, trust and communication to make a Nowadays, social media tools such as blogs, single purchase and they use wide variety wikis and podcasts have become commonplace channels up to the stage of decision-making. in the business-to-consumer marketing. These channels are web pages, forums, social However, when social media tools are media applications, technical reviews, third evaluated in the context of business-to-business party data, and customer returns [3]. B2B marketing, it is seen that social media is still in companies use the social media to reach to early stages in that companies contend target market, to gain potential customers, to with issues of productivity, security, privacy, create brand awareness and brand loyalty, to and content ownership related to social media increase brand awareness, social sharing, trust usage [1]. Social media is used to enhance and follower of brand, to find customer cooperation between both the businesses and companies, to improve communication with the other parties, to deepen relationship with customer, except for direct sales. When B2B customers, to identify new product ideas and companies gain a customer, the average life new business opportunities [2]. It has been span of this customer is more than B2C [4]. proven that social media has revealed many Therefore, the effect on B2B companies’ new opportunities in business-to business marketing activities of social media tools need (B2B) sector, due to the features that can to be investigated. improve communication, collaboration and interaction that provide significant benefits to In this study it is aimed to assess the effect of organizations. social media tools commonly used by B2C companies on B2B sales efforts. In accordance with this purpose, after the basic information

194 about B2B and social media is given, the products and product development [9]. studies in literature and the reports published by Complex purchasing process in industrial various institutions have been examined and it markets is concluded with unprecedented is discussed whether social media is effectively promotion strategies. While promotion used in digital marketing strategies of strategies for industrial companies is for companies within the context of B2B. retailers and distributors, sometimes it is for directly to the customer [10]. 2. Literature Traditionally, B2B marketing take place in an This chapter of the study consists of two offline environment. For the last ten years, B2B parts. B2B marketing activities are mentioned marketers include wide range of online in the first part. In the second part, B2B social platforms in their marketing strategies [11]. media sites are explained. Developments in information technologies lead to change in the process of B2B marketing. 2.1. B2B Marketing Today, online purchasing becomes a standard method for many companies. E-procurement In B2B marketing, the products subject to reduces purchasing costs and expedites order marketing are marketed to other organizations process and delivery by providing access to for use in the production of other products and new suppliers. Thus, marketers both share their in general business activities or for resale to marketing information with customers and other customers such as a wholesaler selling to support them with online communication a retailer [5]. channel to sell products and services [12]. However, in the past online platforms were There are fewer customers in industrial restricted one-way communication tools such as (B2B) markets in comparison with consumer company’s website. In the recent years B2B market. In B2B, cooperation with customers marketing professionals have started using generally take place more intense and direct online communication channels that enable according to consumer sector. The purchasing two-way interaction between B2B partners. decision in industrial products is given by Among those, social media sites take marketers professional purchasing personnel who consider attention due to its growing importance. This is many different criteria. Professional purchasing confirmed by Brennan and Croft, there is an personnel intensively tend to obtain information intense interest of practitioners in the use of about purchased industrial products and they social media in B2B marketing and thus many often objectively evaluate different alternatives. B2B companies plan to double their social The demand for industrial products consists of a media-marketing budget within the next five combination of end users demand and the years [13]. demand to the companies’ products of industrial customer [6]. 2.2. Social Media Sites in B2B Marketing

Promotion is a good tool for communication According to Kaplan and Haenlein [14] with both customers and suppliers and it is also social media is stated as Internet based seen as a great tool for communication with rest applications based on technological and of the World in the international markets. ideological bases of Web 2.0 and enabling the Promotion function in B2B marketing activities creation and exchange of user-generated more emphasizes personal sales and negotiation. content. Due to shorter distribution channels and direct marketing, B2B marketing activities differ from As a result of developments in today’s social B2C and it has its own unique structure [7]. In media, there is also a big change in the world. addition, the marketing budget differs between Along with developments of smart phones and B2C and B2B companies. While 10 % of total social media, access to information has become sales in consumer markets are allocated to the easier. Customers frequently have begun to like marketing budget, marketing budget of B2B companies on Facebook, to follow companies consist of 1% or 2% of sales [8]. There are on Twitter, or to connect via LinkedIn. significant differences between B2B and Customers establish a stronger buyer-seller consumer product sector about markets, relationship by getting more knowledge about

195 product selection and better linking with account on social media pages and so they can companies [15]. introduce their products [21].

According to Nielsen Company’s research, B2B social media pioneers endeavor to use people spend more time on social media with these tools to position themselves as thought an average of 121.18 minutes per day in 2012, leaders, to take market- oriented role in the which represents an increase of 37% in sector and to establish relationships with accordance with the previous year. It has been stakeholders [22]. When considering the also determined that people spend more time on importance of relationship during the social media sites than other sites. As result of organizational purchases, social media is this trend, researchers are taking action to suggested as an applicable tool that promotes understand how social media influences customer-brand relationship to the B2B customers' preferences and purchasing marketers. If businesses want to improve brand decisions [16]. Social media use in B2B is reputation and pre-existing customer much more difficult due to significant relationships, it is highly recommended to use differences in products, markets and product this tool [23]. development [17]. However, social media use in B2B is beneficial in developing and 3. Literature Research and Findings strengthening customer relationship in order to encourage meaningful interaction between Current research made about social media companies and customers [18]. use in B2B context and the obtained findings are discussed in this part of the study. Marketers operating in B2C sector increase the use of social media in support of marketing Wang et al. [24] have been examined how the strategies due to realization of providing use of social media affects business important contributions of social media. performance and communication in SMEs in However, because the adoption of social media the B2B context. The findings suggest that sites for marketing purposes in the B2B sector social media in B2B has enhanced business is slow, B2B marketing professionals don’t performance and communication in terms of show the same interest to social media as in cooperation, innovation and marketing. B2C sector [19]. It is seen that customers who give importance to information in their According to Guesalaga [25] organizational purchase decision is significantly affected from competence and organizational commitment are social media discussion. The power of social key determinants of use of social media in sales media is on the rise, B2B buyers start to use as well as individual commitment. web sites such as Quora and LinkedIn in order to see how their competitors solve complex In the study done by Siamagka et al. [26], it problems. Moreover, it is also seen that social is deduced that social media applications that media is used effectively to better understand enhance image of B2B companies generally the companies and products [20]. increase the value of company.

Companies use social media applications to In Buyersphere report organized by Buttom establish groups for communication with [27], the survey has been made to 211 B2B business partners and customers and share customers to measure how social media pictures, videos and text to make influence their purchasing decision. These announcements. Especially, companies in participants are real buyers who directly industrial markets can use social media comment on this process they went through. applications to achieve various business Lead statistics have shown that 50% of those objectives. Companies can use social media buyers used no social media when they were applications to make contact and communicate researching their purchase. Therefore, it is not with customers and suppliers, to build trust, to important how good a Twitter campaign identify possible trading partners, to support conducted by businesses, how much time and brands and to ensure the creation of brand effort put into LinkedIn, because half of the communities. Companies share information B2B target groups will not see these efforts. with their customers by creating a business

196 According to a report published by Richter [28], it is determined that Facebook is the most The studies and results are summarized common social media application between both briefly in Table 1 below. B2B and B2C marketers.Regardless of customer- orientation, Facebook usage level Table 1: Summary of the Studies in the between B2B and B2C companies are 96% and Literature 88% respectively. Therefore, Facebook is considered as an important marketing tool. Researchers Results However, when asked which social media Wang et al. Social media usage in B2B application is the most effective to them, B2B (2016) has enhanced business marketers states that LinkedIn is more effective performance and than Facebook. While 41% of B2B marketers communication in terms of considered LinkedIn as an important platform cooperation, innovation and in their marketing activities, 30 % of B2B marketing. marketers use Facebook,less than 20% use Twitter. Guesalaga Organizational competence (2016) and organizational In a research, Stelzner [29] has revealed commitment are key that %92 of marketers go along about determinants of use of social importance of social media applications. media in sales as well as According to a report that published by Huff et individual commitment al. [30] only 6% of buyers indicate that social media applications are effective in the B2B Siamagka et Social media applications that buying process. al. (2015) enhance image of B2B companies generally increase In their study Katona ve Sarvary [31] asserts the value of company. that B2B social media marketing can increase brand awareness, humanize B2B companies, Bottom (2015) Half of buyers used no social introduce businesses as a thought leader, build media when they were relationships with customers and industry researching their purchase. influencers, even potentially increase sales. Richter (2015) Facebook is the most common social media application A research report belonging to Zendesk [32] between both B2B and B2C states that 62% of buyers purchase product and marketers. service after reading a positive review. This Stelzner Most of marketers go along shows that social media is effective in B2B (2014) about importance of social marketing. media applications. Katona and B2B social media marketing When considered the growing role of social Sarvary can increase brand awareness, media sites in marketing, in their study Brennen (2014) humanize B2B companies, ve Croft [33] are emphasized that social media introduce businesses as a sites will be important in B2B marketing in the thought leader, build future. relationships with customers and industry influencers, even Michaelidou et al. [34] states that B2B potentially increase sales. companies can use social media to create customer value in the form of interacting with Zendesk More than half of buyers customer besides building and fostering (2013) purchase product and service customer relationship. Being closer the from B2B companies after customers can allow to create a unique brand reading a positive review. identity and differentiate from competitors. Brennen ve Social media sites will have an Customers can benefit from the company as Croft (2012) important position in B2B they use of social media, they also can marketing in the future. communicate with the company and provide Michaelidou B2B companies can use social feedback. et al. (2011) media to create customer

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199 Hedging with Cross Currency Swap and Accounting

Ayşegül İpek Lecturer Uludag University, Orhaneli Vocational High School *Corresponding Author e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: As with globalization, country economies is facing many risk factors while developing. Foreign exchange rates and interest rates, which are two of the main factors of international trade and vary according to countries, have become an important risk factor for businesses. Various derivative instruments are used to minimize the risk of exchange and interest rates. A cross currency swap, one of these instruments and increasingly common in use, is a technique where both the exchange rate and the interest rate are used together. Cross currency swaps, which are used to minimize the risks arising from both factors, are frequently used by large corporates whose revenues are in the national currency and which receive foreign currency denominated loans. If these instruments, including cross currency swaps, are accounted for as hedging instruments, they are included within the framework of accounting standards that have become mandatory since 2005. However, the complexity arising from the inherent structure of derivative instruments also reflects the accounting for these instruments. The aim of this study is to give theoretical knowledge about the increasing use of cross-currency swaps in recent years; The accounting for derivative instruments that are used for hedge accounting purposes within the framework of accounting standards and the effect on financial statements.

Keywords: swap, cross currency swap, derivatives, financial risk, accounting standards.

