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Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation from Water with Molecularly-Defined Iron Complexes

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Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation from Water with Molecularly-Defined Iron Complexes inorganics Review Light to Hydrogen: Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation from Water with Molecularly-Defined Iron Complexes Henrik Junge 1, Nils Rockstroh 1, Steffen Fischer 2, Angelika Brückner 1, Ralf Ludwig 1,2, Stefan Lochbrunner 3, Oliver Kühn 3 and Matthias Beller 1,* 1 Leibniz Institute for Catalysis, University of Rostock (LIKAT), Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a, 18059 Rostock, Germany; [email protected] (H.J.); [email protected] (N.R.); [email protected] (A.B.) 2 Institute of Chemistry, Department Physical Chemistry, University of Rostock, Dr.-Lorenz-Weg 1, 18059 Rostock, Germany; [email protected] (S.F.); [email protected] (R.L.) 3 Institute of Physics, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 23-24, 18059 Rostock, Germany; [email protected] (S.L.); [email protected] (O.K.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-381-1281-113 Academic Editor: Matthias Bauer Received: 27 January 2017; Accepted: 27 February 2017; Published: 9 March 2017 Abstract: Photocatalytic hydrogen generation is considered to be attractive due to its combination of solar energy conversion and storage. Currently-used systems are either based on homogeneous or on heterogeneous materials, which possess a light harvesting and a catalytic subunit. The subject of this review is a brief summary of homogeneous proton reduction systems using sacrificial agents with special emphasis on non-noble metal systems applying convenient iron(0) sources. Iridium photosensitizers, which were proven to have high quantum yields of up to 48% (415 nm), have been employed, as well as copper photosensitizers. In both cases, the addition or presence of a phosphine led to the transformation of the iron precursor with subsequently increased activities. Reaction pathways were investigated by photoluminescence, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), Raman, FTIR and mass spectroscopy, as well as time-dependent DFT-calculations. In the future, this knowledge will set the basis to design photo(electro)chemical devices with tailored electron transfer cascades and without the need for sacrificial agents. Keywords: hydrogen; iron; copper; hydrogenases; photosensitizer; photocatalysis; water splitting; spectroscopy 1. Introduction An increasing number of pilot plants combining wind mills or photovoltaic devices with classical water electrolysis is installed all over the world. This reflects the progressive contribution of the renewable energies wind and sunlight to a sufficient and sustainable energy supply [1–4] and thereby raises the necessity to store the harvested electric energy due to its fluctuating occurrence. In this respect, hydrogen is of particular interest as the primary product of the interconversion of electric and chemical energy, as well as a secondary energy carrier [1–4]. Besides the hydrogen generation from water, also its storage and back conversion to electrical energy are current topics of intensive research [1–7]. A more efficient way for the conversion of the Sun’s energy to hydrogen compared to the combination of photovoltaic devices with water electrolysis [8–17], which possesses an overall efficiency between 10% and 14% [18,19], may constitute the direct photocatalytic water splitting into hydrogen and oxygen. So far, the two half reactions water oxidation and water reduction are mainly studied separately. Disadvantageously, this requires the application of sacrificial reagents (SR) as Inorganics 2017, 5, 14; doi:10.3390/inorganics5010014 www.mdpi.com/journal/inorganics InorganicsInorganics2017, 20175, 14, 5, 14 2 of 202 of 21 sacrificial reagents (SR) as electron donors or electron acceptors (Scheme 1) [11–17,20–29]. On the electronother donors hand, it or allows electron for a acceptorssimplification (Scheme of the complex1)[ 11– 17system,20–29 of]. overall On the water other splitting hand, and it allowshence a for a simplificationmore detailed of the understanding complex system of the of basic overall processes water splitting as a prerequisite and hence for a improvements. more detailed Within understanding the development of more efficient and stable catalyst systems for photocatalytic hydrogen generation of the basic processes as a prerequisite for improvements. Within the development of more efficient and from water, an additional trend towards the usage of 3d metals is obvious. This is motivated by stable catalyst systems for photocatalytic hydrogen generation from water, an additional trend towards several advantages of such catalysts due to lower costs and higher abundance compared to noble the usagemetals. of