conditions and size of the fish. The finished pro- of autolysis, viz. a soft flesh and some open bellies. duct is finally packed in baskets and is then ready Furthermore it appeared that in all of the three for sale. species, the scales were washed off less easily in the For our experiments, 10 portions of fresh fish calcium treated lots. of 40 kg. and 10 portions pure salt of 10 kg. each, After drying, a random sample was take5 were weighed out. Of each of the compounds from each lot. The samples were judged by MgCl2, CaCl2 and NazSO4, quantities of 33 gr., Mr. Tak Ek Sien, empioying the usual criteria of 100 gr. and 300 gr. of each had been put aside general appearance, odour and taste. It goes with- beforehand (making nine portions in all). out saying that he kid not been informed of details The mixing of the fish and the salt was done of the preparations. by hand in a wooden salting box; nine of the ten The fish that had been treated with pure salt lots with addition of the weighed quantities of only was repeatedly pointed out as the best, especially magnesium or calcium chloride or sodium sulphate, because of attractive odour and taste. and one lo^ as a b!ank test. The MgC12 treat:d fish had a firmer texture After each blending, fish and salt were trans- and was lightcr in colour. It was still judged rather ferred into a clean tub of teak wood, and the salt- favourally, but a higher magnesium concentration ing box was carefully rinsed with freshwater and had given a bitter edge to the salty taste. dried with a clean rag. All of the ten tubs were The CaC12 treated fish had a less favourable brand new in order that none of the extracting salt appearance, due to adhering sca!es, and a dull white- remains oi former use could cloud the results. This looking flesh. Also referring to taste and smell, precaution was especially urgent in the present study these samples were less attractive than the product of diflerent action by natural salt mixtures. prepared with pure salt only. A cover of wicker bamboo was placed on top The Na.S04 treated fish was apprcciated least of the fish and weighted with a 'stone heavy enough of all, because of its unhealthy taste and smell. to keep the fish covered with pickle. Next morning The diffcrences dzscribed here were most dis- the fish was removed from the tubs, washed and tinct in the Iots of the 3 C/( series. In the 1/ 3 % spread out to dry in the usual way. While rinsing series, the diffcrences were only just discernible by the fish, the lemuru showed the most apparent signs an expert, whereas the 1% series was intermzdiary.

FISHERY PRODUCTS OF INDOCHINA. A COMPILATION OF LITERATURF UP '1'0 THE JAPANESE INVASION by J. Westenberg.'>

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION This pnpcr prcscnts a compilation of data on fishcry Having become aware of the grcat cconomic products of Illclo-China, ilranx from literature, chicfly of importance 2nd industrial prospects of the native Frcuch publicJ t'1011. TIle first section tozctller descriptioils of fi'her~ indcrtT of Indochina, the French govern- methods of processing, invoivi~ig techniques of salting ment has carricd out investigations that appcar to and clning,. - and con~eniou into pastes, :.oiidimcnts and be un!inonm except in the French litzrature. Since oils. th~yden! ivir!~ facts that are of importance for the Thc second scctioii sumnmiscs results 3f chcmica~ ,more problems of ss. in the ei?al!.sc~. chiefly- of iluoc-man. 7'jlc tllir(, ?crtiou sr~~lllllnri~cstilc rc,rlits of ;ittcmpbs tropics. ir might b? usefu! to discus them in a to nrstcr!~isc time methocls. journal with a wide circulation. The most profitable fisheries of Indochina are found along the coasts of Annam and Cochinchina and on the lakes and rivers of Cambodia, as may be seen in fig. 1; the black spots indicate the fishing centres. The preliminary investigations concern the native fishery products only. Subsequently attempts were made to build up o modern industry by introducing western principles in the procedures. From a commercial point of view, major import- ance is attached to the salted and dried fish industry of Cambodia, which contributes an appreciable share to the exportationwof the country. In addition to the usual methods of preservation, applied all over the world, such as salting, drying and smoking, other processes are utilized in the country, yielding products which are typical for this part of the world. A number of these condi- ments in the nature of pastes are indicated by the general designation mam. According to the material used, and to local differences in the preparation, several varieties are distinguishable, for instance pra- hoc from Cambodia and Siam, phaak or mam-chao from Cambodia, pa-dec from Laos and mam-tom from Cochinchina and Annam. Further there are liquid condiments, among which nuoc-mam from the coasts of Indochina and Figure 1. Siam is the most important. These products do not constitute a principle food, but serve as a relish to these condiments is highly appreciated by the natives the meals which consist chiefly of rice, vegetables, but seems to be unpalatable to Europeans. salted fish, dried shrimps and various soups. Nuoc- Fish oil is also produced in considerable quantity, mam is widely used, but locally pra-hoc, phaak, pa- sometimes as a major industry or often as a byproduct dec or mam-tom rank first. The flavour of all of of the manufacture of dried fish and nuoc-mam.