1. Introduction can offer different options for different needs of companies. With the diversification of these The concept of risk management with the instruments, both the application and the increasing problems in the economy in recent accounting are difficult. years has gained importance worldwide. Cross currency swaps, one of the increasing financial instruments for managing risk, are over-the- 2. Swap Definition and Types counter contracts that companies create by exchanging mutually different currencies and "Swap", which means exchange as a word, interests at a specific term. These contracts are comes to the meaning of a contract that also very important in terms of responding to involves the exchange of a foreign currency the different needs of businesses and with another foreign currency, in which a minimizing two different risks at the same time. foreign currency is both bought and sold at the Swaps are one of the financial instruments same time, but the trading dates are different.[1] that have achieved the most significant growth A swap is a bilateral over-the-counter (OTC) rate in financial markets since 1980. The agreement directly negotiated between two primary reason for this is the transfer of risk. parties, at least one of which is normally a bank Another reason is that they have a structure that or other financial institution. Once made, the

200 contract cannot be freely traded. On the other A currency swap is a financial transaction hand, it can be tailored to meet the needs of a involving the repayment of two (2) different particular counterparty. As with other OTC currencies of the same size and (usually) derivatives there is a potential credit risk – the interest rates between the parties within the risk that the other party to the deal might framework of the specified rules, and at the end default on its obligations. [2] of the agreed period, over a predetermined When we look around the world, swap exchange rate (spot exchange rate or any transactions were first initiated in 1923 when exchange rate determined on the contract).[6] the Austrian Chancery of the Austrian National These contracts are used in particular to Bank was sold in the spot market against the minimize the risk of different interest rates British Sterling and withdrawn in the forward between different currencies in different market. It was used to meet the need for countries. The use of currency risk management exchange after World War I. After that, the is quite common. exchange rate fluctuated and the swap was started to be used to remove the created 3. Cross Currency Swaps (CCS) exchange risk. Swaps are the fastest growing international Cross currency swaps, a kind of currency capital markets, the most open and constantly swaps, have been developed from mutual innovating innovations and technologies in the credits. It is a combination of money and world. Increasing emphasis on communication interest swaps. It is a countertop derivative such and computer technology developments and as other swap contracts. Verts usually range risk management is accelerating the from 5 to 15 years. development of the swaps. Swap provides new Cross-currency swaps are suitable for entities opportunities for financial managers in that have loan commitments denominated in managing interest and exchange rate risk.[3] one currency, while the revenues generated by Swap is an OTC transactions. The fact that the entity are denominated in a different the process is over the counter makes it currency, resulting in a currency mismatch impossible to have a standard shape and it is between the currency of the loan and the shaped by the needs of the parties. This leads to currency of the revenues. Cross-currency swaps the introduction of many kinds of free swap are available in different currency pairs. types. This has led to the emergence of a wide Effectively, a cross-currency swap serves as an variety of free swap species. However, there are excellent hedging strategy for hedgers who two basic types of swaps: currency swap and wish to protect against both the currency rates interest rate swap.[4] as well as interest rate risks. [7] Companies using swap contracts; To hedge Cross currency swaps provide many against interest and currency risks, to provide advantages for businesses. First, it enables the low cost financing, to manage assets / liabilities management of the exchange risk by allowing and to speculate. the entity to convert the risk from different currencies into its functional currency in its 2.1. Interest Rate Swaps (IRS) assets or resources. With a cross currency swap, an entity can use a single currency to pay Interest rate swap; is a contract in which the credits in a currency in another currency. The parties mutually exchange interest payments business can focus on borrowing in the local within a specified period of time. market where it has its own power and will be In this type of swap, the principal is the able to swap in any foreign currency with local amended interest payment, which is used only currency foreign exchange swap and effectively in the calculation of the amount of interest and provide foreign exchange funds with low costs. which does not change hands between the In its simplest, and most common, form a parties. The most important difference between CCS involves the following cash flows. [8] interest rate swaps and currency swaps is that An initial exchange of principal amounts. they do not change the interest rate swap either This initial exchange is sometimes not at the beginning or at the end of the maturity.[5] undertaken. The most common situation in which no initial exchange is needed is when the 2.2. Currency Swaps

201 CCS is being undertaken to hedge already Figure 1.2 Bond and CCS: Interim Cash Flows existing liabilities. - A string of interim interest payments. Figure 1.3 shows the CCS final cash flows Periodically, one party pays a fixed (or floating) and their interaction with the bond’s interest on one of the principal amounts while redemption. On maturity date ABC re- the other party pays a fixed (or floating) interest exchanges the notionals, paying EUR 100 on the other principal amounts. The payments million and receiving GBP 70 million through are usually netted. the CCS. ABC then uses the received GBP 70 - A final re-exchange of principal million to repay the GBP bond. amounts.

For example, suppose a borrower (ABC) is about to issue a GBP 70 million 5% fixed rate 5-year GBP-denominated bond. Because the borrower is only interested in raising variable rate EUR funds, it decides to transform the GBP fixed rate liability into a EUR floating rate liability by entering into a CCS. Figure 1.1 shows the initial cash flows of the Figure 1.3 Bond and CCS: Final Cash Flows CCS and their interaction with the bond’s initial flow. Through the CCS, the ABC delivers GBP Under the structure depicted, ABC 70 million (i.e., the issue proceeds) and receives effectively achieves EUR funding at Euribor EUR 100 million. As a result, ABC is in effect plus 50 bps. Note that all the GBP cash flows raising EUR funding. have to be fully synchronized to eliminate the borrower’s GBP exposure. Chapter 8 includes several examples of CCSs and their pricing mechanics.[9] Money swaps are made for three main reasons. These; To reduce the cost of resources, not to find resources in the desired currency, and to protect against exchange rate risk. Our work will focus on the terms of the swap agreements for hedging purposes.

Figure 1.1 Bond and CCS: Initial Cash Flows 4. Hedging with Cross Currency Swap and Figure 1.2 depicts the periodic interest Accounting payments of the bond and the CCS. Through the CCS, ABC receives from Megabank an In general, many different purposes are annual GBP 5% interest calculated on the GBP targeted for swap transactions. Risk 70 million nominal, and pays annually to management has become more important within these objectives as a result of the financial Megabank a EUR floating interest (Euribor 12- month plus 50 basis points) calculated on the difficulties experienced in the national EUR 100 million nominal. The borrower uses economies. Companies are developing a defensive mechanism against future the CCS GBP receipts to meet the bond interest payments. uncertainties with their risk management practices. Cross currency swaps are a very effective instrument in risk management. One of the biggest factors in this is that as we mentioned before, both risks are eliminated at the same time and they have to be adaptable to the needs of the operator. Companies prefer swap transactions more frequently for reasons such as maturity

202 inconsistency, currency risk, and so on. It is undertaking the hedge. That documentation also a preferred method of financing by shall include identification of the hedging different companies to change their ability to instrument, the hedged tem or transaction, the borrow from different markets. Futures can be nature of the risk being hedged and how the used for swap transactions, hedging or entity will assess the hedging instrument’s commercial purposes. Those that are used for effectiveness in offsetting the exposure to commercial purposes are accounted for at fair changes in the hedged item’s fair value or cash value and the value differences are reflected in flows attributable to the hedged risk. the results. [10] The different procedures are (b) The hedge is expected to be highly followed in hedging transactions. (c) For cash flow hedges, a forecast transaction that is the subject of the hedge must 4.1. Hedge Accounting be highly probable and must present an exposure to variations in cash flows that could Hedge accounting is basically the valuation ultimately affect profit or loss. of transactions that meet certain conditions (d) The effectiveness of the hedge can be within the specific measurement and valuation reliably measured, i.e. the fair value or cash system of the risk accounting, by derating the flows of the hedged item that are attributable to normal accounting procedure of the transactions the hedged risk and the fair value of the that satisfy normal accounting conditions.[11] hedging instrument can be reliably measured Financial instruments in general under (see paragraphs 46 and 47 and Appendix A international accounting standards; IAS 39 paragraphs AG80 and AG81 for guidance on IFRS 9 is included in IFRS 7. Briefly describe determining fair value). the general terms used in a hedge accounting (e) The hedge is assessed on an ongoing basis within the standards. [12] and determined actually to have been highly A firm commitment is a binding agreement effective throughout the financial reporting for the exchange of a specified quantity of periods for which the hedge was designated. resources at a specified price on a specified Hedge accounting recognizes the offsetting future date or dates. . effects on profit or loss of changes in the fair A forecast transaction is an uncommitted but values of the hedging instrument and the anticipated future transaction. hedged item. [14] A hedging instrument is a designated Hedging relationships are of three types: derivative or (for a hedge of the risk of changes (a) Fair value hedge: a hedge of the exposure in foreign currency exchange rates only) a to changes in fair value of a recognized asset or designated non-derivative financial asset or liability or an unrecognized firm commitment, non-derivative financial liability whose fair or an identified portion of such an asset, value or cash flows are expected to offset liability or firm commitment, that is attributable changes in the fair value or cash flows. to a particular risk and could affect profit or A hedged item is an asset, liability, firm loss. commitment, highly probable forecast (b) Cash flow hedge: a hedge of the exposure transaction or net investment in a foreign to variability in cash flows that (i) is operation that (a) exposes the entity to risk of attributable to a particular risk associated with a changes in fair value or future cash flows recognized asset or liability (such as all or some Hedge effectiveness is the degree to which future interest payments on variable rate debt) changes in the fair value or cash flows of the or a highly probable forecast transaction and (ii) hedged item that are attributable to a hedged could affect profit or loss. risk are offset by changes in the fair value or (c) Hedge of a net investment in a foreign cash flows of the hedging instrument. operation: A net investment hedge is a hedge of A hedging relationship qualifies for hedge the foreign currency exposure arising from the accounting only if, all of the following reporting entity’s interest in the net assets of a conditions are met. [13] foreign operation. The hedging instrument may (a) At the inception of the hedge there is be either a derivative or a non-derivative.[15] formal designation and documentation of the hedging relationship and the entity’s risk management objective and strategy for

203 4.2. Case Study Figure 1.4 Credit with CCS : Initial Cash Flows

A company operating in the telecommunication sector in Turkey needs financing from a large infrastructure investment. For this purpose, it has received a 500 million euro loan from a foreign bank over a 5 year maturity Euribor + 2,20 rate. Company A's revenues are in Turkish Lira and it is intended to increase the exchange rate risk and TL funding that are generated by this loan. In line with these objectives, the Company has converted an interest rate of 500 million euros Figure 1.5 Credit with CCS : Intermediate Cash with an average fixed interest rate of 10.50% Flows for 5 years maturity and converted interest payments to TL through cross currency swap contract. Business has carried out this operation in order to hedging. Cross currency swaps are designated as a hedging instrument for financial risk, With the CCS combination, a synthetic liability with TL fixed interest rate is obtained. At the outset, the CCS contract was signed as of the receipt of the credit and the first clearing was realized. After that, interest payments were Figure 1.6 Credit with CCS :Cash Flows at Maturity exchanged every year. To pay the loan interest,

CCS denominated floating rate cash flows were After briefly summarizing the operation of used. CCS and debts are changed in the cap. entity A with CCS, we shall prepare a financial Figures 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 show the operations risk mitigation document for our operations that we have performed. we are required to comply with International accounting standards. With this documentation, we need to specify the risk management objective and strategy, as well as the type of hedge we will perform, the hedge instrument, and the hedge item and the effectiveness tests we will use to evaluate. As a draft, we can create the documentation for our sample process as follows. [16]

204

Hedging Relationship Documentation The objective of the hedge is to reduce the variability of the cash flows of a foreign currency denominated debt. Risk management objective and strategy for This hedging objective is consistent with AAA’s overall interest rate risk undertaking the hedge management strategy of transforming all new issued foreign-denominated debt into the group functional currency. Type of hedge Cash flow hedge Risk being hedged Interest rate risk and FX risk. The variability in the cash flows of the debt attributable to changes in (i) USD interest rates, (ii) EUR interest rates and (iii) the USD/EUR exchange rate. Hedging instrument The cross-currency swap.

