Improving Photocatalysis for the Reduction of CO2 Through Non-Covalent Supramolecular Assembly Po Ling Cheung, Savannah C

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Improving Photocatalysis for the Reduction of CO2 Through Non- 8 Covalent Supramolecular Assembly 9 10 Po Ling Cheung†, Savannah C. Kapper‡, Tian Zeng†⊥, Mark E. Thompson‡, Clifford P. Kubiak†* 11 12 † Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 13 92093-0358, United States 14 ‡ Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States 15 16 17 Supporting Information Placeholder 18 19 ABSTRACT: We report the enhancement of photocatalytic per- and the catalyst form hydrogen bonding pairs, to determine the ef- 20 formance by introduction of hydrogen bonding interactions to a Re fects of non-covalent interactions on photocatalytic performance. 21 bipyridine catalyst and Ru photosensitizer system (ReDAC/Ru- 22 DAC) by the addition of amide substituents, with carbon monoxide The system composed of Ru(dac)(bpy)2(PF6)2 (RuDAC) (4,4’- 23 (CO) and carbonate/bicarbonate as products. This system demon- bis(methyl acetamidomethyl)-2,2’-bipyridine = dac, 2,2’-bipyri- strates a more-than-threefold increase in turnover number (TONCO dine = bpy) as the photosensitizer and Re(dac)(CO)3Cl (ReDAC) 24 = 100 ± 4) and quantum yield (ΦCO = 23.3 ± 0.8 %) for CO for- as the catalyst was chosen for this study (Figure 1). A previous 25 mation compared to the control system using unsubstituted Ru pho- electrochemical study of ReDAC indicated the formation of a hy- 20 26 tosensitizer (RuBPY) and ReDAC (TONCO = 28 ± 4 and ΦCO = 7 ± drogen-bonded Re−Re dimer in acetonitrile (MeCN) . In order to 27 1 %) in acetonitrile (MeCN) with 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-2,3-dihy- fairly assess the effects of hydrogen bonding interactions on pho- 28 dro-1H-benzo[d]imidazole (BIH) as sacrificial reductant. In dime- tocatalysis, a control system composed of Ru(bpy)3(PF6)2 (RuBPY) 29 thylformamide (DMF), a solvent that disrupts hydrogen bonds, the and ReDAC was used for comparison (Figure 1). RuBPY has sim- ReDAC/RuDAC system showed a decrease in catalytic perfor- ilar reduction potentials, UV-vis absorption spectrum, and excited 30 mance while the control system exhibited an increase, indicating state lifetime as RuDAC. 31 the role of hydrogen bonding in enhancing the photocatalysis for 32 CO2 reduction through supramolecular assembly. The similar prop- 33 erties of RuDAC and RuBPY demonstrated in lifetime measure- 34 ments, spectroscopic analysis, electrochemical and spectroelectro- 35 chemical studies revealed that the enhancement in photocatalysis is not due to differences in intrinsic properties of the catalyst or pho- 36 tosensitizer, but to hydrogen bonding interactions between them. 37 38 39 40 The efficient storage of solar energy into liquid fuels is a major 41 challenge of renewable energy today. To mimic natural photosyn- Scheme 1. Experimental and control systems for investigation of 42 thesis, photocatalytic reduction of CO2 has been extensively inves- hydrogen bonding effects on photocatalysis. tigated using transition metal complexes that can act as redox pho- 43 tosensitizers (PS) by transferring electrons upon photon excitation 20 21 44 ReDAC and BIH were synthesized as reported and RuDAC and as catalysts (Cat) by accepting electrons and reducing CO2. Re was synthesized by adapting methods in the literature22. In a typical 45 bipyridine catalysts have been shown to be excellent electrocata- mixed system with the Ru photosensitizer and catalyst as separate 1-3 4, 5 46 lysts and photocatalysts when coupled with photosensitizers. components, the Ru photosensitizer (Ru2+) is first excited by light 47 Since 2005, the Ishitani group has studied extensively supramolec- and then reduced by a sacrificial reductant (D), followed by elec- 48 ular photocatalysts by linking different photosensitizers and Re cat- tron transfer from the singly reduced Ru photosensitizer (Ru•+) to alysts using short, covalent bridging ligands6-14. The catalytic per- 23, 24 49 the catalyst (Scheme 2). The latter step (eq. 2 in Scheme 2) is formance of these systems is greatly improved compared to the sep- •+ 50 driven by the difference between the redox potential of Ru and arated