SECTION I FISHERY PRODUCTS A. Salted, dried, smoked and cooked fish and shrimps.

Suited fish. Along the coast of Siam, the same procedure is applied to Scornber negiectus C. 17. Prior to the pre- The salting of fish, without subsequent drying senration, the fish are eviscerated without opening the is sometimes practised for local demand, especially in bellies; entrails and gills are skilfully pulled out in a' Cambodia, but never in large quantity for exporta- single movement. The saiting is carried out in large tion (Pktillot, 19 11 ; Gruvel, 192 5). concrete tanks, in which the fish is kept under pressure. The half wet product is esported in wooden cases and Usually medium size fish are used for the in Java it is well known as pedah-kembnng. procedure; head, scales and visc~raare removed and A special procedure of fish salting has been reported the fish split open, according to the local custom, from Siam, in which roasted and pounded r~ceor rice depending on traditions and the species used. The bran is added; the preparation is known as pla-ra (pla = dressed fish are then placed in jars with alternate fish; ra = awful smell). The freshwater fish pla-kadi layers of salt. Information on the quantities used (Tricho1:odus sp.) and pla-soi (CirrBinus sp.1 are headed. appear not to be available in the present literature. scaled, gutted and washed, and thcn thoroughl!~ mixed The jars are completely filled and covered with a with fine salt. transferred into a jar and kc t under pressure for 1 to 3 month M!er this period be pickle mat of twisted bamboo, weighed down with stones. is rinsed out and the fish is nlired with roasted and In this way the fish may be kept as a family store pounded rice or with rice bran, and a small amount of to be used when needrd. fine salt. The misture is then put back into the jar and left to ferment for h to 12 montlls. According to salt to 2 parts of dried Ca-su. Other deviations from the adclitim either of roasted ?ice or of rice bran, the the usual proportion occur according to weather, and product is known as pla-ra-kao-kuo (kao = rice; kuo = to size, condition and destination of the fish. roasted) or pla-ra-ram (ram = rice bran). The roasted rice is added in a proportion of 1 to 40 in volume, and The second qua!ity and small fish are brine the rice bran in a proportion of 1 to 20. The product salted for a period of 12 hours and then spread out is prepared either for home use or for sale. directly on the drying p!atforms, without being The application of roasted rice or maize is also washed again. ' pacticed in South Borneo. When preparing their so- The drying of the fish requires 36 to 48 hours called wacli, the dayaks along the Barito salt their (fresh- of full sunshine. From time to time the fish is water) fish with the addition of the roasted ingredient. The product is stored in tightly sealed earthenware pots, turned ir, order to ensure equa! desiccation. The and is kept for family use. women who attend to the drying also watch for The addition of cooked rice is known among the maggots which occur ezpecially during rainy weather. dayaks along the Barito and along the Kapuas (West These invaders are r,emoved and the affected spots Borneo). The product is known as pekasam, and is are rubbed with salt. stored in sealed pots. The line of the whole industry has been out- A similar preparation with cooked glutinous rice lined in the following scheme (Chevey & Le Poulain, instead, is reported from the Kapuas-region. 1939) : In the preparation of dried fish, the average loss Salted and dried fish. in weight is estimated at 7j54.; waste 30 % and The manufacture of salted and dried fish is an evaporation 45 % ~(Lebas,192 5 ) . active industry, especially on the lakes and rivers The finished product is baled either in matting of Cambodia, where it has been studied recently by or in bamboo basks, and in this form more than Chevey and Le Poulain ( 1939 ) . 