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Generating Orthorectified Multi-Perspective 2.5D Maps To International Journal of Geo-Information Article Generating Orthorectified Multi-Perspective 2.5D Maps to Facilitate Web GIS-Based Visualization and Exploitation of Massive 3D City Models Jianming Liang 1,2, Jianhua Gong 1,2,*, Jin Liu 1,3,4, Yuling Zou 2, Jinming Zhang 1,5, Jun Sun 1,2 and Shuisen Chen 6 1 State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; [email protected] (J.L.); [email protected] (J.L.); [email protected] (J.Z.); [email protected] (J.S.) 2 Zhejiang-CAS Application Center for Geoinformatics, Zhejiang 314100, China; [email protected] 3 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China 4 National Marine Data and Information Service, Tianjin 300171, China 5 Institute of Geospatial Information, Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450052, China 6 Guangdong Open Laboratory of Geospatial Information Technology and Application, Guangzhou Institute of Geography, Guangzhou 510070, China; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-10-6484-9299 Academic Editors: Bert Veenendaal, Maria Antonia Brovelli, Serena Coetzee, Peter Mooney and Wolfgang Kainz Received: 5 August 2016; Accepted: 7 November 2016; Published: 11 November 2016 Abstract: 2.5D map is a convenient and efficient approach to exploiting a massive three-dimensional (3D) city model in web GIS. With the rapid development of oblique airborne photogrammetry and photo-based 3D reconstruction, 3D city models are becoming more and more accessible. 3D Geographic Information System (GIS) can support the interactive visualization of massive 3D city models on various platforms and devices. However, the value and accessibility of existing 3D city models can be augmented by integrating them into web-based two-dimensional (2D) GIS applications. In this paper, we present a step-by-step workflow for generating orthorectified oblique images (2.5D maps) from massive 3D city models. The proposed framework can produce 2.5D maps from an arbitrary perspective, defined by the elevation angle and azimuth angle of a virtual orthographic camera. We demonstrate how 2.5D maps can benefit web-based visualization and exploitation of massive 3D city models. We conclude that a 2.5D map is a compact data representation optimized for web data streaming of 3D city models and that geometric analysis of buildings can be effectively conducted on 2.5D maps. Keywords: massive 3D city model; 2D GIS; web GIS; 2.5D map; oblique airborne photogrammetry 1. Introduction Urban landscapes are highly diversified in both the horizontal and vertical dimensions [1] with the presence of water bodies, plants, buildings, and other artificial structures. The inadequacy of satellite imagery and digital elevation models (DEMs) for representing the vertical dimension led to the widespread use of 3D city models [2] in urban GIS, which typically takes the form of a virtual geographic environment [3]. Although 3D GIS is already widely used for interactive exploration of 3D city models, its use in a web context faces the following technical challenges: (1) Internet data transfer limits. For example, it takes 17 min to download 1 GB of 3D model data with an internet transfer rate of 1 MB/s. This means that users will likely experience data latency under limited bandwidth. (2) Cross-platform hardware and software compatibility. The devices and platforms that host a 3D GIS application need to meet ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 212; doi:10.3390/ijgi5110212 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 212 2 of 18 hardware and software compatibility. The devices and platforms that host a 3D GIS application need theto meet minimum the minimum hardware hardware and software and software requirements requirements for graphics for graphics processing processing unit (GPU) unit support. (GPU) Mobilesupport. devices Mobile do devices not always do not meet always the computational meet the computational requirements requirements of a 3D GIS [4 ].of Deploymenta 3D GIS [4]. of aDeployment 3D GIS across of a various 3D GIS platforms,across various such platforms, as Linux, Windows,such as Linux, Android, Windows, iOS, andAndroid, Mac, requiresiOS, and extraMac, developmentrequires extra cost development and effort, sincecost and 3D graphicseffort, since APIs 3D rarely graphics support APIs direct rarely cross-platform support direct migration. cross- Additionally,platform migration. web-based Additionally, 2D GIS remains web-based the dominant 2D GIS remains paradigm the in dominant operational paradigm business in applications. operational Manybusiness business applications. GIS applications, Many business such as GIS the hotelapplications, booking such website as Agodathe hotel (http://www.agoda.com/ booking website Agoda), rely(http://www.agoda.com/), solely on web-based 2D rely GIS solely for operational on web-based functionality. 