The Challenge of Our Time Confrontata Con L’Edizione Tedesca: Freiheit Oder Gleichheit? Die Schicksalsfrage Des Abendlandes

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The Challenge of Our Time Confrontata Con L’Edizione Tedesca: Freiheit Oder Gleichheit? Die Schicksalsfrage Des Abendlandes Traduzione di Carlo d’Altavilla dall’edizione inglesE Liberty of Equality – The Challenge of our Time Confrontata con l’edizione tedesca: Freiheit oder Gleichheit? Die Schicksalsfrage des Abendlandes 1966. Giovanni Volpe editore – Via Michele Mercati, 51 – Roma 1 INDICE CAPITOLO PRIMO DEFINIZIONI E PRINCIPI FONDAMENTALI 3 CAPITOLO SECONDO DEMOCRAZIA E TOTALITARISMO: I PROFETI I pensatori politici del XIX secolo 13 La mania dell’uniformismo 15 La democrazia, nemica della libertà 20 I profeti del totalitarismo 36 Il Leviathan 41 L'èra del collettivismo 55 I profeti del pericolo russo 59 Il quadro del futuro 66 GLOSSA SULL'IDENTITÀ E LA DIVERSITÀ 83 CAPITOLO TERZO CRITICA DELLA DEMOCRAZIA II problema fondamentale 89 Democrazia e etica 93 Difficoltà e illusioni 99 L' «Autogoverno» 104 L'etica della rappresentanza popolare 108 La conoscenza 113 Le ombre della tirannide 118 Altri problemi 122 CAPITOLO QUARTO DEMOCRAZIA E MONARCHIA II problema 135 L'essenza della monarchia 137 La caricatura della monarchia 143 Confronto fra monarchia e democrazia 148 CAPITOLO QUINTO IL PROBLEMA DELL'AUTORITÀ POLITICA 167 CAPITOLO SESTO LE TENDENZE POLITICHE DEI POPOLI CATTOLICI La fede e il carattere di un popolo 179 L'estremismo cattolico 185 Cattolicesimo e comportamento politico 192 La fede cattolica e le forme di governo 197 CONCLUSIONE 213 2 CAPITOLO PRIMO DEFINIZIONI E PRINCIPI FONDAMENTALI Di fatto, nella democrazia si manifesta molestissima e ingiustissima la tirannide della maggioranza. A. ROSMINI, La società e il suo fine II presente libro è un saggio nel senso proprio del termine, è un tentativo di gettare una qualche luce su alcune fasi e su alcuni aspetti della lotta secolare fra il principio della libertà e quello delle eguaglianza, fra le ideologie del liberalismo e quelle della democrazia, tali termini qui venendo assunti nel loro significato classico. Naturalmente il nostro studio non potrà esaurire l'argomento; tuttavia la materia non sarà scelta a caso ma in base a determinati criteri. Quando si parla di libertà e di eguaglianza bisogna rendersi conto del carattere non assoluto ma relativo che in pratica hanno tali termini: ci si trova di fronte a correnti e a tendenze concrete, non a mere astrazioni. In questo nostro studio per libertà s'intenderà il massimo di autodeterminazione possibile e ragionevole raggiungibile in una data situazione. Come condizione per salvaguardare la felicità umana e per proteggere la personalità dell'uomo essa costituisce un fine intermedio epperò è parte del bene comune. È ovvio che la libertà può venire brutalmente sacrificata alle esigenze di una piena efficienza o allo sforzo di raggiungere il massimo benessere materiale. Ma non si vive di solo pane. Come in altri problemi capitali, a tale riguardo la maggior parte dei lettori probabilmente converrà con noi, perché, anche se non è cattolica, almeno dal punto di vista spirituale e culturale essa in genere è stata formata dalla tradizione ebraico-cristiana e greca, per cui esiste sempre una specie di comun denominatore. Nel parlare di eguaglianza (aequalitas) noi ci riferiamo a qualcosa di diverso dalla aequitas, cioè dalla giustizia. La stessa cosidetta "eguaglianza cristiana" non è nulla di meccanico, è la semplice sottomissione ad una stessa legge, è, quindi, una "isonomia". Anche pel cristianesimo due neonati sono bensì spiritualmente uguali ma nelle loro qualità fisiche e intellettuali (sia pure potenziali) a partir dal momento della concezione sono diseguali. Per ora non esamineremo le motivazioni psicologiche delle tendenze egualitarie e " identitarie " dei nostri tempi; su esse, torneranno più oltre. Qui basterà rilevare che la istituzione artificiale della eguaglianza non è compatibile con l'esigenza della libertà. Entro dati limiti è evidentemente legittimo far differenza fra l'innocente e il colpevole, fra l'adulto e il bambino, fra il soldato combattente e il borghese e così via. Il nostro concetto occidentale della giustizia non si 3 basa sull'eguaglianza ma sul suum cuique di Ulpiano. Se la cupidigia, l'orgoglio e l'arroganza sono i fondamenti di ogni ingiusta diseguaglianza fra gli esseri, i moventi della tendenza egualitaria e identitaria sono l'invidia, la gelosia (1) e la paura. La "natura" (ossia lo stato esistente prima di ogni intervento umano) è tutt'altro che egualitaria; se si vuoi creare un terreno completamente piano si debbono far saltare le montagne e colmare le valli. Così l’eguaglianza richiede un continuo impiego della violenza il che, in via di principio, è l'opposto della libertà. Libertà ed eguaglianza sono termini essenzialmente antitetici. Fra tutte le etichette politiche, "liberalismo" e "democrazia" sono le più abusate. Il vero liberalismo tende a garantire ad ognuno un massimo ragionevole di libertà indipendentemente dalla forma costituzionale dello Stato in cui vive. Si deve riconoscere che le relazioni fra la libertà e l'una o l'altra forma politica non sono sempre le stesse; alcune istituzioni politiche aventi una spiccata impronta liberale possono celare, per una specie di dialettica, il pericolo di un asservimento. Così il vero liberale non si legherà ad una data forma di governo ma subordinerà la sua scelta al desiderio di veder godere sé stesso e i suoi concittadini della massima libertà. Se ritiene che una monarchia assicuri una libertà maggiore che una repubblica, egli la preferirà; in certe circostanze egli preferirà perfino le limitazioni materiali fattualmente imposte da una dittatura militare a ciò a cui potrà dar luogo nel futuro una democrazia. Così ogni liberale condividente l'idea di Platone, che la democrazia è fatalmente destinata a sboccare in una tirannide (Repubb., libro VIII), respingerà questa forma di governo. In ogni discussione sulla libertà non si dovrebbe dimenticare, però, che la libertà più alta — e intangibile — è quella " ascetica " (2). Se riferito ad una ideologia politica, il termine "liberalismo" è di origine spagnola. Esso apparve per la prima volta dopo il 1812 nella penisola iberica e fu subito ripreso dai Francesi. Southey fu il primo a scrivere, nel 1816, sui British liberales (mantenendo la grafìa spagnola) nella Quarterly Review, e dieci anni dopo vediamo Scott usare l'espressione liberaux (3), però a designare l'ala radicale dei Whigs, quindi qualcosa di diverso da ciò che noi intendiamo per liberalismo. Negli Stati Uniti l'abuso di questo termine è giunto al massimo: vengono chiamati "liberali" tutti coloro che amano i cambiamenti, spesso favoreggiando soprattutto le tendenze di un totalitarismo di sinistra. Non di rado nel continente europeo le cose sono andate in modo analogo: i "liberali" spesso si sono dati ad una vera persecuzione di tutti coloro che non condividono la loro ideologia. Assai giustamente Carlton J. H. Hayes ha chiamato costoro i "liberali settari" (4). In séguito il liberalismo 4 settario ha fatto apparizione nella stessa Inghilterra: il suo più tipico rappresentante è stato Lloyd George. Assai varie sono le motivazioni filosofiche e psicologiche della posizione liberale. Nel liberalismo ad orientamento cristiano l'impulso fondamentale sarà sempre l'affetto, la generosità, il rispetto per l'umana personalità. Però esiste anche un liberalismo derivante da quel fondamentale nichilismo filosofico che afferma che la verità è un mero pregiudizio, il prodotto di una presunzione intellettuale, una illusione sensibile, o che essa, pur esistendo, è irraggiungibile per l'uomo, è fuori della portata delle nostre capacità conoscitive. Una tale filosofia della disperazione — che noi respingiamo — non porta però necessariamente ad un atteggiamento liberale; anzi può aversi il contrario. Così ciò che viene dedotto da tale premessa nichilistica dipenderà unicamente dalle preferenze personali e dal proprio temperamento. Il vero liberale, il liberale cristiano, può essere anche spinto da considerazioni che non hanno un carattere etico e religioso ma pratico, cioè dal convincimento che l’antiliberalismo è una cattiva strategia. Pur distinguendo la libertà dall'errore, e perfino aderendo al principio che l'errore non può pretendere di essere tollerato, il "liberalismo strategico" respinge ogni misura coercitiva solamente perché essa non condurrebbe al risultato desiderato. Ad esempio, è stato rilevato che il Medioevo morì per una specie di "avvelenamento uricemico", per l'impossibilità pratica dell'individuo di staccarsi dalla Chiesa (5). Alla forte tendenza coercitativa affacciatasi nella Chiesa nel tardo Medioevo in parte seguendo l'esempio degli Stati (6), occorse un paio di secoli per affermarsi. Già nel 1818 Pio VII si espresse energicamente contro il principio della coercizione (7) e il diritto canonico cattolico dice esplicitamente che nessuno (nessun adulto) deve essere costretto a divenire cattolico (8). Si deve riconoscere che nel Medioevo il basso clero aveva idee poco chiare su questo punto; vi furono casi in cui Ebrei adulti fatti battezzare per forza vennero posti sotto la giurisdizione della Chiesa. Tuttavia fu solo questione di tempo a che l'influenza, in fondo "personalistica", della teologia cattolica si facesse sentire nelle discussioni intorno al problema della coscienza, della libertà e della coercizione: non solo la dottrina cattolica del primato della coscienza rispetto all'autorità secolare ma anche il precetto della carità si oppone alla linea seguita nel tardo Medioevo. Così quando gli inquisitori consegnavano al potere secolare una persona giudicata colpevole, essi usavano una formula stabilita, chiedendo di non applicare la pena capitale:
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