20,000 tons are ixported annually from Saigon, at Preparatory to the procedure, the heads are prices roughly averaging about 12 piasters per 100kg.l severed as soon as the fresh catch is brought in. during thz years 1919-1922 (Gruvel, 1925). The fish is then held for 12 to 16 hours is an open During later years the market has shown considerable work bamboo container, floating in the lake. This fluctuations (C'nevey & Le Poulain, 1940). Here, treatment brings about a slight disintegration which as nearly everywhere in the Far East, the trade in is said to yield the desired bleached and high flavoured dried fish is in the hands of Chinese. A major part product. In large scale production, the heads are of the commercial trade is directed to Singaporc, usually discarded in the water, but in the smaller from where a considerable exportation is maintained business, they are often kept apart for oil winning. to Java (Maron, 193 9). Iil the Java trade, dried Occasionally, the heads of Trey-pra (Clarias sp. div.) Trichojodus tricho~terus (Pall.) has -a special are split open and smoked as food for the coolies. reputation, and is known under its Malayan name Baskets of fish arc removed from the receptacle, sepat siam. Shortly before the war, attempts were and handed over to the women who accomplish the made to conduct the exportation direct to Java. dressing by pulling out the entrails and making a A variation of the above procedure is reported slit from head to tail, according to custom estab!ished by Chevey (1931, p.31-32) and by Krempf (1934, for the different kinds of fish, and depending on local p.3695). Here, immediately after the catch, the tradition. Certain species are scaled with a crude fish are placed in a pickle which may not be renewed brush before being split and eviscerated. during the whole season, and after 4 to 6 days thc After a thorough washing in tubs, in which fish are exposed to the sun to dry. the water is renewed several times, the larger fish In still other cases, the fish remain in the pickle of first quality are salted flat, both sides of the flesh till they are sold. being treated with salt. The fish then remain under The reqilired quantity is then washed and dried. slight pressure in the salting vats, until they are This treatment really constitutes a variation of the simp!e salting cf fish, as described "struck through", which takes 12 hours for the larger species, and 6 to 9 hours for young Trey-pra. in the first part of this section. After a second washing they are transferred to the Another important centre of production of drying platforms. As a rule one part of salt is used dried fish is the Gulf of Tonkin (Gui!bert, 1916). to obtain two parts of dried fish, proportionate to The fish intended for China is for the greater part weight. For oily species such as Ca-su (Psm~do- already cured and dried on bcard the junks. The sciaena sj.) more salt is used, namely 1% parts of fish for consumption in Indochina is landed and 1 In 1922 one piaster equdled akut 0.54 v;S. dollar. " 1928 " " 0.50 ,, " . 1938 " " " 0.29 " v Decapitation > Disintegration > Scaling (16 hours) Ca-bong 1 & Ca-loc

v' Dressing I v First washing / \

b' b' Salting Brining (9 to 12 hours) (12 hours) I / v Second / washing /' /' \ ', . / '..A b Drying (36 to 48 hours) I

v Export then either salted or brined and then dried. The practised in Cochinchina, where the sun is hot fish is treated in similar ways as on the lakes of enough to desiccate the product before putrefaction Cambodia. The larger species are cut open from can set in. the back, eviscerated and washed with sea water, An interesting variation is reported from piled up with alternate laym of salt in tubs or Tonkin (Chevey & Lemasson, 1937, p.182). Fresh- pots and kept under pressure for 7 days. Then the water fish are eviscerated and then placed in alternate fish is dried in the sun for 3 days. The quantity layers with salt, the average proportion being 2 kgs of salt used amounts to one half of the fresh weight of salt to 10 kgs of fish. Thus the fish are left of the fish. 100 kg. of fresh yield 70 kg. of the for a period, which varies from 1 to 4 days according dried product. For brining the dressed fish is soaked to the length of time it is desired to hold the fish. in brine for 12 hours and then dried in 'the sun for They are then sprinkled with tinh (roasted and 3 to 4 days; the