2D GIS for 2.5D operat maps,ional also functionality. known as perspective2.5D maps, mapsalso known or bird’s-eye as perspective view maps, maps are or represented bird’s-eye inview an obliquemaps, are perspective. represented 2.5D in an cartography oblique perspective. dates back to2.5D ancient cartography times (Figure dates1 back). Modern to ancient 2.5D cartography,times (Figure known 1). Modern as pixel 2.5D art cartography, in some contexts, known integrates as pixel computer-aidedart in some contexts, design integrates (CAD)-based computer-aided photorealistic design or artistic (CAD)-based renderings photorealistic into maps. 2.5Dor artistic maps canrenderings facilitate into visualization maps. 2.5D and maps exploitation can facilitate of 3Dvisualization city models and in exploitation web-based 2Dof 3D GIS city applications. models in Theweb-based 2.5D maps 2D GIS provider applications. Edushi The produces 2.5D maps pixel prov art-styleider Edushi maps produces from CAD pixel models art-style and maps delivers from theseCAD models maps to and a browser-baseddelivers these maps web GISto a browser- (Figure2A),based which web canGIS run(Figure on 2A), various which devices can run and on platforms.various devices These and CAD-based platforms. pixel These art-style CAD-based maps arepixe alsol art-style widely maps used are in campus also widely map used GIS (Figure in campus2B) (maphttp://maps.colostate.edu/ GIS (Figure , 2B)https://www.udayton.edu/map/ (http://maps.colostate.edu/,, http://map.wfu.edu/https://www.udayton.edu/map/,, https://www. asu.edu/map/interactive/http://map.wfu.edu/, https://www.as), which makesu.edu/map/interactive/), high-quality 3D scenes which available makes to users high-quality under conditions 3D scenes of limitedavailable bandwidth to users under and computationalconditions of limited power. bandwidth If large-scale and 3Dcomputational city models power. can be If used large-scale in web 3D GIS city as shownmodels incan those be used examples in web (Figure GIS as2A,B), shown they in will those attract examples a wider (Figure audience 2A,B), and they benefit will aattract wider a scopewider ofaudience applications. and benefit Therefore, a wider 2.5D scope maps of applications. have the potential Therefore, to augment 2.5D maps the have value the and potential extend to the augment use of existingthe value 3D and city extend models. the use of existing 3D city models. Figure 1. Hand-drawn perspective map by Claes Janszoon Visscher Figure 1. Hand-drawn perspective map by Claes Janszoon Visscher (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Pictorial_maps(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictorial_maps).). 2 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5, 212 3 of 18 Figure 2. Application of 2.5D maps in (A) a web-based urban GIS (http://sz.edushi.com/); (B) an online Figure 2. Application of 2.5D maps in (A) a web-based urban GIS (http://sz.edushi.com/); campus GIS (http://maps.colostate.edu/) for efficient streaming of 3D city models. (B) an online campus GIS (http://maps.colostate.edu/) for efficient streaming of 3D city models. 3D city models can be derived from a variety of sources. One of the most simplified forms of a 3D3D city city model models is obtained can be by derived extruding from building a variety footprints of sources. into polyhedra One of the [5]. most A LiDAR simplified point forms cloud of a 3Dcan city accurately model iscapture obtained architectural by extruding geometry, building but the footprints texturalinto information polyhedra needs [5]. to A be LiDAR retrieved point cloudseparately can accurately [6]. Photorealistic capture architectural building models geometry, can butbe constructed the textural in information a CAD environment, needs to be but retrieved the separatelyintensive [labor6]. Photorealistic required to create building the geometric models can deta beils constructed and to acquire in astreet-level CAD environment, façade photos but is the intensivechallenging. labor Recently, required with to create the rapid the geometric development details of unmanned and to acquire aerial street-levelvehicle (UAV) façade technology photos is challenging.and computer Recently, vision-based with the 3D rapid reconstruction development [7], ofoblique unmanned airborne aerial photogrammetry-based vehicle (UAV) technology 3D city and computermodels vision-based(OAP3Ds) are 3D becoming reconstruction increasingly [7], oblique mature airborne and affordable photogrammetry-based [8]. OAP3Ds 3Dcombine city models the (OAP3Ds)advantages are of becoming LiDAR and increasingly close-range mature photography, and affordable and thus
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