Originalveröffentlichung in: Biuletyn Historii Sztuki, 62 (2000), Nr. 3-4, S. 641-649 641
JERZY MIZIOŁEK University oj"Warsaw, lnstitute of Archaeology
Aby Warburg The Renewal ofPagan Antiąuity: Contribution to the Cultural History ofthe European Renaissance. Translation by David Britt, Introduction by Kurt W. Forster, Los Angeles: Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, 1999, (Texts & Documents), 857 pp., 178 b&w ills.
here is a paradox in the fact that, despite the incorporation of the Warburg Library into the TUniversity of London and its great impor- tance for the English and American humanities, only two papers written by its founder have been until now available in English. The long awaited English translation of Aby Warburg's writings has at last V been accomplished. The big volume produced by the Getty Research lnstitute is not opera omnia of the great Hamburg scholar. It is an English version of the famous German two-volume publication of 1932, thematically grouped and edited by Gertrudę Bing. Besides David Britt's excellent translation of Warburg's texts, the volume also offers a lengthy In troduction by Kurt W. Forster. Bearing in mind the constantly growing interest in the interdisciplinary study of visual arts, The Renewal ofPagan Antiąuity is a truły timely publication. Indeed, Warburg sought to understand the art of the period not in terms of formal values, as did most art historians at the turn of 19th and 20th centuries, but as part of the intellec- tual history of the time. He often complained about a narrow specialization in the study of humanities and particularly about disciplinary borders in the history of art. In a letter of 1927 to his friend Mesnil he wrote 'Not until art history can show [...] that it sees the work of art in a few more dimensions than it has done so far will our activity again attract the interest
1. Aby Warburg, phot.from 1925 1. Aby Warburg, fotografia z 1925 roku 642 JERZY MIZIOłEK
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2. Sandro Botticelli, Primavera, 1480s, Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi 2. Sandro Botticelli, Primavera, lata 80. XV wieku, Florencja, Galleria degli Uffizi
of scholars and of the generał public'1. Most of his Florentine Renaissance' (1902), 'Artistic Exchang major papers either remain important contributions es between North and South in the Fifteenth Centu to the understanding of Renaissance visual culture ry' (1905). His interest in stars resulted in the epoch orconstantly stimulate further research. Suchis also making studies entitled 'Italian Art and International the case of his ambitious, although never completed Astrology in the Palazzo Schifanoia, Ferrara' (1912) project: the Menemosyne Atlas. and 'PaganAntique Prophecy in Words and Images Aby Warburg (1866-1929) was bom in Hamburg in the Age of Luther' (1920). Warburg's serious psy into a wealthy Jewish family of bankers. He studied chic torments in 1921 led to a threeyear absence. art history with Henry Thode and Carl Justi, as well While he was recovering from the mental collapse as history of religion with Hermann Usener. He con- his private library was transformed into a public re ceived the subject for his famous Ph. D. thesis con- search Institute. Fritz Saxl, its director, started in cerning two of Botticelli's masterpieces the Primav- 1922 the first series of public lectures titled 'The era and the Birth of Wenus in the winter of 1888-9 Warburg Library and its scope'; the same year he while attending the seminar of August Scharmasow published an important paper in the Repertorium fur in Florence. He completed it in Strassburg with Hu Kunstwissenschaft under the title 'Rinascimento bert Janitschek in 1891 and published two years lat delFantichita. Studien zu den arbeiten A. War er. Then, being so much immersed in the study of the burgY. In this lenghty study he presented a kind of arts of Florentine Renaissance, he did something that conspectus of Warburg's work published until 1920 was virtually unimaginable for students of European providing it with his own important discoveries. art in his day: he left for the United States spending Thus still in Warburg's lifetime his approach to the sevseral of months among the Pueblo Indians. His study of visual arts found its follower, receiving at research concerning the serpent ritual undertaken the same time a kind of learned commentary. In the during this trip were published almost thirty years last years of his life Warburg conceived not only the later. At the very beginning of the new century, while famous Mncmosyne Atlas but organized