quantity of salt is about one pulverised rice), and exposed to the sun until quarter of the weight of the fish. completely dry. Breymann ( 1902) mentions that the drying Fishermen of Indochina aave, just as anywhere of fish for home use without previous salting is else, a preference for certain portions of the fish, which they reserve for family consumption (Petillot, Shark fins. 191 1; Gruvel, 1925). These include, for example Several species of sharks are captured for the the two dorsak muscular masses found immediately sake of the fins, which are classed in several groups behind the skull of Trev-ma.,. . which they call touv, of different values depending on colour, size and and also kom~hlien, which is taken immediately variety. behind the jaws from Trey-ras and Trey-chhdor (an Ophiocephalid fish). These pieces, measuring 3 In preparing fins for the market, they are cut to Y cm. in diameter, are slightly brined and then from the shark and dried in the sun or over an dried. After immersion in the pickle for 5 minutes, open fire (Guilbert, 1916). This product is parti- they are strung on split bamboos and placed in the cularly used by the Chinese for the making of soup, sun. and almost the whole catch is exported to China ,(Gruvel, 192 Y) . Smoked fish. Tomdh (brine rooRecl and dricd shriittps) . On the shores of certain bodies of water, in particular the Tonle Sap a small quantity of fish is The product is especially esteemed by the smoked (Petillot, 19 11 ; Gruvel, 192 5 hbas, 192 5). Chinese (Petillot, 191 1) . For the preparation, shrimps are cooked in saturated brine, and exposed The fish destined for smoking is not decapitateil to the sun for several days, unti1 they are bone but only scaled and eviscerated by opening the dry. Then they are threshed with flexible bamboo belly. No salt is used in this preparation. The sticks, to separate the flesh from the husk, after product is kept for local use (Lebas, 1925). which the shells are winnowed. Groups of five or six are skewered by the heads on a split bamboo, some space being left between, B. Pastes (Mams) and the tails are tied together. Then they are placed on three superposed and slightly inclined bamboo Pra-hoc (fish paste from Cambodia). racks under which a smoky wood fire is maintained The data with regard to the preparation of pra- day and night. In order to obtain a uniform hoc are rather varied (Bremond, 1919; Le Poulain, product, the position of the fish is changed regularly. 1938), possibiy due to different local circumstances, and it is difficult to combine the descriptions into Brine cooked fish. one compilation. We will quote below the state- On the coast of Annam, Ca-moi (Dorosoma 'ments of these authors separately. nasus Bloch, a Clupeid fish) is cooked in brine for Le Poulain relates the following: Pra-hoc, a oil winning (hlarcelet, 1929). national condiment of the Cambodians, is the pro- Alternately a layer of fish and a layer of salt duct of an industry, which is purely a home are placed in petroleun~ tins; subsequently a 10% industry, practised only in the months of December brine is poured over it. After 5 hours boiling, the and January in connecrion with annual festivals, liquid is poured off, and the containers with cooked which play an important part in native Iife. Every fish are sent to Cochinchina. where it is considered year, at the time of the King's birthday, the a choice food. peasants leave their villages and go in ox-carts to certain centres in the neighbourhood of the capital, In Java, Madurn and Bawean (East Indies), seafish arc prepareci in a similar way in earthernware pots and Phnom Penh, where encampments are set up. During petroieum tins. This procluct is known as pindang, and their stay they exchange rice, brought along for this has 1o:dly gained considerable importance in East Java. purpose, for fish from the Ton16 Sap. This exchange is made only at certain periods of full Air blnddrrs. moon. which is considered etsential for the success The air-bladders of fish, especially developed in of the first operation in the preparation of Pra-hoc. Sciaenids, Silurids and Cyprinids, constitute a Le Pou!ain describes two