systems due to the acceleration and higher yield of intramo- catalyst. To better demonstrate the impact of hydrogen bonding on 51 lecular electron transfer between the two components, with the rate photocatalysis, the first reduction potential of the photosensitizer 9 −1 7 52 of electron transfer as fast as kET = (1.4 ± 0.1) × 10 s . Recently, should be comparable to that of the catalyst so that there is a low 53 our laboratory estimated that the rates of electron transfer (kET) be- driving force for electron transfer. In the previous study, ReDAC 54 tween Ru3O clusters linked by hydrogen bonded pyrimidinones was reported to display its first reduction at −1.77 V (vs. Fc+/0)20. 11 −1 15 55 were on the order of 10 s . There are several reports of the Cyclic voltammograms (CVs) of RuDAC, RuBPY and influence of second coordination sphere effects, such as hydrogen Ru(dmb)3(PF6)2 (RuDMB, where 4,4’-dimethyl-2,2’-bipyridine = 56 16-19 bonding interactions, on catalysis . Consequently, in this work, dmb) were taken under Ar in dry MeCN solutions containing 0.1 57 we investigate a bimolecular system, in which the photosensitizer M tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAPF6). Within 58 experimental error, the CVs of RuDAC and RuBPY display first 59 60 ACS Paragon Plus Environment Journal of the American Chemical Society Page 2 of 5

reduction potentials at −1.76 V, making them excellent trial sys- solvents. The higher activity of the RuDAC/ReDAC system com- 1 tems comparing hydrogen bonding effects in this study. Another pared to the control system in DMF is unexpected, but it is likely 2 commonly used photosensitizer, RuDMB, has a more negative re- due to increased contact surface area between photosensitizer and 25 3 duction potential at −1.88 V. The increased driving force for elec- catalyst . The reason for higher activity of RuBPY/ReDAC in tron transfer could mask hydrogen bonding effects. Therefore, DMF compared to MeCN remains unclear, but previous studies 4 RuBPY was chosen to be the control for comparison of catalytic show that solvents play important roles in controlling catalytic rates 5 performance without a hydrogen bonding interaction. and selectivity23, 26-30. Since the RuDAC/ReDAC system behaves 6 in a trend opposite to the control, it is reasonable to conclude that 7 hydrogen bonding is the dominant factor influencing differences in 8 performance. 9 10 In addition to gaseous products, the liquid mixtures were ana- lyzed. No formate is detected with 1H NMR (Table S1 and S2) but 11 [2]− appreciable [H]CO3 are observed with IR. It is known that Re- - 12 DAC undergoes the disproportionation mechanism of 2CO2 + 2e 2− 20 13 ⇋ CO and CO3 in electrocatalysis . When a proton source is not 14 used in the photocatalytic experiments, bands are observed in the −1 [2]− 15 IR at 1672 and 1637 cm , consistent with formation of [H]CO3 13 16 species (Figure S5). Repeating these experiments with CO2 showed shifts in these bands (1625 and 1598 cm−1), consistent with 17 20, 31 isotopic labeling . Control studies under Ar reveal no CO or H2 18 production upon irradiation (Table S2). In addition, control reac- 19 tions without ReDAC reveal that RuDAC is a better catalyst than RuBPY in both solvents and it performed better in MeCN than in 20 DMF. These observations are similar to the trend seen in the Ru- 21 Figure 1. Cyclic voltammograms of 1 mM of RuDAC (red), 22 DAC/ReDAC system, but the absence of the Re catalyst signifi- RuBPY (blue) and RuDMB (black) in dry MeCN containing 0.1 cantly slows down the rate of CO formation (Table S2). 23 M TBAPF6 at scan rate 100 mV/s under Ar. 24 25 26 27 28 Scheme 2. A simplified scheme showing reductive quenching of 29 the Ru photosensitizer (Ru) by sacrificial reductant (D) and then 30 the electron transfer from singly reduced Ru to the catalyst (Cat). 