also an ex living mostly in Florence, Warburg accomplished his hibition of stamps. Images both smali and big fasci important papers dealing with both Italian and Flem nated him to the very end. At the beginning of his lsh art: 'The Art of Portraiture and the Florentine vocation he had dealt almost perfectly with literary Bourgeoisie' (1902), 'Francesco Sassetti's Last In sources of the most famous paintings executed by junctions to his Son' (1907), 'Flemish Art and the Botticelli while at the end of his life he turned his attention to the arranging of selected images present ed on big plates in such a way that the ideas hidden 1 E. H. GOMBRICH, Aby Warburg. An Intellectual Biog- in them should become selfexplanatory. A photo raphy, London 1970, p. 322 graph taken in 1925 dcpicts Warburg elegant and RECENZJE 643
slcepcd in thoughts, albeit profoundly melancholie an excellent idea to provide the volume with the Bib- (iii. 1). Hc died two years later as the result of a liography (which includes all works cited by War heart-attack. burg) and extremcly uscful Index which helps to penetrate not only the texts themselves but also the The Getty's Warburg volume opens with an In- materiał in appendixes and addcnda. It is well known troduction by Kurt W. Forster. His interest in War that Warburg nevcr ceased to work on his published burg is a longstanding one. He is the author of two writings, providing them with additions and correc- major papers on Warburg published in 1976 and tions which are fuli of important ideas and observa- 19962. Forster's Introduction is both illuminating tions. All these writings are included in the addenda and wellwritten. It is certainly one of the most re published first in the German edition of 1932 and vcaling texts ever produccd on Aby Warburg. Al now translated into English. It is admirable to find though he is not the first to utilize this approach, out that in the Getty volume the illustrative materiał Forster is skillful in balancing the biographical data has been preeisely checked. Howcver, one may won- with a elear presentation of most of the texts includ der why the editor has retained the original captions ed in the volume. Thus, the reader is able not only to (which are in some cases erroneus), but included learn a great dcal about Warburg's life, his research current information in the illustration credits. Thus, in Florence and the United States and the method of for example, the caption for the Jacopo del Sellaio's his writing, but also about the importancc of both his spalliera depicting Orpheus in the Underworld (in texts and the Library hc founded for past and present the book ill. 103, herc ill. 3) still bears the same mis- studics in the humanitics. Morc than thirty photo take produced in 1932, whilc the information about graphs selcctcd for the Introduction are very helpful its proper whercabouts is to be found only at the end in following Forstcr's presentation. Thanks to these of the book (p. 785)4 . Let us add herc that this spal images, one can better understand the phenomenon liera is houscd not in the Lanckoroński collection, of Warburg's personality, his mclancholy and to which sińce 1994 is kept at the Royal Wawel Castle, some degree the naturę of his last projeets. How- Cracow but in Kiev. However, both panels derive ever, given the fact that Forster knows so well War from the same set of spalliere; the Lanckoroński burg^ Study ofRitual and Art on two Continents one piece depiets Orpheus charming animals with his may ask why the volume docsn't include Warburg's musie (ill. 4). famous paper of 1923 - A Lecture on Serpent Ritu- Now, to address the question of the importancc aP. It not only opens a new possibility for studies in of Warburg's texts for the study of visual arts. Al- the visual arts on the borders of anthropology, et- ready in his doctoral thesis he had shown how Botti- nography and psychology but is also an important cclli's mythological masterpieces, namely the Birth contribution to our understanding of the classical tra- of Wenus and the Primavera, rcflect cultural phe- dition. Thus it would conform pcrfectly to the main nomena of the time. He not only convincingly re- theme of the book. vealed both literary and formal sources of the paint- Why is the English edition of Aby Warburg's ings but also managed to reconstruct their texts so important and why does their author not sociohislorical milieu. For us today, is obvious that cease to fascinatc and stimulatc us some sevcnty in order to approach the content of the paintings de years after his dcath? In answering this question it is picting