methods for the pre- valuable byproduct. After careful removal, and paration of pra-hoc. For the first method small through washing, they are opened and dried flat in Cyprinid species are used. Thecc species are collect- th: sun during a half or a whole day. Guilbert ively denoted as Trey-chmgvar, and belong to (1916) has reported from the Gulf of Tonkin that Rasbora and allied genera. Accordingly, the drying is sometimes practised over an open fire with product is called prahoc trey changvar. aromatic herbs. For the second il?cthod. n.hich is less usual, aid!. one The first quality air-bladders are used in variety is uscd. that is either Chinese and native cookery. The coarser quality TIC!.-clihdor=Ca-bong=O~:I~ioce~:ha!us micropeltes C.1'. product is destined for the manufacture of fish Treyras 42-loc =Oi,hiocepl~alnsstriatus B1. glue. (Ophiocephalids) Trq-kahck &a-et =Labe0 chr\wphekadoin B1. the preparation of pra-hoc is finished and the con- (Cyprinid) . diment is ready for immediate consumption. or occasionalIy other species. The largcr fish are collect- According to Le Poulain, 3 piculs of Trey-changvar tively denoted as Trey-tom, and accordingly the pro- yield I picul pra-hoc. It is used principalIy in the duct is ca!led prahoc-trey-tom. preparation of soups, the many varieties of which In a subsequent paper, Le Poulain (1939) play an important part in Cambodian cooking. mentions many other Cambodian and Annamite names of fishes that are used for pra-hoc making, Manufacture by the second method is more but since taxonomic designations are incomplete, it aristocratic, since it is more expensive. Only one would be rather confusing to cite these. variety of fish is used, either Ca-bong, Ca-loc, Ca- ket or Trey-kahek, but never the four of them In the first method the Trey-changvar is be- together. This product is not on the market and headed and eviscerated and is then, without being is consumed by the elite of Cambodia. scaled, put into a wicker basket, called cheal. The heads are either thrown away or may be preserved The fish are headed, scaled and gutted, the for the extraction of oi!. The fish, which half fill bones are removed, and only the flesh is preserved. the cheal, are trampled upon in much the same This is put into pails of water and left for three manner as grapes in a winepress. The purpose of days and three nights; then, as in the first method this treatment is to scale the fish by friction and of preparation, the fish are placed in cheals to to empty the entrails by compressing them. Then drain, and are pressed out. The fish are not trampled the fish are washed by plunging the cheal into a upon, as they have already been scaled and evisce- river or pool. For half an hour th fish are stirred rated. The process of salting is the same as in the by hand ti1 they are completely scaled. Then they first method, but the fish are not pounded, and the are again pressed in the cheal in order to remove morsels of flesh, are carefully placed in the jars, the the water. The upper part of the cheal is covered whole being well compressed by hand. with banana leaves, upon which a weight (e.g. Bremond (1918 & 1919) gives a les extensive heavy stones) is placed in order to compress the description of the preparation of pra-hoc. For the fish. They are left under pressure for 24 hours. first quality product, according to this author the Next day the fish are taken out of the cheal following fish are used: and, for about a half hour they are mixed with Trey-pra = Clarias (Silurid) coarse sa!t. About 2 to 3. kgs. of salt are needed for 20 to 30 kgs. of fish. When the fish are well Trey-ras = Ophioce~~halusstriatzrs B1. impregnated with salt they are spread out on (Ophiocephalid) matting in the sun for 24 hours. Then the fish, Trey-pruol = Cirrhirzus microlcpis Sauvage salted and dried, are put back into the cheal, care (= Labco pruol Tirant) (Cyprinid) being taken to leave as litt!e space between as Trey-andong = Synhanchzcs hengalensis possible. The first process of preparation for the Mc. Clelland (Cobitid) manufacture of pra-hoc, carried out in the fishing For pra-hoc intended for consumption in Siam, places, is