Hedged item The 5-year EUR-denominated floating-rate debt Assessment of Hedge effectiveness will be assessed by comparing changes in the fair effectiveness testing value of the hedging instrument to changes in the fair value of the hypothetical instrument. The hypothetical derivative is a derivative whose changes in fair value offset perfectly the changes in fair value of the hedged item for variations in the risk being hedged. In this hedging relationship, the terms of the hypothetical derivative coincide exactly with the terms of the hedging instrument but assume no credit risk on the counterparty to the hypothetical derivative. Prospective test A prospective test will be performed at the inception and at each reporting date, using the critical terms method. If (i) the critical terms of the portion of the debt designated as being hedged and the hedging instrument match (i.e., notional amounts, currencies, underlying and interest periods), and (ii) the credit risk of the counterparty to the hedging instrument is very low, the hedge will be considered to be highly effective prospectively. The credit risk of the counterparty to the hedging instrument will be monitored continuously. A retrospective test will be performed at each reporting date using the “ratio analysis method”. The ratio will compare the change since the last assessment in the fair value of the hedging instrument with the change since the last assessment in the fair value of the hypothetical derivative. The hedge will be assumed to be highly effective on a retrospective basis if the ratio is between 80% and 125 %. The effective part of the change in fair value of the hedging instrument (excluding the portion attributable to the current period swap accrual and the hedged item translation gains or losses) will be recognized in equity.

After completing the documentation The required journal entries were as follows: preparation for hedging from financial risk, we need to make sure that we meet the necessary 1) Journal entries on XX.XX.20X0: To requirements. As long as the activity is record the debt issuance provided, the sample accounting records can be First of all, our first transaction shows the created as follows. credit we receive. We have to realize our entries in the functional currency of the company. Accounting Entries Journal entries on 15 July 20X0: To record DR CR the bond issuance Cash (asset) xxxx

EUR Debt xxxx

205 (Liability) DR CR * No entries were required to record the CCS as Fair Value of its initial fair value was nil. Derivative (Asset) xxx Cash Flow Hedges (Equity) xx Re-translation 2) Journal entries on 31.XX.20X0 Gains/Losses (P&L) x

The accrued interest of the loan we have received is calculated and the following record The accrued interest of the CCS was; is made in accordance with the loan every year DR CR along the loan peg. Interest Receivable

(Asset) xx DR CR Interest Interest Income/Expense Income/Expense (P&L) xx (P&L) xx Interest Payable (Liability) xx When we arrive at the end of the loan and the CCS, we must first calculate the fair value of the swap contract at maturity based on the maturity date at the maturity date. The amount Since the financial debt is taken in a different we calculate is entries as follows. currency, different entries are made according DR CR to the profit or loss that will occur at the end of Cash (Asset) xx each year. Fair Value of

Derivative (Asset) xx If there is a gain at the end of the year:

DR CR EUR Debt (Liability) xx If the loan is to be converted at the maturity Re-translation rate and the amount to be paid at the end of the Gains/Losses (P&L) xx maturity is the payment entries as follows:

DR CR USD Financial Debt In case of loss at the end of the year; (Liability) xx DR CR Cash (Asset) xx Re-translation

Gains/Losses (P&L) xx

EUR Debt (Liability xx 5. Conclusion

In cross currency swap contract side of fair value calculations are made a reality. Our fair Today, businesses are faced with many risks value is determined by the amount of cash flow with the accelerating globalization process. One hedge risks. of the crucial conditions for companies to The fair value change, of the CCS was a loss survive and gain competitive advantage ; depends on the well-managed risks. The cross currency swap, one of the most frequently used DR CR financial derivative instruments during the Re-translation management of risks, is becoming increasingly Gains/Losses (P&L) xxx widespread in terms of managing the different Fair Value of types of risks alone. Complicating the use and Derivative (Liability) xx accounting of complexity of CCS structures. Cash Flow Hedges Financial derivative instruments such as CCS (Equity) x are used to generate volatility in financial

The fair value change, of the CCS was a gain; statements resulting from the presentation of

206 gains and losses at different periods. With [13] FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS: hedge accounting, gains and losses from Recognition and measurement (IAS39), financial risks are avoided and the resulting md.88,www.iasb.org. volatility that are recognized in the same period. [14] FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS: In such financial statements, there is no Recognition and measurement (IAS39), deterioration caused by hedging. md.86,www.iasb.org.

[15] RAMIREZ, J. (2008). Accounting for Derivatives, John Wiley & Sons, References Incorporated, 11. [1] KARABIYIK, L., Anbar, A. (2010). [16] RAMIREZ, J. (2008). Accounting for Sermaye Piyasası ve Yatırım Analizi, Ekin Derivatives, John Wiley & Sons, Basım, Bursa, Incorporated, 333-334. [2] CHISHOLM, Andrew M.(2010). Derivatives Demystified: A Step-by-Step Guide to Forwards, Futures, Swaps and Options Wiley, 59. [3] CEYLAN, A., Korkmaz T., (2012) Sermaye Piyasası ve Menkul Değer Analizi, Ekin Basım, 430. [4] YALÇINER, K.(2014). Finansal Teknikler ve Türev Araçlar, Detay Yayıncılık, 122. [5] PARLAKKAYA, R. (1996). Finansal Türev Ürünler ile Mali Risk Yönetimi ve Muhasebe Uygulamaları Nobel, 159. [6] APAK, S., Uyar M.(2011). Türev Ürünler ve Finansal Teknikler, Beta Basım, İstanbul s.112 [7] SUBRAMANI, R. Venkata. (2011). Accounting for Investments - Fixed Income Securities and Interest Rate Derivatives, edited by R. Venkata Subramani, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 631-632. [8] RAMIREZ, J. (2015). Accounting for Derivatives, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 102 [9] RAMIREZ, J. (2008). Accounting for Derivatives, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 332. [10] YALÇINER, K.(2014). Finansal Teknikler ve Türev Araçlar, Detay Yayıncılık, 127 [11] ATEŞ, G. (2010). Finansal araçların muhasebeleştirilmesi, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara, 66. [12] ATEŞ, G. (2010). Finansal araçların muhasebeleştirilmesi, Adalet Yayınevi, Ankara, 85.

207 EXAMINATION OF MATERIALIST TENDENCIES OF SYRIAN ORIGIN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN TERMS OF DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES

Baran ARSLAN1 Nihat GÜLTEKİN2 Işıl KARAPINAR3

ABSTRACT Materialism, which is defined as fondness towards good and properties, is studied many times by different disciplines and it is understood that there are many factors affecting the materialism. In this study, the effect of demographic factors, which is one of them, will be examined. The aim of this study is to determine whether demographic features of Syrian origin university students like age, gender, total allowance amount and total family income cause any difference on their materialist tendencies. The survey prepared for the study is applied to 81 Syrian students getting education at Harran University. Frequency distribution, factor analysis, reliability analysis, t-test analysis and Anova tests are conducted. As a result of the analyses, it is determined that total income of the family is effective on the materialist tendencies of university students among other demographic features. Keywords: Materialism, materialist tendency, tendency, demographics, university students.

1 Asistant Professor, Harran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Business Administration Department, [email protected] 2 Associate Professor, Harran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Business Administration Department, [email protected] 3 Research Assistant, Harran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Business Administration Department, [email protected]

208 INTRODUCTION attached by consumer to possessions. Richins and Dawnson (1992) define materialism as the With the modern marketing approach, importance attached by people to acquiring and the focus has been on demands and needs of possessing the products. Materialistic consumers based on their different values are conceptualized in terms of characteristics. One of the factors that affect centrality, success and happiness. Centrality such different characteristics of consumers is refers to the place that individuals attach to their desire for possessions and properties. possessions and acquisition of possessions as Materialistic tendencies of consumers could be the center of their lives, while success is the influential on their attitudes and behaviors and measurement of success by quantity and buying decision process. quality of possessions acquired. Happiness is In the simplest term, materialist is the belief of individuals that material defined as desire of consumers for possessions possessions are essential to well-being and and properties. The reason why an individual satisfaction (Richins & Dawnson, 1992:304). has such desire is that he thinks possessions and money are two main means to happiness Materialistic Tendencies and Demographic and gives social approval and status. Since Factors materialism is a concept related to value and In many studies, it has been concluded tendency, its perception differs from person to that demographic factors such as age, sex, person. marital status, educational background and income level of individuals are influential on In the last fifty years, many studies their increased materialistic tendencies. have been conducted on the concept of materialism and attempts have been made to In their study on the youth and develop it. There are many factors that children, Chaplin and John (2007) showed that influence materialistic tendencies of materialistic tendencies increase between the individuals. Undoubtedly, one of these factors age range of 8-13 and decrease towards the is demographic factors. Determination of ages around 18. The findings of study demographic characteristics that influence demonstrated that the age factor makes materialistic tendencies of Syrian university difference in materialistic tendencies of students is very important for marketing individuals. The literature includes studies activities. It is needed to find out if Syrian which show that the age factor is associated individuals who have started living in Turkey with materialistic tendencies of individuals show differences in terms of cultural and (Lundstorm & White, 1999; Dittmar, 2005). ethical background and if this situation differs In majority of studies in the literature, in terms of marketing activities. To that end, it is observed that men are more materialist this study focuses on the relationship between than women (Belk, 1984; Ger & Belk, 1990; demographic characteristics and materialistic Belk, 1985; Richins & Dawson, 1992; Keng et tendencies of Syrian university students who al., 2000; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001; Richins, study at Harran University. 2004; Purutçuoğlu, 2009).