such sophisticated subjccts as those pro worth starting with the present edition of his works. duced by Botticelli one should ask about the role of Apart from the fact that the quality of illustrative the patron and his learned adviscrs. In the times of materiał could be much better, one should express the fin-de-siecle acstheticism Warburg's method was profound gratitude to the Getty Research Institute rcmarkably original. Thus he entered the matter of for the production of the Warburg volume. We Lorenzo the Magnificenfs patronage, as well as the should be thankful not only for David Britt's excel- matter of both ancient and modern poctry read in his lent translation of Warburg's texts but also for trans- circle. As Charles Dempscy put it: 'virtually none of lations of all the citations (including those in the the serious scholars who have sludicd the painting Addcnda) from the Italian and the Latin, produced has questioned the essential correetness of War- by Carolinc Beamish and Carol Lanham. It was also burg's estabilishment of the textual foundation for
2 K. FORSTER, 'Aby Warburg's History of Art: Collec- 3 It was also published in English as early as in 1938, in tivc Memory and the Social Mediation of Images', Dae- the Journal of the Warburg Institute. vol. 2. dalus, 105, 1976, pp. 169-188); Aby Warburg: His Study 4 For this and other spalliera panels from the same set of ofRitual and Art on two Continents', October, 11, 1996. panels see E. CALLMANN, 'Jacopo del Sellaio, the Or pp. 5-24). The laltcr, originally published in German in pheus Myth, and the Painting for the private citizens', 1991. Foliae Historiae Artium, 4, 1998, pp. 143-158. 644 JERZY MIZIOłEK
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3. Jacopo del Sellaio, Orpheus in the Underworld, tempera/oil on wood, spalliera, ca. 1490, Kiev, Museum oj'Western and Oriental Art 3. Jacopo del Sellaio, Orfeusz w Hadesie, tempera i olej na desce, spalliera, ca. 1490, Kijów, Muzeum Sztuki Zachodniej i Orientalnej
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4 Jacopo del Sellaio, Orpheus Charming Animals with his Musie, tempera/oil on wood, ca. 1490, Cracow, Wawel Castle 4 Jacopo del Sellaio, Orfeusz grający wśród zwierząt, tempera i olej na desce, ok. 1490, Kraków, Wawel
the invention of the Primavera'5. The same can be One of his principal scopes was to find out how said of the Birth of Wenus although this time War- the painter and his patron imagined antiąuity, known burg's task was less complicated. As observed by in fact to them through a few ancient sculptures. Re- Forster 'Warburg estabilished an approach to the lated to Warburg's sense of the work of art as part of content of the works in question and their literary cultural history was, we should keep in mind, his background that has remained unchallenged to this admirable precision in locating Botticelli's models day'. Even in the light of recent studies, suggesting from antique art in his artistic enviroment. On the that it was rather Martianus Capella's Nuptiis Mer- other hand, his research concerning the billowing curii et Philologiae and not Poliziano's poetry that garments and flowing loeks he had noticed in Botti was the main literary source for the Primavera War celli^ art led him to further interesting observations. burg^ studies on Botticelli remain among the most In his short paper of 1898 entitled 'Sandro Botticel important on Italian art of the Quattrocento6. li' he wrote: 'The body in stiding motion, the
5 C. DEMPSEY, The Portrayal ofLove. Botticelli s 'Pri- 6 C. VILLA, 'Per una letteratura di "Primavera". Mercu- mavera' and Humanist Culture ofthe Time ofLorenzo the rio retrogrado e la Retorica nclla bottega di Botticelli', Magnificent, Princeton 1992, p. 36. Strumenti Critici, 86, 1998, pp. 1-28. RECENZJE 645
girdlcd, clining, rippling garmcnt, the flowing hair: pagan Roman religious art: its fallimagini and ce- these, again arc the motifs that inspired Botticelli to raiuoli were the makers of what the Romans called follow his source cxactly. Wc shall be less likely to be imagines and cerae'. Numerous such votive por 'dismayed' by the artist's submissiveness to his tcxt, traits (very many of which were life-size figures), instead of thoughtlcssly swallowing platitudes about lost in the course of time, once filled the important Sandro's "naive interprctation of antiquity", we try to Florentine church of Santissima Annunziata. War appreciate that his literary allegiance was not a sur- burg^ study immediately stimulatcd similar research rendcr of his own individuality but the quickening of outside of Italy. Thus, thanks