now finished. The cheals, filled with the Trey-andong is used exclusively. prepared fish, take the place of the traded rice in The dressing of the fish is begun by removing the ox-carts and are transported to the villages. the scales. The heads and viscera, with the exception Upon arrival the villagers take the cheals from the carts and the process of pounding begins. The fish, of Livers, are then cut away. The gutted fish are prepared as described in the foregoing, are placed in sliced and soaked in fresh water overnight. Next small quantities in heavy wooden mortars, operated morning they are taken out of the water and dried either by hand or by foot. in the sun for the whole day. At about five o'clock in the afternoon they are mixed with salt and placed The pounded fish form a salted paste which the Cambodian tastes to judge whether it is zalt enough. in a basket, to allow the pickle to drain. Next day the fish, which have been reduced to a paste, are The pounding takes about 20 minutes. The paste is then packed in earthzn jars of 1 picul (= 60 kg.) cnce more expos~dto the sun and in the evening These jars are placed in the sun and left open in salted again. The mass is then stored in a pot and thc day-time; in the evening they are closed to during the first three days the collecting pickle is keep out the maggots. As seasoning takes place poured off and map be used as nuoc-mam. Finally gradua!ly a pickle appears on top of the paste. the pot is sealed with a wooden cover or a piece of This liquid is r:moved every day until no more cloth, tied with string and covered with a pulp of cc!lects; it is ktpt aside, for the Cambodians use it wet wood ashes. Pra-hoc of first quality is ready as nuoc-man and call it teuk-prahoc. This process for use after two to three months and will keep for may last a month. When there is no pickle left, two years. The analysis o$ a sample of this product revealed After washing and the usual compression the a salt content of 17%. fish are salted. This is done by hand, as with pra- For pra-hoc of second quality, little fish hoc, the proportion of salt to fish being 2 kgs. of (Cyprinids) are squeezed and pressed under water salt to, 10 kgs. of fish, or at times only 1 kg. of and in this way divested of their scales and viscera. salt is used to 30 kgs. of fish. No accurate measure They are then washed and soaked in fresh water can be given as this is entirely dependent on personal overnight, mixed with salt and placed in pots to taste. After salting, the fish are placed immediately season for one month. Pra-hoc thus prepared is in a jar, which is filled completely. The jar is consumed by the lower classes. covered with leaves of the fan palm and crossed bamboo sticks. The fish are left in the jar for 20 According to Le Poulain (1939, priv. comm.) to 30 days. first quality pra-hoc is sold at a rate of 0.20-0.30 piasters per kg. and 12-17 piasters per picul (of The rice is prepared in various ways: 60 kg.) ; second quality pra-hoc 0.15-0.20 piasters per kg. and 9-12 piasters per picul. One meth'od is to use white glutinous rice, pre- An inferior quality pra-hoc is occasionally pared by cooking in water for about one hour, two produced by the Annamites and destined for Cambo- volumes of water being added to one volume of rice, dian consumption. The Annamites manufacture as in the preparation of Chinese soup praba). In this product from small fish, Trey-real or Ca- order to give a red colour to the rice it is mixed with linh (Thynnichfhys sk. and Alhlichtbys sp.- pounded ang-khak, that is rice which has been fer- Cyprinids), when bad weather prevents the use of mented by a red yeast-like organism (Monascncs nets. In addition when the catch can not be returned purpureus Went) ; this product is imported from in time because of unfavourable winds, the stale fish China (Went, F.A.F.C.,-189 5-Monascus bur- may still be utilised for this production. The coolie pureus, le champignon de Pang-quac, une nouvelle fishermen manufacture with these fish a prahoc of ThB1BbolCe.-Annales des Sciences Naturelles. Paris. inferior quality; they use principally Ca-son 7me Skrie, Botanique, Tome 1, p. I-18-pl. 1-2). (Ambassis sp.