LITERATURE REVIEW In the literature, there are many studies Materialism which show relationship of income status of individuals with materialism. In their study, Materialism, which has many different Roberts and Clement (2007) reported that there definitions, is defined as "devotion to material is a relationship between income and needs and desires, to the neglect of spiritual materialism. Accordingly, as the income matters; a way of life, tendency based entirely decreases, individuals pursue happiness upon material interests” in the Oxford through acquisition of material possessions. Dictionary (Richins & Dawson, 1992:304). Leelakulthanit et al. (1991) found that Holt (1995) evaluated materialism as a individuals with very low income in less consumption style where materials become developed countries such as Thailand pay more valuable than experiences. Tatzel (2003) importance to materialism and their level of defines materialism as the use of possessions life satisfaction increases as they possess for the acquisition of a social status. Belk properties and money. (1984) defines materialism as the meaning

209 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY family, amount of allowance and age of participants. In the second section, the scale The purpose of empirical study is to that was developed by Richins and Dawson find out whether there is any difference in (1992) to measure materialistic tendency was materialistic tendencies of Syrian university used. students in terms of their demographic characteristics. With the information obtained, The questionnaire was applied to 81 it is aimed to make a contribution to the Syrian students who study at Harran literature and offer a difference perspective for University. In the scales, 5-likert scale was all marketing researchers to develop strategy in used. this field. Model and Hypotheses of Study Main universe of the study consists of H1: Materialistic tendencies of Syrian Syrian university students who study at Harran university students differ by their gender. University. In sampling, convenience H2: Materialistic tendencies of Syrian sampling, which is one of the non-random university students differ by their age. sampling methods, was used. The data H3: Materialistic tendencies of Syrian required for the study was collected between university students differ by their total family 01.06.2016 and 15.06.2016 by means of face- income. to-face interview method. H4: Materialistic tendencies of Syrian The questionnaire has two sections. university students differ by their total amount The first section includes questions related to of allowance. demography, such as sex, income status of

DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS

-Gender Materialistic Tendency -Age -Total family income -Total monthly allowance

Figure 1. Research Model Data Analysis Findings Table 1. Analysis of Demographic Factors Values Frequency Percentage Values Frequency Percentage Gender Income Female 27 33,3 1000 TL and under 35 43,2 Male 54 66,7 1001-2000 TL 25 30,9 Total 81 100 2001-3000 TL 9 11,1 3001-4000 TL 4 4,9 4001 TL and over 8 9,9 Total 81 100

210 Age Amount of allowance 16-20 19 23,5 200 TL and under 21-25 45 55,6 201-400 TL 28 34,6 26 and over 17 21,0 401-600 TL 20 24,7 Total 81 100 601-800 TL 16 19,8 801 TL and over 6 7,4 Total 11 13,6 81 100

To examine demographic tendency to factor analysis is an appropriate characteristics of participant students, 33,3% value for factor analysis. Since the Bartlett test, of participants are female and 66,7% are male which serves the same purpose, is significant students. Age distribution of participants is as (Significance = 0,001) and the condition of follows: 16-20 at 23,5%; 21-25 at 55,6%; and p<0.05 is met, it is decided that the data is 26 and over at 21,0%. It is seen that "1000 TL appropriate for factor analysis. As a result of and lower" has the highest rate with 43,2% in the factor analysis on the scale that measures total family income, while "200 TL and lower" materialistic tendency, 5 out of 19 statements has the highest rate with 34,6% in total in the scale were taken out of the questionnaire monthly allowance of participants. and subjected to analysis again since their factor loads were under 0,30. After the FACTOR ANALYSIS AND RELIABILITY repeated factor analysis, 14 items were ANALYSIS collected under 3 factors. These factors are The KMO value (0,907), which tests success, centrality and happiness. appropriateness of the data set of materialistic Table 2. Factor Analysis and Reliability Analysis on Materialist Tendency Scale

SUB ITEMS LOAD TOTAL CRONBACH’S DIMENSIONS VALUES EXPLAIND ALFA of SCALE VARIANCE (0,911) % I appreciate people with expensive ,921 homes, cars and clothes. One of the most important ,910 achievements in my life is to have material assets.

Success The things I have show me how ,871 successful my life is. 22,845 I like to have things that affect people. ,818 ,901 I would be happier if I had the urge to buy more. ,762 Sometimes I feel uncomfortable when I can not buy what I want. ,701

I just take what I need ,895 I prefer a simple way of life. ,877 I enjoy spending money on things that ,874 are not useful. 25,258 Centrality It would make me very happy to buy ,858 ,912 something. I like very luxurious things in my life. ,806

As a success indicator, I do not give ,878 much importance to the amount of assets that people have. ,887 Happiness I do not pay much attention to the ,789 11,084 material assets that people have.

211 Things I have are not important to me. ,751

KMO = 0,917 Total Explained Variance = 59,187

Testing Hypotheses

Table 3. Results of t-Test on Materialistic Tendency by Gender N Mean T Sig.

Materialist Female 27 2,7963 ,443 ,818 Tendency

Male 54 2,8849

Success Female 27 2,6173

54 2,7346 Male ,463 ,701

Female 27 2,7926 Centrality Male 54 2,9370 ,711 ,542

Female 27 3,1605 Happiness Male 54 3,0988 ,225 ,811 The independent-samples t-test was and the P value that was found as a result of t- made to determine whether materialistic tests on each sub-factor is >0,05, materialistic tendencies of Syrian university students differ tendencies of Syrian university students do not by their gender. Since the value that was found differ by gender. Hypothesis H1 was, as a result of t-tests by gender is p=0,818>0,05 therefore, rejected. Table 4. Results of Anova Test on Materialistic Tendency by Age Materialist

Sum of Squares df F Sig. Tendency Mean Square Between Groups ,209 2 ,104 ,143 ,867 Within Groups 56,924 78 ,730 Total 57,132 80 Success Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups 1,471 2 ,736 ,668 ,516 Within Groups 85,962 78 1,102 Total 87,433 80 Centrality Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups ,088 2 0,44 ,058 ,944 Within Groups 58,952 78 ,756 Total 59,040 80

212 Happiness Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups 1,034 2 ,517 ,380 ,685 Within Groups 106,145 78 1,361 Total 107,180 80 Since the value that was found as a tendencies of Syrian university students do not result of Anova test on age status is differ by their age status. Hypothesis H2 was, p=0,867>0,05, it was found that materialistic therefore, rejected. Table 5. Results of Anova Test on Materialistic Tendency by Total Family Income Materialist

Sum of Squares df F Sig. Tendency Mean Square Between Groups 9,373 4 2,343 3,729 ,008 Within Groups 47,759 76 ,628 Total 57,132 80 Success Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups 16,748 4 4,187 4,502 ,003 Within Groups 70,685 76 ,930 Total 87,433 80 Centrality Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups 9,522 4 2,381 3,654 ,009 Within Groups 49,518 76 ,652 Total 59,040 80 Happiness Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups 4,370 4 1,092 ,808 ,524 Within Groups 102,810 76 1,353 Total 107,180 80 Since the value that was found as a analysis on sub-factors, it was concluded that result of Anova test on total family income is there is difference among Syrian students in p=0,008<0,05, it was found that materialistic success and centrality sub-factors in terms of tendencies of Syrian university students differ their total family income. Hypothesis H3 was, by their total family income. As a result of the therefore, accepted. Table 6. Results of Anova Test on Materialistic Tendency by Total Amount of Allowance Materialist

Sum of Squares df F Sig. Tendency Mean Square Between Groups 4,619 4 1,155 1,671 ,165

213 Within Groups 52,513 76 ,691 Total 57,132 80 Success Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups 5,912 4 1,478 1,378 ,250 Within Groups 81,521 76 1,073 Total 87,433 80 Centrality Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups 3,906 4 ,976 1,346 ,261 Within Groups 55,134 76 ,725 Total 59,040 80 Happiness Sum of Squares df F Sig. Mean Square Between Groups 10,190 4 2,547 1,996 ,104 Within Groups 96,990 76 1,276 Total 107,180 80 Since the value that was found as a differ by age, sex and total amount of result of Anova test on total amount of allowance. The findings that were found as a allowance is p=0,165>0,05, it was found that result of the analysis are similar to the findings materialistic tendencies of Syrian university of some studies in the literature (Lundstorm & students do not differ by their total amount of White, 1999; Dittmar, 2005; Belk, 1984; Ger allowance. Hypothesis H4 was, therefore, & Belk, 1990; Belk, 1985; Richins & Dawson, rejected. 1992; Keng et al., 2000; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001; Richins, 2004; Purutçuoğlu, 2009; CONCLUSION Leelakulthanit et al.,1991; Roberts & Clement, Materialistic tendencies have great 2007; Dawson & Bamossy, 1990; Shim, 1995; influence on consumption behaviors of Doğan ,2010; Rana & Tirthani, 2012; Ekeng, individuals. This study attempted to find out Lifu & Asinya, 2012). whether there is a difference in materialistic The number of studies on materialism tendencies of Syrian university students at is increasing all over the world. Therefore, it is Harran University based on their demographic important for researchers to determine characteristics. materialistic tendencies. Conducted to find out As a result of the analyses that were differences of materialistic tendencies in made to measure whether there is any consumers in terms of demographic difference in materialistic tendencies of characteristics, this study offers important university students by their demographic information for literature as well as marketing characteristics, it was found that materialistic executives in practice. This study constitutes a tendencies of university students differ in guide for future studies to determine the terms of total monthly income of family. This relationship between materialistic tendency finding is of similar nature with those of some and demographic characteristics. studies in the literature (Leelakulthanit et al., The study was conducted among 1991; Roberts & Clement, 2007). However, as Syrian students who study at Harran University a result of the analysis, it was determined that in Şanlıurfa, Turkey. Performing this study on materialistic tendencies of students do not foreign students at different universities and

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216 Do OECD countries catch up to the USA in biotechnology?1

Serhat Yaşgül2 Burak Güriş3 Burcu Yavuz Tiftikçigil4 Marmara University İstanbul University İstanbul Gedik University Dep. of Economics Dep. of Econometrics Dep. of Int. Trade and Finance

Abstract: The leadership of the USA in biotechnology necessitates a catching up analysis to find out more about the situation in other countries. Although there are many studies examining the catching up potential in the field of biotechnology in literature, no study has been seen so far that questions this potential in an empirical way. The main objective of this study is to correct this deficiency in literature. In this context, the catching up potentials of selected 10 OECD countries to the USA in biotechnology for the period of 1981-2011 were analyzed empirically by means of the Fourier Stationary Testing Approach. According to the findings, Australia, Finland and the United Kingdom display the potential of catching up to the USA in both the process of scientific knowledge production and the process of the commercialization of the research. Denmark, France and Switzerland display the potential of catching up to the USA only in terms of the production of scientific knowledge. Japan and Sweden display the potential of catching up to the USA only in terms of the commercialization of the research. Germany and Canada do not display any catching up potential with respect to both dimensions. Key Words: Biotechnology, OECD Countries, Catching Up, Fourier Stationarity Test