to him it was possible an evolution that came naturally to him'7. for a Polish art historian, Marian Sokołowski, to dis- In 'The Art of Portraiture and the Florentine cover that in Cracow there also existed in the 16th Bourgeoisie' (1902), dedicated to his wifc, Warburg century the same category of art. objeets. Such vo- presented his identitification of many personages tive statues were commissioned, among others, by from the circle of Lorenzo il Magnifico painted in bishop Piotr Tomicki, who was educated in Italy and 1480s in the memoriał chapel of Francesco Sassetti most probably knew Florentine habits, for the church 8 in the Florentine church of Santa Trinita. The study of Częstochowa and his cathedral in Cracow . was based on his minutę archival research undcrtak- It was Warburg who paved the way to the study cn in Florence. In this fresco, bcing part of rich pro- of the so-called minor and decorative arts. From the gramme of the chapel depicting mostly religious beginning of his research he insisted that the proper subjects, he found a kind of the 'compromise be- study of art as cultural history must look beyond tween Church and World, betwcen classical antiqui- monumental painting and sculpture. He showed his ty and the Christian present' and thus one more ex- great interest in domestic painting and particularly ample of the revival of pagan antiquity. Warburg cassoni, which in fact depict a great number of clas rcturned to the the programme of the dccoration of sical subjects. He came across the famous Carte the Sassetti chapel in his paper of 1907 titled 'Franc Strozziane, which contain a complete list of the mar- esco SassettFs Last Injunctions to his Son'. This riage chests produced in the years between 1446 and time he paid his attention to the the tombs of the the 1463 in the joined workshop of Apollonio di Gio- founders in the chapel sculpted by Giuliano da San- vanni and Marco del Buono9. He prepared an anno- gallo, as well as to its altarpiece painted by Domenico tated version of the list, which afterwards, with his Ghirlandaio, depicting the Adoration of the Shep- permission, was printed in Schubring's well-known herds. In an exemplary way he interpreted the mean- corpus. A number of domestic paintings are men- ing of the centaurs represented on the tombs and tried tioned or even reproduccd in his papers. Very often to find out whether the drawings executed by Ciriaco he refers to them in his notes and Addenda. Thus in of Ancona in Athens could have served as models for one of such Addenda is to be found a very interest them. As a source of inspiration for other motives, he ing observation concerning one of the masterpieces of convincingly showed two antiquc sarcophagi availa- Jacopo del Sellaio, the already mentioned spalliera ble in Florence and some Roman coins. depicting Orpheus and Euridice in Hades (ill. 3). He In the Appcndixes to the first of these papers, he found curious in it the presence of the centaur drag- examined a highly interesting, previously almost un- ging Euridice back to Hades. In fact neither Virgil known category of Florentine Cjuattrocento art.: i.e. nor Ovid refer to this ercature in their versions of the votive statues and masks in wax. One of Warburg's myth. Neither is he mentioned in Poliziano's Favola paragraphs reads: 'The workshop of Verrocchio, di Orfeo. Warburg managed to explain the presence which seems to havc pioncered a more artistic treat- of the centaur in the scenę by finding a text written in ment of votive figures, specialized in the art of mak- connection with a performance projected in Mantua ing plaster and stucco dcath masks, which Vasari for 1490-1 based on Poliziano's aforementioned tclls us were displayed in Florentine houses as true Favola]0. The text indced mentions centaurs who ancestral likeness, and which so often enabled were to take the beloved wife of Orpheus back to Florentine painters to supply aceurate portraits of the Hades: 'Li Centauri ancora che l.'intervengono vo- dead. Vcrrocchio's shop was likc a surviving limb of leno spatio: faranno ogni loro sforzo'". This and
7 The Renewal of Pagan Antiąuity, op. cit„ p. 159. Florentine cassone workshop seen through the eyes of 8 See J. MIZIOŁEK, 'Opus egregium ac spectandum. II a humanist poet', in: Norm and Form. Studies in the Art of tabernacolo eucaristico di Gianmaria Mosca , detto il Pa- the Renaissance, London 1966, p. 11. dovano, per la cattedrale di Cracovia', Mitteilungen des 10 Cf. The Renewal of Pagan Antiąuity, p. 416 (Addenda Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz, XXXVII, 2-3, to p. 124). 1993, s. 305 and note9on p. 328. 11 Quote after A. DANCONA, Origini del teatro italiano, ą See E. H. GOMBRICH, 'Apollonio di Giovanni. A Torino 1891, p. 363. 646 JERZY MIZIOłEK