Exemplarily, 3d metals issignificant obvious. efforts This have is motivated been reported by severalapplying advantages cobalt and nickel of such complexes catalysts as due to lowerproton costs reduction and higher catalysts abundance (WRC) (Although compared the toterm noble “water metals. reduction Exemplarily, catalyst” as significant well as the efforts haverelated been reportedabbreviation applying WRC is cobalt commonly and nickelused in complexes relevant literature as proton it should reduction be named catalysts proton (WRC) (Althoughreduction the termcatalyst “water in the reduction strict catalyst”sense) [30–40 as well]. For as theexample, related various abbreviation groups WRC investigated is commonly usedcobaloxime-based in relevant literature catalysts it should [25,31]. be namedRecently proton, these reduction systems catalysthave been in the outperformed strict sense) [by30 –40]. For example,pentapyridyl various cobalt groups complexes investigated achieving cobaloxime-based a turnover number catalysts (TON) with [25,31 respect]. Recently, to Co theseof up systems to have11,000 been outperformedwith a Re-photosensitizer by pentapyridyl (PS) and cobalt ascorbic complexes acid (SR) achieving [36]. Prominent a turnover examples number of (TON) nickel with catalysts constitute the DuBois catalyst [37], as well as tris(2-pyridylthiolate) [38], respect to Co of up to 11,000 with a Re-photosensitizer (PS) and ascorbic acid (SR) [36]. Prominent 2-aminobenzenethiolate, 2-mercaptophenolate and 2-mercaptopyridyl-N-oxide [39] nickel examples of nickel catalysts constitute the DuBois catalyst [37], as well as tris(2-pyridylthiolate) [38], complexes by Eisenberg. The DuBois system showed excellent activity with a TOF up to 100,000 s−1 2-aminobenzenethiolate,in the electrocatalytic 2-mercaptophenolate hydrogen evolution reaction and 2-mercaptopyridyl- (HER) [41,42]. However,N-oxide [in39 ]photocatalytic nickel complexes −1 by Eisenberg.hydrogen generation, The DuBois this systemsystem achieved showed only excellent a TON activityNi of 2700 with over 150 a TOF h wi upth Ru to photosensitizer 100,000 s in the electrocatalyticA and ascorbic hydrogen acid (SR) evolution [37], while reaction applying (HER) thiolate [ 41nickel,42]. complexes However, improved in photocatalytic the TONNi up hydrogen to generation,7300 after this 30 systemh with achievedfluorescein, only a xanthene-type a TONNi of or 2700ganic over dye, 150as the h with photos Ruensitizer photosensitizer and TEA asA and ascorbicSR [40]. acid A (SR) stability [37], of while more applyingthan 100 h thiolatewas obtained nickel using complexes this system improved with TEOA the TONas theNi electronup to 7300 afterdonor 30 h with [39]. fluorescein,More than 280,000 a xanthene-type turnovers were organic obtained dye, by asreplacing the photosensitizer the PS and SR by and water-soluble TEA as SR [40]. A stabilityCdSe quantum of more thandots and 100 ascorbic h was obtained acid, respectively using this [39]. system Very withrecently, TEOA also as stabilized the electron nickel donor [43], [39]. iron [44], zinc [45] and copper nanoparticles [46] were reported to constitute active WRC in the More than 280,000 turnovers were obtained by replacing the PS and SR by water-soluble CdSe quantum photocatalytic hydrogen generation from water. dots andIn ascorbic this review, acid, we respectively present a brief [39]. overview Very recently, about iron-based also stabilized WRC, nickelincluding [43 ],noble iron metal-free [44], zinc [45] and copperPS systems. nanoparticles Exemplarily, [46 mechanistic] were reported investigations to constitute and the active working WRC mode in the of photocatalytica selected system hydrogen by generationemploying from a water.tool of combined analytical methods are summarized. SchemeScheme 1. The 1. The basic basic concept concept of of hydrogen hydrogen generationgeneration from from water water (hydrogen (hydrogen halfhalf reaction) reaction) via a via a reductive quenching pathway applying a photosensitizer (PS) and a proton reduction catalyst (WRC) reductive quenching pathway applying a photosensitizer (PS) and a proton reduction catalyst (WRC) in the presence of the sacrificial reductant (SR). in the presence of the sacrificial reductant (SR). 2. Overview of Molecularly-Defined Iron WRCs and the Respective Photosensitizers In thisIron review, is a very we presentimportant a briefand abundant overview base about me iron-basedtal constituting, WRC, e.g., including the active noble centers metal-free in PS systems.hydrogenases Exemplarily, [47–49] and mechanistic showing impressive investigations activities and for the hydrogen working generation mode of and a selected cleavage system with by employingup to 9000 a tool molecules of combined H2 per analytical second and methods site [50]. are Because summarized. of this outstanding activity, especially [FeFe] hydrogenases
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