1 This paper was presented at the AGP Humanities and Social Sciences Conferance, Barcelona, Spain, 26-29 January 2017 2 Corresponding Author, Department of Economics, Marmara University, Goztepe Campus Istanbul, Turkey E- mail: [email protected] 3 Department of Econometrics, Istanbul University, Beyazıt Campus Istanbul, Turkey E-mail: [email protected] 4 Department of International Trade and Finance, Istanbul Gedik University, Kartal Campus Istanbul, Turkey E- mail: [email protected]

217 1. Introduction determining international competitiveness today [1, 24, 29]. No matter how The studies investigating the catching up biotechnology is evaluated in terms of modern potential in the field of biotechnology have techniques, it covers some application that is focused on institutional and historical context as old as human history by definition in reality to date. Nevertheless, no studies that [27, 24]. However, in 1970s and 1980s, when investigate the process empirically in the developments in molecular biology literature have been encountered. The main allowed living organisms to change their objective of this study is to eliminate this genetic structure in a regular way, a deficiency in literature. In other words, this biotechnological revolution in a modern sense study aims to test whether the results revealed began [1, 27, 25]. Various modern practices by different national biotechnological such as those especially in genetic engineering innovation systems display the potential of and hybridoma technology have led e catching up to the USA empirically. Within biotechnology to find an application field in this framework, the catching up potential of 10 traditional sectors. OECD countries (Australia, the United Today, it is possible to evaluate Kingdom, Finland, Denmark, France, biotechnology as a set of generic technologies Sweden, Switzerland, Japan, Germany and used in many industries. In other words, Canada) to the USA in the field of biotechnology has application fields in many biotechnology were analyzed by using the conventional sectors such as health and Fourier Stationary Test. It is known that medicine, agriculture, environment and standard stationary test gives decisive results mining [20]. Due to relatively new techniques in the event of structural fraction or that it contains on one hand and the value nonlinearity. The basic advantage of this test added growth it provides in traditional sector is that it is unnecessary to knowfraction on the other hand, biotechnology has become numbers or form of breaks a priori [4,13]. This one of the most important technologies test was preferred since it eliminates the determining the power of international difficulties arising from not identifying the competitiveness [19]. true model specifications due to the Specific institutional agreements affecting abovementioned advantages. In this analysis, the production of scientific knowledge and the the potentials of OECD countries in catching commercialization of this information related up to the USA were examined based on two to biotechnology constitute the national basic dimensions parallel to the studies in biotechnology innovation system [1]. literature. First one of these dimensions Biotechnology has some characteristics focused on the production process of the different from already known traditional scientific knowledge and the second one techniques. First, biotechnology has focused on the commercialization process of developed on scientific knowledge coming the researches. from several sub-disciplines such as The statistical data obtained from microbiology biochemistry, genetic and international resources and economic and bioengineering [6]. In other words, social researches were used in the first part. In biotechnology is an activity that is extremely the second part, literature review was dependent on scientific researches carried out presented. In the third part, the data set and the in university and state laboratories [18]. econometric methodology were explained. In Secondly, during the period of the fourth part, the empirical findings obtained commercialization of biotechnological were examined. In the last part, general results researches, an intensive cooperation between related to the study were evaluated. public and private research institutions and firms is required [28]. When these two 2. Catching up in biotechnology elements are evaluated together, the process of production of scientific knowledge and the Biotechnology that is described as the commercialization of the researches have manipulation of living organisms or the parts striking importance. contained in these organisms for the In the field of biotechnology, in terms of the production of goods and services has become production of scientific knowledge and the one of the most important technologies commercialization of the researches, Table 1

218 and Table 2 reveal the leadership of the USA countries. The non-OECD countries presented clearly. Publication data is presented as an in the table are China, India, Brazil, indicator of scientific knowledge production Singapore, Russia, Malaysia, Thailand, in Table 1 and patent data is presented as an Republic of South Africa, Taiwan, Argentina indicator of the commercialization of the and Cuba. researches in Table 2. The data was arranged as the world, the USA, OECD and non-OECD

Table 1. Scientific Publication Performance in the field of Biotechnology The Total Other Non-OECD Years World of OECD USA OECD Countries countries Countries 1981 2759 2164 926 1238 152 1985 3809 2935 1241 1694 233 1990 6295 5065 2093 2972 391 1995 12242 10186 3846 6340 1090 2000 12999 10711 3867 7235 1527 2005 16537 13115 4992 8123 2900 2011 26736 17286 6145 11141 4468 Source:, The “ISI Web of Science” database was used to find the scientific publication numbers in the field of biotechnology.

Table 2. Patent Numbers in the Field of Biotechnology Other The Total of Non-OECD Years World USA OECD OECD countries Countries Countries 1981 120 120 65 55 0 1985 471 468 250 218 3 1990 2174 2157 1246 911 14 1995 4729 4665 2676 1989 51 2000 12258 11131 6195 4936 1089 2005 10151 9696 4554 5142 389 2011 10409 9490 4220 5270 861 Source: The OECD Database was made use of to obtain the patent numbers in biotechnology.

In Table 1, the scientific publication scientific publications in terms of patent numbers in the field of biotechnology with numbers. In 1981, while the USA made 54% respect to years is presented. Accordingly, of the total patent applications in the world, while the USA was contributing to 34% of all this rate decreased to 44% in 2011. However, the scientific publications in the field of 44% of the patent applications conducted by biotechnology, this rate decreased to 23% in the OECD countries were conducted by the 2011. Although the publication numbers USA in 2011. increase in terms of total number both in OECD and non-OECD countries, the USA is There are many studies revealing why the still far ahead on a country basis. For example; USA is the leader in the field of in 2011, 35% of the publications contributed biotechnology. It is possible to group the by the OECD countries was conducted by the characteristics highlighted by these studies USA. under the following headings: [25, 18] In Table 2, the patent numbers in the field a) Success in the process of scientific of biotechnology are presented with respect to knowledge, years. There is a similar case in the number of

219 b) The role of private sector and new commercialization process of biotechnology. biotechnological firms during the process of [19]. commercialization of the research. In this study, two basic indicators were used c) During the development process of in order to examine the potential of catching biotechnology, forming an institutional up in the field of biotechnology. The first of structure that may allocate public research these indicators is the scientific publication funds and venture capital related to scientific numbers in the field of biotechnology of the and commercial researches, countries represented by the production of the d) A legal and institutional substructure that scientific knowledge. In finding the scientific may incite scientists working in universities publication numbers of the countries, the and research institutions in the fields of National Science Indicators database of entrepreneurship and risk-taking, Thomson Reuters that was Institute for e) The demand created towards the sectors Scientific Information (ISI) was used. In order producing products based on biotechnology. to find international scientific publications, Besides the studies questioning why the the research field of “Biotechnology and USA has become a leader, there is significant Applied Microbiology” research area was literature investigating the other countries’ chosen. potential of catching up to the USA. In these The second indicator used in the study is the researches, especially on the basis of the patent numbers representing the indicators such as scientific publication, commercialization process of patent, venture capital and international biotechnological researches. In obtaining cooperation, the features of biotechnological biotechnological patent numbers, the OECD innovation of the countries were examined database was used and the patent applications from a historical and institutional point of conducted the under Patent Cooperation view [1, 9, 22, 17, 26, 28, 7, 18, 19,21]. When Treaty (PCT) were included in the study. In the abovementioned studies were evaluated in order to identify the patent application of the general, it was seen that there was no catching countries involved in the field of up process in terms of the commercialization biotechnology, the country settled by the of the researches although a slow catching-up applicants was taken into consideration. process about the production of scientific In choosing scientific publication and knowledge was concerned. patent numbers as indicators, two basic criteria were considered. First. is finding 3. Methodology consistent and reliable data for these two indicators belonging to the term examined. 3.1. Data set The second criterion is that the selected indicators reflect biotechnological The year range of 1981-2011 was selected development performance. When these two as the research period. In the study, the criteria are considered, the most appropriate catching-up potential of the OECD countries variables that will reflect the catching up to the USA in the field of biotechnology was potential of the countries in the field of examined based on two basic dimensions. biotechnology are supposed to be scientific First of them is the dimension of producing publication and patent numbers. scientific knowledge. In literature, various indicators such as R&D expenditures, number 3.2. Econometric methodology of researchers, funds allocated to basic research and scientific publication number During the period of the last three decades, were used [5, 8 the validity of the convergence/catching up The second dimension related to catching hypothesis was examined for many topics in up potential in the field of biotechnology is the literature. In the studies using panel data commercialization of the researches. In the techniques, the convergence to a group in an countries, some indicators such as patent integrative way or an average can be number, sales amount, venture capital and investigated. Hypothesis investigated for agricultural soil volume sown the seed these studies are formed as convergence of all containing GDO are used to evaluate the countries sampled are converging, against no countries are converging. In the studies in