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5. Hans Memling, The Last Judgment, ca. 1470, oil on panel, Gdańsk/Danzig, Muzeum Narodowe, inv. No. SD/413/M 5. Hans Memling, Sąd Ostateczny , około 1470, olej na desce, Gdańsk, Muzeum Narodowe, inv. No. SD/413/M
othcr numerous obscrvations by Warburg rcveal his refuse 'the narrow Neoclassical doctrine of the crudition and curiosity for difficult subject matter. "tranąuil grandeur" of antiąuity'13. In fact, Durer's Curiously enough, none of the scholars dealing with drawing, as well as its model, a northern Italian en- this panel has ever rcferred to his plausible observa- graving depicting thc same subject, show great cner- tion. It has been rcpcated to this very day thal thc gy and vigour which were almost withoul doubt bor- centaur in thc Kiev spalliera is cithcr Pluto (sic!) or rowed from antiquc images of thc death of Pcnthcus Chiron12. or Orpheus. In thc conclusion to his paper, Warburg Warburg's intercst in thc myth of Orphcus result- states: 'Thesc platcs to illustrate thc Death of Or ed also in a very intercsting short paper tillcd 'Durer pheus are thus a record of some initial excavations and Italian Antiquity' (1905) in which hc dealt with along the route of thc long migration that brought a drawing by Durer from 1494 represcntating the antique supcrlatives of gesturc from Athens, by way Death ofOrpheus. The drawing served him to show of Rome, Mantua, and Florcnce, to Nurcmberg and the 'twofold influence of antiąuity on the stylistic into the mind of Albrecht Durer'. Warburg returned evolution of early Renaissance art.' and thus to to the problem of the influence of antiquity on the art
12 See for cxample R. VAM MARLE, Italian Schools of not a centaur. See A. TISSONI BENVENUTI, UOrfeo di Painting, The Hague 1931, vol. XII, p. 404; L. de Vrics Poliziano eon U testo critico deWoriginale e delie succes- Robbe in: Eds. H. W. VAN OS & M. PRAKKEN, The sive formę teatrali. Padova 1986, pp. 48-49, 122, 177 Florentine paintings in Holland 1300- 1500, Maarsen 13 Warburg was perfectly aware of the presence in Durer's 1974, p. 63; CALLMANN, op. cit, p. 156. A. B. BARRI- art not only of the 'Dionisian stimulant' but also 'Apollo- AULT, Spalliera Paintings of Renaissance Italy. Fables nian clarity', cf. The Renewal ofPagan Antiquity, op. cit., of Poets for Patrician Homes, University Park 1994, p. p. 556. For both aspects of Diircr's art. sec E. PANOF- 148 tells of the 'Satyr Minos or Mnessillos (centaur)', SKY, 'Albrecht Durer and Classical Antiąuity' in idem howcvcr thc lattcr mentioned by Poliziano is a satyr and Meaning in the Yisual Arts, New York 1955, pp. 236-294. RECENZJE 647
6. Hans Memling, Side X J panels ojThe Last Judgment with portraits ofAngelo Tani and Catarina Tanagli, 5§ od on panel 6. Hans Memling, Skrzydła Sądu Ostatecznego z portretami Angelo Tani K, i Catariny Tanagli, olej na desce, Gdańsk/Danzig, Muzeum Narodowe, mv. No. SD/413/M
of the Rcnaissancc in his two-page outline: 'The reached its proper owner and ended up in Danzig Emergence of the Antiquc as a Stylistic Idcal in Early (Gdańsk) was commissioned, as Warburg showed Rcnaissance Painting', originally published in the through the minutę study of the coat-of-arms depict- Kunstchronik (1913/1914). This timc he approachcd ed on its outer panels, by the Florentine couple An the achievcmcnts of the Pollaiuolo and Ghirlandaio gelo Tani and Catcrina Tanagli (ill. 6). Furthermore brothers. It is enough to look through the beautiful with this and some other papers he approachcd the cataloguc of the recent exhibition in London's Na matter of interest in Italy for Flemish painting and its tional Gallery in order to find out how Warburg's impact on Florentine artists. His observations con- favourite topie docs not cease to fascinatc and stim- cerning the 'Artistic exchangcs between North and ulatc us14. South' havc becn followed in stages by numerous Warburg used to repeat to his students a well- scholars until now. known aphorism: 'God dwclls in the dctails'. By Aby Warburg was also that scholar who opened Studying a varicty of details in numerous paintings new pcrspcclivcs in the rescarch on astrological im- hc found out, among others, who was the patron of agery. He showed his interest for this subject already Memling's famous masterpiecc depicting The Last in a short paper of 1905 titled 'On Imprese Amorose Judgment (iii. 5). The altarpiece, which never in the Earlicst Florentine Engravings' but entered it propcrly in his famous paper dealing with Francesco Cossa's freseoes in the Palazzo Schifanoia, pub 14 P. RUBIN and A. WRIGHT with contribution by N. lished in 1912. These, so farenigmatic paintings, he PENNY, Renaissance Fbrence. The Art. of the 1470s, convincingly interpreted as a depiction of the astro London 1999. logical programme derivcd from Arabie and Indian 648 JERZY MIZIOłEK