-Percoid). which is p!aced in brine The proportion used is 300 g. of ang-khak to 10 overnight. Next morning the fish are taken out and kgs. of white glutinous rice. Moreover 2% of dried in the sun for two days. Finally they are palmsugar is added. After cooking the mixture pounded with salt and stored in a jar for ten days. is spread out on matting to cool. Then the The proportion of salt to fish is about 15 'i/o. mixture is sprinkled with tinh or with dan-be, the There exists on the other hand a product manu- former being roasted rice, the latter a kind of yeast factured by the Annamite fisbermen and sold to the powder. The mass is left to ferment for one night. Cambodians, known as prahoc-youn. They utilise Thus prepared the rice is ready to be mixed with for this the residue of the great fisheries. The pro- the fish as will be described. portion of salt is usually less than in the preparation In a special method the wealthy class use the of the Cambodian product, which makes a modifica- black variety of glutinous rice, called tra-neup- tion in the odour. prahom. Sometimes this black glutinous rice is mixed with white glutinous rice, called tra-lieup-sar. The Park or mum-chao. (Cambodian fish paste, con- rice is prepared by steaming in the following manner: taining ghtinows rice). A container of baked clay, about three quarters full With regard to this little-known product, the of water.. is .placed on a hearth. 01.1 this container only reference at our disposal is a description by 1.e is placed a second earthenware p:t, pmvided with a Poulain ( 193 8 ) . Paak or mam-chao is a condiment, perforated bottom. A grill, covered with a banana derived from pra-hoc, but is much less common. leaf, is fixed at one third of the height of the upper- most container. The black glutinous rice is placed For this preparation fish and glutinous rice on this grill to be steamed. The steam, rising out of (Oryza satlvn var. glzrt~nosnLour.) are used. The the lower container enters the upper container and principal fish are: the rice is steamed for about one or two hours. When Trey-pruol = Cirrhinzls nzicropelfis Saw. the rice is cooked the mash is spread out on matting (Cyprinid) or (= Lnbro as before in order to cool, and is chen sprink!ed with prlcol Tirant) dan-be, in order to have it fermented. The pro- Khland-hay = Macrones sp. div. (Silurids) . portion in which dm-be must be applied is about The Trey-pruol is beheaded and eviscerated, 1: 100. without being scaled. If too large, it is cut longitu- The fermented rice or chao is mixed with the dinally, retaining the vertebral column. The larger fish, prer4ously prepared, and the mixture is placed Khlang-hay is cut transversely in three parts. in a jar. To this end, about 30 to 40 morsels of fish at a time, are put into an earthen cup, the rice latter is a Chinese product, commonly known as is poured over them, and the .whole mass is well "China stick ink", and is added in order to give kneaded and then packeddin the jar. The rnam is the rnam a distinct colour. The whole mass is then covered with leaves of the fan palm and small pieces replaced in the jar. of bamboo matting, which is sprinkled with slightly After S days, the rnam is ready for use. It salted water (about one litre). The water, which may be preserved for two months or longer. Care prevents contact with the air, penetrates slowly into should be taken to keep out the maggots. the mixture. When it has been absorbed or evapo- The season of manufacture lasts from the end rated, more water is added. About one litre of of February till the end of March. water is needed every 20 days for a jar containing -. 