220 which the time series techniques are used, it is Becker, Enders and Lee (2006) consider the possible to conduct a country by country following data generating process, ′ ′ analysis. In these studies, the leader country �� = �� + �� + �� + �� (1) could be analyzed against chosen country by �� = ��−1 + �� country or convergence/catching up to Where �� are stationary errors and �� are international average [11]. Due to this basic independent and identically distributed with 2 advantage, the time series technique was variance �� . They use �� = [1] for a level ′ preferred in the study. stationarity process, �� = [1, �] for a trend Convergence/Catching up hypothesis can stationary process. To capture a break or other be tested using both cointegration and unit type of nonlinearity in the deterministic term, 2�� 2�� root [16]. Rejection of the unit root null they choose � = [(sin ( ) , cos⁡( )]′ hypothesis or rejection of the null hypothesis � � � of no cointegration would confirm the where T is the sample size and k is the 2 existence of convergence/catching up. frequency. Under the null hypothesis �� = 0 , In literature, the studies using the time the process described by equation (1) is series techniques generally made use of linear stationary. techniques. Walter Enders and C. W. J When there is not ��, the data generating Granger (1998) demonstrate that the standard process in formula 1 will be the same as the tests for unit root and cointegration all have KPSS test. At this point, the test statistics for lower power in the presence of misspecified the null of stationarity is calculated as � ̂2 dynamics. Pierre Perron (1989) show that 1 ∑�=1 �� = ⁡ when existing structural break ignored the �� 2 �̂2 ̂ � conventional unit root tests will be biased Here, �� = ∑�=1 ��̂ , �̂� are ordinary least towards not rejecting a false null of a unit root. square residuals obtained from regressing �� A similar phenomenon occurs in nonlinear 2 −1 2 on ��. � = lim � �(��)⁡ where �� = models. Ignoring nonlinearity will make the �→∞ ∑� conventional unit root tests biased towards not �=1 �� Becker, Enders and Lee (2006) modified rejecting the null of nonstationarity. In the studies following the studies of the KPSS test statistics in their study allowing for the existence of time varying intercept Perron (1989), the identification of structural under the null hypothesis. The test statistics fraction endogenously and exogenously and the number of structural fraction were chosen can be obtained by using the following models. as the topics of various studies [30, 13-15, 10]. 2�� 2�� = � + � �� ( ) + � �� ( ) + � (2) Failure to determine the correct model � 1 � 2 � � specification and the identification of the � = � + �� + � �� (2��) + � �� (2��) + � (3) � 1 � 2 � � number or form of breaks different from what The test statistics to be calculated in order it should be causes significant decreases in test to guess these models by OLS is calculated as power [4]. Ralf Becker, Walter Enders and follows; Junsoo Lee (2006) used selected frequency 1 ∑� �̃ (�)2 � (�) or � (�) = �=1 � component of a Fourier function and Denis � � �2 �̃2 � Kwiatkowski, Peter C. B. Phillips, Peter Here, �̃�(�) = ∑�=1 ��̃ and ��̃ are the OLS Schmidt and Yongcheol Shin (1992) (KPSS) residuals from the regression (2) for ��(�) or developed the type stationarity test. With this (3) for ��(�). As in KPSS, Becker, Enders and test, the results obtained due to not Lee (2006) suggest that a nonparametric determining the number and form of breaks estimate �̃2 of the long run variance can be correctly are eliminated. The basic advantage obtained by choosing a truncation lag of this test is that the data of breaks, the parameter l and set of weights ��, j=1,…l. number of breaks or the form of breaks are not �̃2 = �̃ + 2 ∑ � �̃ and �̃ is the required to be known a priori [4]. 0 � � � autocovariance of the residuals �̃ from Due to these basic advantages in this study � that investigates the catching up potential of equation (2) or (3). Asymptotic distributions 10 OECD countries to the USA in the field of of the test statistics depend on the frequency k. biotechnology, the test developed by Becker, The selection of the appropriate k will be made Enders and Lee (2006) was preferred. by minimizing the SSR of the equiation 2 or 3 of the frequencies from 1 to 5.

221 In the case when there is no non-linear catching up analysis of the countries was trend, the standard KPSS test will be stronger. examined in parallel to literature within the For this reason, the lack of non-linear trend framework of two basic dimensions. In this must be tested. Becker, Enders and Lee (2006) scope, the scientific publication number in the suggest the following F-test statistic that is field of biotechnology of the countries calculated against the alternative nonlinear representing the production of scientific trend with a given frequency k knowledge and the standard KPSS test results (��0 − ��1(�))/2 applied for the patent number series ��(�) = ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡� = �, � representing the commercialization process of ��1(�)/(� − �) the researches in the field of biotechnology are where ��0 denotes the SSR from regression without the trigonometric terms, presented in Table 3 and 4. According to these results, the null hypothesis of stationarity ��1(�) denotes the SSR from equation 2 or 3 and q is the number of regressors. The cannot be rejected. The frequency k to be used distribution of the F test is non standard when in the calculation of this test statistics and the the null of stationary is rejected. Based on this fourier stationarity test are shown in Table 3 viewpoint, the criteria values to be used weres and Table 4. According to the F test statistics tabulated in the study of Becker, Enders and calculated for scientific publication series, Lee (2006). while the null hypothesis of linearity is rejected in all series, this hypothesis is not 4. Empirical results rejected for Denmark, Finland and France in patent series. Therefore, the standard KPSS The leadership of the USA in the field of results for these three countries will be valid biotechnology made the analysis related to and the null hypothesis of stationarity could be catching up potential in terms of other OECD accepted for the test statistics results for these countries compulsory. Due to the three countries. characteristic features of biotechnology, the

Table 3. Tests for Stationarity In the Scientific Publication Series Nonlinear stationarity test ̂ ̂ ̂ KPSS(��) � ��(�) ��(�) Australia 0.331866 1 5.56042b 0.17797* Canada 0.372909 1 88.55483a 0.28633 Denmark 0.450126 1 20.74796a 0.32188 Finland 0.399221 1 8.68284a 0.26218* France 0.248702 1 20.50138a 0.33104 Germany 0.439202 1 19.52591a 0.30394 Japan 0.194818 1 20.69142a 0.19148* Sweden 0.384086 1 10.82943a 0.22867* Switzerland 0.451445 1 11.10552a 0.34264 UK 0.377681 1 21.85298a 0.2112* �� is the value of standard KPSS test for the null hypothesis of stationarity. At 1%, 5%, 10% significance level, the critical values for KPSS are 0.739, 0.463, 0.347. a,b,c denotes that the null hypothesis of linearity are rejected at the 1%, 5%, 10% significance level respectively. *,**,*** denotes that convergence/catching up hypotheses are supported at the 1%, 5%, 10% significance level, respectively.

222 Table 4 Tests for Stationarity In the Patent Series Nonlinear stationarity test KPSS ̂ ̂ ̂ (��) � ��(�) ��(�) Australia 0.299078 1 19.77469a 0.21678* Canada 0.410207 1 22.12279a 0.27643 Denmark 0.182605 3 1.54712 0.17166*** Finland 0.294472 1 3.80617 0.23035* France 0.30389 2 2.56047 0.2289*** Germany 0.423324 1 31.78739a 0.32754 Japan 0.383578 1 77.60218a 0.27231 Sweden 0.399272 1 16.53162a 0.28467 Switzerland 0.268669 1 11.93994a 0.14847** UK 0.199264 1 5.13939b 0.16953**

�� is the value of standard KPSS test for the null hypothesis of stationarity. At 1%, 5%, 10% significance level, the critical values for KPSS are 0.739, 0.463, 0.347. a,b,c denotes that the null hypothesis of linearity are rejected at the 1%, 5%, 10% significance level respectively. *,**,*** denotes that convergence/catching up hypotheses are supported at the 1%, 5%, 10% significance level, respectively.

When scientific publication number series UK, while it is rejected for Canada, Germany, presented in Table 3 are presented, the null Japan, Sweden (as it is mentioned before that hypothesis of stationarity is accepted for the standard KPSS Test was used for Australia, Finland, Japan, Sweden and the Denmark, Finland and France). UK, and the null hypothesis of stationarity is In the light of the findings obtained from the rejected for Canada, Denmark, France, study, the catching up potentials of the Germany and Switzerland. examined countries in the field of The null hypothesis of stationarity for biotechnology are presented in Table 5. patent number series is accepted for Australia, Besides, the countries are classified per their Denmark, Finland, France, Switzerland, the catching up potential in Table 5.

Table 5. The classification of OECD countries There is catching up There is no catching up potential in terms of potential in terms of production of scientific production of scientific knowledge. knowledge. There is catching up Australia, Finland, Denmark, France, potential in terms of the United Kingdom Switzerland commercialization of the research. There is no catching up Sweden, Japan Germany, Canada potential in terms of the commercialization of the research.

According to the classification presented in scientific knowledge and the Table 5, Australia, Finland and the United commercialization of the researches. Kingdom show the potential of catching up to Denmark, France and Switzerland show the USA in terms of both the production of catching up potential only in terms of the

223 commercialization of the research, whereas obtained from the other studies. From an Sweden and Japan show catching up potential empirical point of view, it has been proven only in terms of the production of scientific that three of the countries examined within knowledge. Germany and Canada show the this framework show the potential of catching potential of catching up to the USA in terms up to the USA in terms of both the production of both the production of scientific knowledge of scientific knowledge and the and the commercialization of the researches. commercialization of the researches. On the other hand, the empirical findings about some 5. Conclusion countries are extremely striking. For example, in the process of the production of the This study aims to examine the catching up scientific knowledge in France and Sweden, in potential of 10 OECD countries to the USA in the process of the commercialization of the the field of biotechnology empirically. In this researches in Japan, in both the process of the regard, the catching up potential of the production of scientific information and the countries in the field of biotechnology has commercialization process of the researches been analyzed based on two basic dimensions. in Germany and Canada show the catching up First of these dimensions is the production potential. These empirical findings need an process of the scientific knowledge and the analysis that is beyond the the aim and scope second one is the commercialization of the of this study. researches. In the empirical part of the study, the Fourier Stationary Test was used. The References reason why this test was preferred was [1] Bartholomew, Susan. 1997. “National because the problems experienced resulted Systems of Biotechnology Innovation: Complex from not having determined a model Interdependence in the Global System.” Journal of International Business Studies, 28(2): 241- specification, the number of breaks and the 266. form of breaks correctly. In the light of the [2] Becker, Ralf, Walter Enders, and Junsoo Lee. findings obtained from the study, only 3 of the 2006. “A Stationarity Test in the Presence of an Unknown Number of Smooth Breaks.” Journal selected countries (Australia, Finland and the of Time Series Analysis, 27(3): 381-409. [3] Enders, Walter, and C.W.J. Granger. 1998. “Unit-root tests and asymmetric adjustment United Kingdom) show catching up potential with an example using the term structure of in both fields. The other seven countries need interest rates.” Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, 16(3): 304–311 significant change in policy in the field of [4] Enders, Walter, and Junsoo Lee. 2012. “A Unit biotechnology. In 5 countries that are not Root Test Using a Fourier Series to Approximate Smooth Breaks.” Oxford Bulletin showing catching up potential in terms of the of Economics and Statistics, 74(4): 574-599. production of scientific knowledge (Denmark, [5] Hart, P. W., and J. T. Sommerfeld. 1998. “Relationship Between Growth in Gross France, Switzerland, Germany and Canada), Domestic Product (GDP) and Growth in the some policies in terms of inciting the Chemical Engineering Literature in Five Different Countries.” Scientometrics, 42(3): production of scientific knowledge must be 299-311. developed. For example, increasing the funds [6] Ho, J. Y. Rodney, and Milo Gibaldi. 2003. Biotechnology and Biopharmaceuticals related to scientific research in the field of Transforming Proteins and Genes into Drugs. biotechnology and encouraging scientific USA: Wiley-Liss. publications may be some of these policies. [7] Hsieh, C. R., and H. Löfgren. 2009. “Biopharmaceutical Innovation and Industrial Similarly, in 4 countries not showing catching Development in South Korea, Singapore, up potential in terms of commercialization of Taiwan.” Aust Health Rev, 33(2): 245-257. [8] Inglesi-Lotz, R., and A. Pouris. 2013. “The the researches (Sweden, Japan, Germany and Influence of Scientific Research Output of Canada), some policies such as increasing the Academics on Economic Growth in South Africa: An Autoregressive distributed lag cooperation between research institutions and (ARDL) Application.” Scientometrics, 95(1): the private sector and improving legal and 129-139. [9] Kaiser, Robert, and Heiko Prange. 2004. “The institutional sector can be applied. reconfiguration of National Innovation In the field of biotechnology, there is Systems—the example of German biotechnology.” Research Policy, 33(3): 395- comprehensive literature examining the 408. catching up potentials of the countries to the [10] Kapetanios, George. 2005. “Unit-Root Testing Against the Alternative Hypothesis of USA [22, 18, 21]. The empirical findings up to m Structural Breaks.” Journal of Time obtained from this study show significant Series Analysis, 26(1): 123-133. [11] King, Alan, and Carlyn Ramlogan-Dobson. differences when compared with the findings 2014. “Are income differences within the