31 32 A series of photocatalytic studies were performed by irradiating solutions that were 0.5 mM in photosensitizer, 0.5 mM in catalyst, 33 0.1 M in 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[d]imidaz- 34 ole (BIH) in dry MeCN or N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) under 35 CO2 or Ar at 470 nm for 4 h. The common practice of using trieth- 36 anolamine (TEOA) as proton source and 1-benzyl-1,4-dihydronic- 37 otinamide (BNAH) as sacrificial reductant was not adopted in this 38 study as these have hydroxyl or amide groups which are capable of interrupting the hydrogen bonding between the photosensitizer and 39 Figure 2. Turnover number of CO (TONCO) produced by Ru- the catalyst. The systems in this study work surprisingly well with- DAC/ReDAC (red) and RuBPY/ReDAC (blue) in MeCN (solid 40 out the added proton source, and it is likely due to the dispropor- - 2− − line) and DMF (dotted line) solvents. 41 tionation mechanism of 2CO2 + 2e to CO and CO3 or HCO3 [2]− 20 42 ([H]CO3 ) by the ReDAC catalyst . In MeCN solutions, hydro- Several additional experiments were carried out to understand 43 gen bonds can be formed between amide substituents as demon- 20 the origin of the enhancement in photocatalytic activity in the Ru- 44 strated in previous electrochemical studies of ReDAC . The pho- DAC/ReDAC system compared to RuBPY/ReDAC. Further sup- 45 tocatalytic reactions were run for 4 hours only because over half of port for hydrogen bonding interactions was gained as contributions the BIH was consumed. After 4 hours of irradiation, the Ru- 46 arising from discrepancies in light absorption by the photosensitiz- DAC/ReDAC system exhibits a more-than-threefold increase in ers, faster electron transfer from BIH to the photosensitizer, and 47 photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with a higher turnover number 48 other interactions of the photosensitizer with the catalyst were ruled (TONCO = 100 ± 4) and quantum yield (ΦCO = 23.3 ± 0.8 %) for out. First, the photochemical properties of the photosensitizers 49 CO production compared to the RuBPY/ReDAC control system were investigated. The UV-visible absorption measurements of the 50 (TONCO = 28 ± 4 and ΦCO = 7 ± 1 %) as shown in Figure 2. To three photosensitizers show comparable molar absorptivity at 470 51 further test hydrogen bonding as the principal cause for these ob- nm, which is the wavelength used for photocatalysis (Table 1 and servations, similar photocatalytic studies were done in DMF, a sol- 52 Figure S3). The lifetimes of the excited states were measured by vent that interrupts hydrogen bond formation. In DMF (Figure 2), Time−Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) with excitation 53 the RuBPY/ReDAC control system displays improvement in catal- 54 wavelength at 405 nm at room temperature. The lifetimes of excited ysis (TONCO = 43 ± 9 and ΦCO = 11 ± 1 %) while the RuDAC/Re- RuDAC were found to be 980 ns and 910 ns in MeCN and DMF 55 DAC system displays a decrease in catalysis (TONCO = 79 ± 8 and respectively (Table 1 and Fig. S6). Since there is a range of values 56 ΦCO = 18 ± 1 %), but it still outperforms the RuBPY/ReDAC sys- for the reported lifetimes of RuBPY32 and RuDMB13, 33, we meas- 57 tem. Thus, the two systems exhibit opposite responses to different ured them in this work for consistency (Table 1). The photoinduced 58 59 60 ACS Paragon Plus Environment Page 3 of 5 Journal of the American Chemical Society

Table 1. Photochemical properties of RuDAC, RuBPY and RuDMB. 1 a a -1 -1 b b -1 -1 c -1 -1 c 2 complex 휆em (MeCN) (nm) 휆em (DMF) (nm) 휀470 (L mol cm ) 휏MeCN (ns) 휏DMF (ns) 휅푞 (MeCN) (M s ) 휅푞 (DMF) (M s ) 3 RuDAC 613 620 7200 980 910 5.9 ± 0.2 × 109 1.8 ± 0.2 × 109 4 RuBPY 609 618 9000 930 930 7.2 ± 0.2 × 109 2.6 ± 0.2 × 109 5 RuDMB 618 624 8100 900 790 a A dry MeCN or DMF solution containing the Ru complex was measured using fluorometer. b The fluorescence lifetimes were measured in dry MeCN or 6 DMF using TCSPC with excitation wavelength at 405 nm at room temperature. c The quenching constants were obtained by the Stern−Volmer plot of reductive 7 quenching with BIH in dry MeCN or DMF (Fig. S7 and S8) 8 electron transfer from BIH to Ru photosensitizers is the initial pro- bond donor and acceptors on photosensitizers and catalysts to elim- 9 34 cess in the photocatalytic CO2 reduction . To determine the rate of inate self-dimerization effects. 