Exploring Governance in Canadian Ramsar Sites to Ensure their Sustainability Jocelyn Baker A Major Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Sustainability in The Faculty of Social Sciences Brock University St Catharines, Ontario, Canada November 2019 © Jocelyn Baker, 2019 ABSTRACT The Ramsar Convention came into effect in 1975, in response to global losses of wetland habitats and their ecological services. Canada joined the Convention in 1981. As essential elements of sustainability, this research examined the types of governance and management activities used in the 37 Canadian Ramsar sites. How ecosystem governance could further support environmental sustainability was also explored. Ramsar sites were assessed using sustainability indicators, looking at the 14 priority areas of focus such as presence of co-management structures, management plans, and monitoring programs under the three commitment criteria (wise use, management, cooperation). The results showed a large variation in terms of management plans, governance structures and reporting procedures with some sites, such as Old Crow Flats, having high sustainability scores while others, such as Southern James Bay, with low scores. Reasons for variation related to the lack of updated management plans and inadequate monitoring and reporting programs. Sustainability science provides linkages between ecological and social systems, underpinned by participatory and collaborative governance structures. Canadian Ramsar sites provide a living example of how social-ecological characteristics should be integrated to ensure sustainability. Keywords: Ramsar, wetlands, ecosystem services, environmental sustainability, governance Acknowledgement My Masters candidacy experience can be summarized by a pivotal conversation, a life- changing reading and an iconic diagram. First, I would like to thank Dr. Ryan Plummer for a conversation that changed the trajectory of not only my career, but my life. Without your confidence in my abilities, and a nudge, I would have never contemplated the idea of graduate school. To my supervisor, Dr. Liette Vasseur, your work ethic, high determination and discipline is something to behold. I knew we were a good match when you sent me your paper ‘slow down the pace’. Thank you for pushing me beyond what I thought was possible, and for always being available no matter what time of day or country you were in. A special thank you to Dr. Diane Dupont, who not only likes to measure things, but is brilliant at it. You taught me the value of a well-placed diagram, and how less really can be more. You were always so generous with your time, and I fully enjoyed rolling up my sleeves and digging into the numbers with you. And finally, to all my friends and family, especially my husband Darcy and my two sons Leeland and Jack. Thank you for your patience and understanding and for not thinking the idea of going back to school was totally crazy. Its never too late to pursue a dream, even the ones you didn’t quite fully realized you had. Table of Contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..1 Wetlands & Ecological Services……………………………………………………..……3 Wetlands & The Ramsar Convention……………………………………………………..5 Enhancing Social-Ecological Sustainability...………………………………………...…14 Methodology Framework: Analyzing Ramsar Site Sustainability………………………19 Analytical Approach……………………………………………………………………..23 Results……………………………………………………………………………………24 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………..…36 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….43 References…………………………………………………………………………….….46 Appendix A: Ramsar Designation Criteria………………………………………………53 Appendix B: Priority Areas of Focus Analysis for Ramsar Sites ……………………………55 List of Tables Table 1: Canadian Ramsar Site Summary…………………………………………...……7 Table 2: Priority Areas of Focus Elements for Analysis………………………………...21 Table 3: Canadian Ramsar Site Sustainability Metric Score & Ranking by Category…..25 Table 4: Analysis for priority areas of focus: Ramsar Convention Commitment Criterion I: Wise-use (maintenance of ecological character) at Ramsar site level………29 Table 5: Analysis for priority areas of focus: Ramsar Convention Commitment Criterion II: Effective management at Ramsar site level………………………………...30 Table 6: Analysis for priority areas of focus: Ramsar Convention Commitment Criterion III: Enhanced cooperation and engagement at Ramsar site level………...……31 List of Figures Figure 1: Ramsar Site Sensitivity Analysis: Standard Score Verses Weighted Score…..32 Figure 2: Ramsar Convention Criterion: I – III Sensitivity Analysis……………………33 INTRODUCTION The Ramsar Convention provides a framework for international, national and local wetland conservation action. My major research paper (MRP) aimed to examine, through the analysis of Canadian Ramsar sites, how wetlands could be conserved using principles of ecosystem governance and sustainability science. The questions asked during my research were: Did Ramsar sites play an important role in protecting ecological systems? Did they integrate social threats and needs into their management? Did they use principles, such as participatory approaches and adaptive governance to enhance their sustainability? Wetlands and people form interconnected social-ecological systems of environmental, economic, cultural, scientific, and recreational values (De Groot et al., 2012). Wetlands are specific ecosystems that are controlled by water regimes, soils, and other characteristic features such as aquatic flora (Keddy, 2010). Definitions of wetlands and wetland types vary globally. The worldwide definition of wetlands comes from the Ramsar Convention (1971) and refers to: “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres, areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and the associated plant and animal life” (Matthews, 2013, p. 38). The value of wetland ecosystems and their interconnections to humanity through their cultural and ecological functions has become increasingly studied and understood in recent years. However, these collaborations between people and nature, the patterns of relationship and their interconnections have not always been understood or valued (Clare & Creed, 2013). Conflicts between humans and wetland areas have been well documented, dating back to Roman times, where coastal fringe environments were drained and cleared for agriculture. In the 1900’s, in North America, wetlands were cleared for extensive agriculture (Davidson et al., 1991). In southern Canada, many 1 wetlands were drained in the late 1800’s to accommodate settlements and farming (Government of Canada, 2018). In order to protect wetlands across the world, the Ramsar Convention came into effect in 1975. The Ramsar Convention is a voluntary global wetland framework signed in Ramsar, Iran in 1971. The purpose of the Convention is to promote the conservation and wise-use of water-based ecosystems, including wetlands, lakes, and rivers. The wise- use conservation of water ecosystems is promoted through the designation of qualifying sites as Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance. The Ramsar Convention includes 170 member nations with 2,355 designated Ramsar sites, totalling over 253 million hectares of Wetlands of International Importance. Ramsar sites form the largest network of designated areas globally. Signatory countries to the Ramsar Convention agree to the three core Ramsar commitments: encourage the wise-use conservation of water-based ecosystems and their resources; ensure effective management; and engage in enhanced cooperation. The Ramsar Convention commitments are implemented through a series of strategic plans. The 4th Strategic Plan, 2016-2024 is the current plan and focuses on fourteen priority areas as the mechanism for Convention implementation. The fourteen priority areas of focus are: decrease and stop the loss of wetlands, promote science-based advice and guidance, understand climate change and wetland interactions, promote ecosystem function, communicate ecosystem services, enhance cooperation, implement the Convention, designate Ramsar sites, ensure wise-use conservation, understand invasive species and wetland impacts, promote full participation, increase synergies, encourage wetland financing and promote the role the Ramsar site plays within the larger wetland basin. Canada entered the Ramsar Convention in 1981. It has currently 37 Ramsar sites, covering an area of 13 million hectares. Although 37 wetlands have been designated under the Ramsar Convention, few studies on their status and governance, and what they have been able to accomplish have been completed until now in Canada. It appears that 2 only one study has examined the national status of Canadian sites since their existence (Lynch-Stewart & Associates, 2008). The deficiency of data and understanding on how sites can be managed and the types of governance structures that are used, make it difficult to assess their sustainability and define which structures can be effective for future site designation in Canada. Further research is required to assess, through the lens of sustainability science, the governance structures and management types that have been used in Canadian Ramsar sites for wetland conservation and to ensure their sustainability. Governance structures and