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225 Analysing the impact of the Global Financial Crisis on the Financial Soundness of Turkish Banking Sector

Neşe Yalçın, Ibrahim Yagli* 1. Associate Professor in Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Turkey, E-mail: ([email protected]) 2. Research Assistant in Department of Business Administration, Institute of Social Sciences, Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, Turkey, *Corresponding Author, E-mail: ([email protected])

Abstract. Performance evaluation of banks becomes an issue of concern for not only their depositors and shareholders, but also government regulators since any trouble in the banking sector of a country spreads throughout its entire economy. Therefore, financial soundness of banks is one of the most significant performance evaluation issues, especially in the economic crisis periods. To this end, this study aims to analyse the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial soundness of 26 Turkish banks. In order to achieve this aim, primarily, financial soundness indicators (FSIs) are determined with the help of CAMELS framework which is a kind of performance evaluation system for financial institutions such as banks considering multi financial aspects. And then, financial soundness of banks is analysed for pre/during/post crisis periods by using both a financial soundness index computed by aggregating FSIs and TOPSIS a well-known multi criteria decision analysis. The results demonstrate that which banks are financially healthy and which are not financially stable with respect to the financial soundness index and TOPSIS. Hereby, the results also reveal that whether there are any differences/similarities between the two analyses in terms of ranking orders of banks.

Keywords: Financial soundness, global financial crisis, banks, CAMELS, TOPSIS

1. Introduction (1980s), Sweden (1990s), Thailand, Malaysia, Korea, Philippines, and Indonesia, (1997), Banks are only one type of financial Paraguay (1995–98), Russia (1998), (Turkey intermediary that allocate resources collected 2000-01), Argentina (2001) and also the global from economic units who have fund surplus to financial crisis (2008) confirm this situation. economic units who are in the need of these When both domestic crises and the global funds. This above mentioned function puts financial crisis are analysed, it is seen that most banks in a significant position in the economy of the crises have been caused by poor banking such that financial soundness of any economy is practices such as inadequate capital, mostly based on the safety and financial shortcomings in the assessment of credit risk, soundness of the banks operating in that lending to connected enterprises despite they economy, especially in the episodes of are not-creditworthy, excessive maturity, economic crisis. Several domestic crisis which currency mismatches, non-performing loans, etc. have been experienced in different parts of the [1]. world such as Chile, Argentina, and Mexico

226 Therefore, regulatory authorities occasionally (2008) and post-crisis (2009) and discover how intervene banking sector to make banks more the crisis affect different bank types. resistant to the financial crisis such that Turkish When the existing literature is reviewed, it is banking sector has experienced several seen that different methods are employed in structural changes as a result of such order to evaluate the financial soundness and interventions [2]. Even though the sector is performance of banks. Financial ratio analysis dominated by state-owned banks at the is one of the most commonly used methods for beginning, the banking sector became more performance evaluation of banks [12-14, 19]. competitive as a result of the entry of private CAMELS is another ratio-based model created banks into the Turkish banking sector under the in 1979 in USA by the bank regulatory agencies liberalization program in 1980s. Furthermore, to evaluate the financial soundness and Banking Sector Restructuring Program was performance of banks. Besides banks, this launched by Banking Regulation and framework is also useful for different financial Supervision Agency (BRSA) following the institutions such as insurance companies, financial crisis of 2001 in Turkey [3]. This new factoring companies, etc. The acronym banking regulation also increased competition “CAMELS” refers to the six components- by allowing both foreign banks and investment Capital adequacy, Asset quality, Management banks to enter into the sector. In addition, efficiency, Earnings power, Liquidity, and special financial institutions were tied to BRSA Sensitivity- of a bank’s condition that are in 2005 and renamed as participation banks assessed. Each component of CAMELS is with the banking law no. 5411. As a result of briefly explained as follows: Capital adequacy these structural changes, Turkish banking sector (C) reflects whether the bank has a sufficient has become more stable. Such that, although the capital in terms of both quality and quantity to Turkish economy was one of the economies bear the unexpected losses; Asset quality (A) significantly affected by the crisis, the impacts assesses the bank’s financial strength with of the crisis on the Turkish banking sector respect to the different financial aspects such as remained limited thanks to its sound condition loans; Management efficiency (M) investigates constructed by the banking sector restructuring whether the bank is able to efficiently operate program [5-6]. So unlike others, Turkish banks daily activities by controlling internal and did not require any financial support [7]. external risk the bank will face; Earnings power Moreover, the average capital adequacy ratio (E) is about bank’s ability to create appropriate and profitability of Turkish banks increased returns for their shareholders and its during the crisis and Turkey also became one of sustainability; Liquidity (L) assesses the bank’s the several countries whose credit rating ability to meet unexpected withdrawals; upgraded in the crisis period [8]. Besides, a Sensitivity (S) analyses the bank’s vulnerability tendency to increase the number of branches to various risks such as interest rate risk, and banking staffs was maintained in spite of exchange rate risk, and market risk. As being the crisis. appropriate and accurate model to measure In addition to all these, various bank types bank performance as well as to predict bank was affected differently from the crisis. For failures [24-25], CAMEL(S) is employed in instance, even though the loan growth of both different studies [2-26]. For instance, private and foreign-banks diminished by 0.03% Ginevičius and Podviezko [29] use CAMEL in and 4.6% respectively, the loan growth of state- order to evaluate the financial soundness and owned banks increased by 10.1% [8]. On the stability of Lithuanian Banks; Roman and other hand, some scholars argued that Turkish Şargu [30] also employ CAMELS to analyse participation banks were more stable than the financial soundness of commercial banks conventional banks during the crisis [9-10]. operating in Romania. Hardy [11] also stated that participation More recently, multi-criteria decision making banking emerged stronger after the domestic (MCDM) methods have been started to employ financial crisis of 2001 and the global financial to get one composite score on the overall crisis of 2008. From this point of view, this financial soundness and performance of banks study aims to evaluate the financial soundness [15-18]. For instance, Kosmidou and and performance of 26 Turkish banks Zopounidis [15] analyse the performance of 14 consisting of four bank types for three sub- conventional banks and 16 cooperative banks periods, namely, pre-crisis (2007), during-crisis operating in Greece for the period 2003-2004

227 with PROMETHEE method. Akkoc and Thus, banks have been evaluated by using six Vatansever [20] evaluate the performance of 12 criteria (C-A-M-E-L-S) that each criterion is Turkish conventional banks by using two formed by aggregating the values of its selected different MCDM methods (fuzzy Analytic sub-criteria demonstrated in Table 1. Hierarchy Process and fuzzy Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Table 1. FSIs determined based on CAMELS framework Max/ Solution) after the global financial crisis. In the C (Capital adequacy) study, 17 financial ratios determined under the Min C1: Capital adequacy ratio + 7 categories (capital ratios, asset quality, C2: Shareholders’ equity / Total assets + liquidity, profitability, income expenditure C3: (Shareholders’ equity – Fixed assets) / + Total assets structure, branch ratios and activity ratios) are C4: (Shareholders’ equity + Net profit) / employed to evaluate the performance of banks + and rank them according to their performances. (Total deposits+ Non-deposit sources) A (Asset quality) The empirical results reveal that the A1: Total loans and receivables / Total assets + performance rankings of banks obtained by two A2: Total loans and receivables / Total + MCDM methods is similar with small deposits differences in scores. A3: Non-performing loans / Total loans and - receivables Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is another A4: Specific provisions / Non-performing + frequently used method to assess the efficiency loans of banks [21-22]. For instance, Sathye [31] A5: Fixed assets / Total assets - investigates the efficiencies of Indian banks M (Management efficiency) (public, foreign and domestic) with DEA. The M1: Total assets / Number of branches + M2: Net profit (loss) / Number of branches + mean efficiency scores reveal that Indian banks M3: Total deposits / Number of branches + as effective as world banks. In addition, M4: Total loans and receivables / Number of + efficiency of public sector banks and foreign branches banks is higher than domestic banks. Staub, E (Earnings power) Souza and Tabak [23] also employ DEA to E1: Net profit (loss) / Total assets + E2: Net profit (loss) / Shareholders’ equity + evaluate the cost, technical and allocative E3: Interest (profit share) income / Total + efficiencies of Brazilian banks during the period assets of 2000-2007. DEA results demonstrate that E4: Total operating income / Total assets + efficiency scores of domestic banks are lower L (Liquidity) than European and American banks. L1: Liquid assets / Total assets + L2: Liquid assets / Short-term liabilities + The rest of the paper is as follows. In Section L3: Liquid assets / (Total deposits+ Non- + 2, the data and the methodology used in the deposit sources) study is explained briefly. In Section 3, a case S (Sensitivity) S1: Foreign currency assets / Foreign study of ranking Turkish banks in terms of the - currency liabilities Aggregate Financial Soundness Index (AFSI) S2: Net on balance sheet position / - and Technique for Order Preference by Shareholder's equity Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) is presented. Finally, last section presents In the evaluation process, the final composite conclusions and implications. financial soundness index scores obtained by both AFSI and TOPSIS are compared with each other to examine the similarities and/or 2. Methodology differences of both methods for the pre-crisis, In this study, 26 Turkish banks consisting of crisis and post-crisis periods. In this comparison, four different bank types have been evaluated criteria weights are needed to estimate in with CAMELS multidimensional framework TOPSIS as an input. When criteria for for three sub-periods, namely, pre-crisis (2007), evaluation of some alternative have during-crisis (2008) and post-crisis (2009). In interdependence relation with each other, we this framework, each dimension (criteria) has cannot define criteria’s weight without any been formed as a single criterion by aggregating attention to the other criteria and their effects on the crisp values of a set of sub-criteria so as to each other [40]. The weights of the evaluation provide unique information and potentially criteria (each component belongs to CAMELS) valuable meaning in the performance evaluation. are determined by using mean weight objective