10 this process, the quenching constant (kq) was found by fluorescence 11 lifetime measurements and the following equation35: ASSOCIATED CONTENT 12 휏 Supporting Information 13 0 = 1 + 휏 휅 [푄] = 1 + 퐾 [Q] (1) 14 휏 0 푞 퐷 The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS 15 Publications website. Here, τ0 and τ are the fluorescence lifetimes without and with the 16 quencher respectively, kq is the biomolecular quenching constant, Experimental details and additional NMR, mass spectrum, TCSPC 17 KD is the Stern−Volmer constant for dynamic quenching, and Q is traces, Stern−Volmer plots, UV-vis spectrum, infrared, electro- 18 the quencher. By plotting the Stern−Volmer relationship (Fig. S7 chemical and photochemical studies and IR-SEC. 19 and S8), the slope was used to calculate the quenching rate constant 20 (kq) using eq. 1. The non-zero slope from the plots suggests dy- AUTHOR INFORMATION 21 namic quenching between BIH and the Ru photosensitizers. While the quenching rates of RuDAC and RuBPY are comparable to each Corresponding Author 22 other in MeCN and DMF respectively, the rates in MeCN are two * [email protected] 23 to three times higher than those in DMF, indicating a faster electron 24 transfer process in MeCN (Table 1). 25 ORCID 26 Further electrochemical studies were carried out to examine the Po Ling Cheung: 0000-0002-2717-0339 27 interaction between photosensitizer and catalyst. RuDAC has three Mark E. Thompson: 0000-0002-7764-4096 Clifford P. Kubiak: 0000-0003-2186-488X 28 quasi-reversible reduction peaks at −1.76 V, −1.52 V and −2.18 V in MeCN and DMF (Figure S11 and S12) respectively. Similar to 29 other Ru bipyridine complexes36, RuDAC itself exhibits current en- Present Addresses 30 hancement under a CO2 atmosphere in both solvent systems (Fig- ⊥ Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California In- 31 ure S9 and S10). Addition of ReDAC to the cell causes no signifi- stitute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States 32 cant changes to the three reversible reductions of RuDAC. How- 33 ever, as revealed in the CV of RuDAC/ReDAC in MeCN under Notes CO2 (Figure S13), the characteristic catalytic peak at around -1.8 V 34 +/0 20 The authors declare no competing financial interests. 35 vs. Fc is similar to ReDAC alone in MeCN , suggesting the for- mation of the ReDAC dimer. This indicates that the presence of 36 RuDAC does not interfere in the catalytic reaction of ReDAC. The ACKNOWLEDGMENT 37 absence of the ReDAC hydrogen bonded dimer feature in the CV This project was supported by two funding sources. A grant from 38 under catalytic conditions in DMF (Figure S14) also provides clear the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR), Basic Re- 20 39 evidence that DMF disrupts hydrogen bonding . To further test search Initiative (BRI) grant (FA9550-12-1-0414), supported 40 this hypothesis, IR spectroelectrochemistry (IR-SEC) studies were Cheung, Zeng, and Kubiak, whose work involved synthesis and 41 conducted on the RuDAC/ReDAC system in MeCN under N2. The characterization of all compounds, photocatalytic studies, electro- IR spectra of Figure S15 indicate the formation of the Re−Re dimer chemical studies, IR-SEC studies, NMR studies, fluorescence 42 from ReDAC as reported in a previous electrochemical study20, in- 43 measurements and data analysis. The Office of Basic Energy Sci- dicating that RuDAC is unlikely to affect the catalytic mechanism ences at the Department of Energy (DE-SC0016450) supported 44 of ReDAC. Using NMR concentration studies, we estimate the as- Kapper and Thompson, whose work involved TCSPC measure- 45 sociation constant (Ka) for the hetero-dimer of [ReDAC···RuDAC] ments, fluorescence measurements, and data analysis. 46 to be approximately 300 M−1 in MeCN (Figure S16)37, which is 20 47 close to the self-dimerization constant of ReDAC . Although an approximately statistical mixture of homo- and hetero-dimers is ex- REFERENCES 48 pected in the RuDAC/ReDAC system, the hydrogen bonding inter- 1. Clark, M. L.; Cheung, P. L.; Lessio, M.; Carter, E. A.; Kubiak, C. 49 action is strong enough to boost catalysis significantly. P., Kinetic and Mechanistic Effects of Bipyridine (bpy) Substituent, 50 Labile Ligand, and Brønsted Acid on Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction by 51 In conclusion, the findings reported here taken together demon- Re(bpy) Complexes. ACS Catal. 2018, 8 (3), 2021-2029. 52 strate that appending amide groups to photosensitizer and catalyst 2. Hawecker, J.; Lehn, J. 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