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7. First Decans of Libra and Virgo, from Picatrix, Cracow, Jagiellonian Library, Ms. 793, pp. 388 and 389 7. Pierwsze dekany znaków Wagi i Panny z Picatrix, Kraków, Biblioteka Jagiellońska, rękopis 793, s. 388 i 389
traditions. The paper 'Italian Art and International Pueblo Indians. He rejected traditional methods of Astrology in the Palazzo Schifanoia, Ferrara' was a history of art. in order to conduct research on the great triumph of his erudition and method of re- borders of philosophy, philology, psychology, an- scarch. Afterwards he produced some short papers thropology and history of religion. His study of im on images of planetary deities and lenghty study on ages became study of human expression and the na astrology in Germany in thc time of Luther. His re- turę of symbols living through centuries and crossing search was successfully continued; among othcrs by the borders of civilisations. For students of the clas- Franz Boli, Fritz Saxl and more recently by Kristen sical tradition, Warburg's writings and the Library Lippincott, bringing not only numerous intcrprcta- bearing his name remain an ever-fascinating sourcc tive studies but also the important Catalogue ofAs- of knowledge and new ideas. The big volume pub- trological and Mythological Manuscripts ofthe Lat- lishcd by the Gctty Research Institute will certainly in Middle Ages]5. It was thanks to Warburg and his facilitatc our approach to the phenomenon of Aby collaborators that the Cracow Picatrix with its Warburg's life and thoughts. unique illustrations depicting various pagan divini- In conclusion, it is worth referring to the homage ties and decans became widely known (ill. 7)16. paid to the founder of the Warburg Library written Warburg indeed paved the way to a new ap- already in his lifetime. Ernst Cassirer dedicating on proach to the visual arts which do not cease to fasci- 13th June 1926 to Aby Warburg his book titled The nate us more than one hundred years after the publi- lndividual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philoso cation of his doctoral thesis and his stay among the phy wrote the following:The work I am prescnting
15 See also E. PANOFSKY nad F. SAXL, Classical My Survivance des dieux antiąues.
to you on your sixticlh birthday was to have been a much more besides. With a forcefulncss that is rare, purely personal expression of my deep friendship it has held up before us the principles which must and dcvotion. But I could not have completed the govern such research. In its organization and in its work, had I not been able to enjoy the constant stim- intellectual structure, the Library embodies the idea ulation and encouragement of that group of scholars of the methodological unity of all fields and all cur- 17 whose intellectual centrę is your library. Therefore, I rents of intellectual history' . It would be difficult am speaking today not in my name alone, but in the to find a more telling text about the wide rangę of name of this group of scholars, and in the name of all scholars who in Warburg's writings and his famous those who have long honoured you as a leader in the Library have found either a base or stimulating ideas field of intellectual history. For the past three dec- for their research. It should be remembered that an- ades, the Warburg Library has quietly and consist- other of Robert Curtius's famous books, European ently endcavoured to gather materials for research in Literaturę and the Latin Middle Ages, was dedicat- 18 intellectual and cultural history. And it has done ed to the memory of Aby Warburg .
17 E. CASSIRER, The Individual and the Cosmos in Ren- I would like to express my gratitute to the Muzeum Naro aissance Philosophy, transl. M. Domandi, Oxford 1963, dowe, Gdańsk, The Wawel Royal Castle, Cracow and the p. XV (first published as lndividuum itnd Kosmos in der Soprintendenza per i Beni Artistici e Storci di Firenze for Philosophie der Renaissance, Berlin 1927). allowing me to reproduce photographs nos. 2, 4, 5-6. 18 First published as Europaische Literatur und latein- isches Mittelalter, Bern 1948. First English edition ap- pcarcd in 1953 (Bollingen Series).