228 weighting method that assigns equal weights to 2.1. Aggregate financial soundness index evaluation criteria. In order to construct the decision matrix of The financial soundness index is an index CAMELS for 26 banks (alternatives) for each firstly proposed by Cheang and Choy [28] and year from 2007 to 2009, Z-score normalization then developed by Loloh [32] for evaluating (or standardization) is used to eliminate or financial soundness of banks. Cheang and Choy modify outliers and incorrect data in [28] have employed the financial soundness aggregating the sub-criteria values of each index as a sub-index for construction of CAMELS evaluation criterion. An initial aggregate financial stability index that has four sub-indices; capital adequacy, asset quality, decision matrix xX ij consists of m nm earnings and liquidity, respectively. Loloh [32] alternatives and n criteria, where x ij has transformed the sub-indices to CAMEL i 1 , 2 ;,, jm 1 , 2 ,, n is the performance framework by adding management efficiency to value of ith alternative with respect to the jth four sub-indices and used it as the main index criterion. In this study, the initial decision which is called aggregate financial soundness matrix are constructed by using 26 Turkish index (AFSI) for evaluating the financial banks as alternatives and the six components of soundness of banks operating in Ghana. CAMELS as the evaluation criteria. Thus, The composition of AFSI consists of three initial decision matrix of CAMELS steps. Primarily all variables are normalized in performance evaluation for each considered order to ensure that the index is not dominated year is constructed by using this aggregation by any single variable. And then, sub-indices procedure (combination sub-criteria of a single are constructed by averaging variables criterion) meaning the value of the specified set determined under these sub-indices. The last of transactions. step is aggregation of the sub-indices into the When taking into account the constructed single index with equal weights. According to decision matrix, this structure can be considered the results of AFSI, financial soundness as decision making problem with multiple indicators can be positive or negative. Positive criteria (six components of CAMELS) and a AFSI value implies that a bank is financially finite set of alternatives (26 banks). Thus, a sound and successful, while negative AFSI MCDM method can be employed to solve this value points out that a bank is not financially decision problem in order to improve the stable. quality of decision. From many of the proposed MCDM methods, some of the most prominent 2.2. TOPSIS method methods can be stated as follows: Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method [34], TOPSIS, which has been originally Technique for Ordering Preference by introduced by Hwang and Yoon [43], is one of Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method the most well-known classical MCDM methods [43], Preference Ranking Organization Method to identify solutions from a finite set of for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE) alternatives. According to the basic assumption method [35] ELimination and Choice of this method, each attribute has a tendency Expressing REality (ELECTRE) method [36], toward monotonically increasing or decreasing COmplex PRoportional ASsessment utility. In other words, TOPSIS is based on the (COPRAS) method [37], VIKOR concept that the chosen alternative should have (VIsekriterijumska optimizacija i the shortest distance from the positive ideal KOmpromisno Resenje in Serbian, means solution (PIS) and the farthest distance from the Multi-criteria Optimization and Compromise negative ideal solution (NIS) for solving a Solution) method [38] and Additive Ratio multiple criteria decision-making problem. Assessment (ARAS) method [39]. The computational procedure of the TOPSIS In this study, TOPSIS method, which is one method consists of the following steps: of the best known MCDM methods, is used to Step 1: The decision matrix is normalized by evaluate the financial soundness and using Eq. (1). performance of banks. In the following of this xij rij (1) section, both methods used in this study are n x 2 explained respectively. j1 ij

229 Step 2: A weighted normalized decision 3. Application matrix is obtained by multiplying normalized matrix with the weights of the criteria: In this study, the financial soundness and

ij j ij , irwv 1 , 2 ;,, jm 1 , 2 ,, n (2) performance of 26 Turkish banks consisting of Step 3: PIS (maximum values) and NIS four bank types are evaluated for three sub- (minimum values) are determined: periods (pre/during/post) of the global financial crisis within the CAMELS framework by using vvA v ,,, vv * (3) 21 n the both proposed methods comparatively. In vvA v 21 ,,, vv n (4) the application, four bank types are abbreviated Step 4: The distance of each alternative from as follows: B1 for participation banks including PIS and NIS are calculated: four banks, B2 for state-owned conventional n banks including three banks, B3 for privately- * 2* i ( vd ij v j ,) 1 , 2 ,, mi (5) owned banks including eight banks, and B4 for j1 foreign conventional banks including eleven n banks, respectively. 2 di ( v ij v j ,) 1 , 2 ,, mi (6) This study has two aims: (i) to analyse the j1 impact of global financial crisis on the financial Step 5: The Closeness Coefficient of each soundness of the various banks types operating alternative (CCi) is calculated: in Turkish banking sector and (ii) to find out whether there are any differences/similarities di CCi 1 , 2 ,, mi (7) between the results of AFSI and TOPSIS. To * dd ii this end, firstly AFSI is constructed for 26 Step 6: At the end of the analysis, the ranking Turkish banks for the pre/during/post crisis of alternatives is determined by comparing CCi periods by employing normalized criteria values in decreasing order. determined under the CAMELS framework. As stated before, the positive value of AFSI refers a strong financial soundness and stability, while the negative value implies financial instability.

Table 2. Analysing results for AFSI for Turkish banks in the pre/during/post crisis periods pre-crisis period (2007) during-crisis period (2008) post-crisis period (2009)

Banks AFSI Rank AFSI Rank AFSI Rank B1_01 0,094 10 0,188 4 -0,062 13 B1_02 0,020 14 0,111 7 -0,112 18 B1_03 -0,519 24 -0,330 24 -0,426 24 B1_04 -0,219 20 -0,105 17 -0,163 19 B2_01 0,098 9 -0,160 21 -0,091 17 B2_02 0,069 12 -0,170 22 -0,193 20 B2_03 0,285 6 0,025 12 0,098 9 B3_01 0,480 2 0,072 9 0,290 5 B3_02 0,015 15 -0,003 13 0,100 8 B3_03 0,103 8 -0,129 18 -0,482 26 B3_04 0,052 13 -0,024 14 -0,055 12 B3_05 -0,222 21 0,085 8 -0,335 22 B3_06 -0,244 22 -0,277 23 -0,278 21 B3_07 -0,001 16 -0,043 16 -0,043 11 B3_08 -0,605 26 -0,499 25 -0,359 23 B4_01 0,077 11 -0,028 15 -0,069 15 B4_02 0,286 5 0,858 1 0,904 1 B4_03 -0,584 25 -0,552 26 -0,436 25 B4_04 0,605 1 0,663 2 0,663 2 B4_05 -0,287 23 0,036 11 0,123 6 B4_06 0,301 4 0,230 3 0,474 3 B4_07 0,129 7 0,134 6 0,121 7 B4_08 -0,042 18 -0,145 20 0,054 10 B4_09 -0,200 19 -0,135 19 -0,083 16 B4_10 -0,012 17 0,040 10 -0,064 14 B4_11 0,322 3 0,157 5 0,424 4

230 Table 2 demonstrates that almost half of the deteriorates the financial soundness of Turkish banks (11 out of 26) have negative AFSI value banking sector, the impact of crisis on Turkish in 2007, while the number of banks with banking sector remained limited. Also, the negative AFSI value increased to 14 in 2008 sector did not have a very healthy financial and 16 in 2009. This situation indicates that position before the crisis. even though the global financial crisis

Table 3. Analysing results for TOPSIS for Turkish banks in the pre/during/post crisis periods pre-crisis period (2007) during-crisis period (2008) post-crisis period (2009)

Banks TOPSIS Rank TOPSIS Rank TOPSIS Rank B1_01 0,448 7 0,482 4 0,473 11 B1_02 0,406 16 0,444 8 0,441 18 B1_03 0,265 24 0,333 24 0,367 24 B1_04 0,369 20 0,406 15 0,459 13 B2_01 0,419 14 0,386 20 0,442 17 B2_02 0,405 17 0,386 21 0,431 20 B2_03 0,469 6 0,421 13 0,480 9 B3_01 0,529 2 0,450 6 0,532 5 B3_02 0,428 12 0,444 9 0,508 6 B3_03 0,437 9 0,387 19 0,339 25 B3_04 0,426 13 0,422 12 0,450 16 B3_05 0,380 19 0,409 14 0,382 23 B3_06 0,342 23 0,353 23 0,400 21 B3_07 0,390 18 0,394 16 0,436 19 B3_08 0,254 25 0,288 25 0,383 22 B4_01 0,433 11 0,392 17 0,457 15 B4_02 0,477 5 0,598 1 0,683 1 B4_03 0,217 26 0,228 26 0,306 26 B4_04 0,537 1 0,538 2 0,582 2 B4_05 0,344 22 0,438 10 0,498 7 B4_06 0,495 3 0,493 3 0,564 3 B4_07 0,442 8 0,449 7 0,489 8 B4_08 0,408 15 0,355 22 0,477 10 B4_09 0,359 21 0,390 18 0,459 14 B4_10 0,437 10 0,435 11 0,466 12 B4_11 0,480 4 0,455 5 0,548 4

In addition, Table 2 indicates that various nearly remains constant for the pre/during/post bank types are affected differently from the crisis periods. crisis. For instance, B1 type (participation) More individually, four banks from B4 type banks enhance or at least remain their financial banks (B4_02, B4_04, B4_06 and B4_11) take stability, while the financial soundness of B2 place near the top, while five banks consisting type (state-owned conventional) banks worsen of three type banks (B1_03, B1_04, B3_06, from 2007 to 2008. On the other hand, B1 type B3_08 and B4_03) are placed near the bottom. banks cannot maintain their position after the In the second part of the application, TOPSIS is global financial crisis such that all B1 type applied by using the same set of the criteria. banks have negative AFSI value in 2009. Table 3 shows the results of TOPSIS. As seen Furthermore, B3 type (privately-owned in Table 3, B4_02 is the first rank, while B4_03 conventional) banks except B3_01, B3_02, is the last in the ranking list for the years 2008 B3_03, B3_05 and B4 type (foreign and 2009. conventional) banks except B4_05, B4_08

Table 4. Spearman rank correlation between AFSI and TOPSIS in the pre/during/post crisis periods 2007 2008 2009

TOPSIS AFSI TOPSIS AFSI TOPSIS AFSI

TOPSIS 1 0,949 1 0,971 1 0,953

AFSI 0,949 1 0,971 1 0,953 1

According to the rankings results obtained from statistically test the association between AFSI and TOPSIS, both methods used herein rankings results of both methods, Spearman are almost similar to each other. In order to rank correlation test is used. As seen in Table 4,

231 the Spearman rank correlation between two the impact of the global financial crisis on the methods for each year is very high. This financial soundness of Turkish banking sector. statistical test results indicate that performance rankings of banks obtained from both methods are almost similar. References

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