1 picul (= 60 kg.). The preparation of paak usually Mum-ruot (Cambodian paste made with fish entrails). takes about three months. The jar is closed by means of matting, leaves of the fan palm or banana Mam-mot is a product of rural manufacture leaves. and local consumption, especially on the great lakes Palk may be consumed after one month of of Cambodia where the people are very poor (Breymann, 1902; Le Poulain, 1939, priv. comm.) fermentation and it is not absolutely necessary to . This rnam is principally manufactured from the await the prescribed period of three months. entrails and the flesh of the following fish: Mum-ca-sat (Cambodiatt fish paste containing roasted Ca-bong (Okhiocejhalus micropeltes C.V.) rice). Ca-Ioc (Ophiocephalus striatus 331.) Ophiocep halids This rnam is a kind of pra-hoc which is manu- factured in Cambodia with a small kind of fish called Ca-su (Pseudosciaena sp.) Sciaenid Ca-sat or Trey-chveat (Pangasius sp.Silurid) Le The e~trailsare washed, and mixed with the Poulain, 1939, priv. comm.) . The fish are headed, flesh cut in1 strips. The operation which follows is gutted and washed thoroughly for half an hour. the same as that for mam-ca-sat. They are cut into pieces, which are salted in propor- When the heads of the fish are used instead of tion of 1 kg. salt to 7 kg. fish. The whole mass is the entrails, the product is called mam-dau mixed well and put in a jar. As in the manufacture (Breymann, 1902). of pra-hoc, the mass is pressed under bamboo mat with stones on top, and remains for six to ten days Mum-seing, (Cambodian paste df fish eggs). in a jar. After that time the fish is transformed This rnam is prepared from the eggs of certain to a paste, which is then mixed with roasted and fish of the lakes of Cambodia, during the months of pounded rice. The paste is returned to the jar and April or May. The eggs of Ca-bong and Ca-loc is ready for consumption in ten days. The rnam are especially used for this preparation. is offered to the public in the form of round lumps, which are for sale in every Cambodian market. 60 kgs, of the eggs are mixed with 10 kgs. of salt. After this mass has been partly dried, it is This rnam may be kept for several years if the mixed with 4 kgs. of roasted rice. It is then pre- jars are hermetically sealed. In order to give an served in jars for two months before it is ready for agreeable flavour, certain Cambodians add to the S preparation green papaya fruit (Carica Papaya L) consumption and may be kept as long as to 6 or pineapple (Ananas comosz~s (L.) Merr.) and months. pounded ginger (Zingiber oficinale Rosc.) Padec, (fish paste with rice hzds from Laos). Mum-ca-loc (Cambodinn fish paste prepared with The padec from Laos is somewhat similar to the sugar and roasted rice). pra-hoc from Cambodia. differing only in some This rnam is manufactured from fillets of Ca-loc small details of preparation. (Ojhiocephalus strjatus Bl.) (Chevey & Le Poulain, For the preparation of padec, the fish are headed 1940). and gutted, sliced, and piled for three days in hang- After the fish are beheaded, scaled and evisce- ing baskets under the pressure of stones without rated, the bones are cut out. The fillets, thus any salt being added. During this time a stinking obtained are salted on both sides, transferred into a juice trickles from the container. Next the mass jar, and allowed to stand under pressure for 10 to is removed, pounded with salt, and placed in another 30 days; after this lapse of time the salted lumps hanging basket, made from twisted leaves of fan- are taken out and chopped together with ginger palms. In this basket the whole mass is again (Zingiber oficinale Rosc.) , sugar, pineapple (Ananas kept under pressure and the pickle is allowed to comosus (L.) hlerr.), roasted rice and mak-hak. The drain for another two or three days After this the paste is again pounded with more salt and a small Mam-tom of four months is sold at a rate of 5 amount of rice husks is added. Finally the paste piasters per petroleum tin, conraining 15 litres. is transferred into jar!, in which it is allowed to (1918). season. Mam-moc (shrimp paste from Cambodia) . No data are available on the proportions used, but the analysis of several samples revealed a salt The &am-ruoc on the other hand is made from content of about and moisture content of 50 fresh water shrimps instead of the sea shrimps to 60%. utilized for the manufacture of Cambodian mam- The Laotians utilize the padec just as the Cam- tom (PQtillot, 1911; Le Poulain, 1939, priv. comm.) . The data available do not permit us to judge whether bodians do the pra-hoc to flavour the rice or the soup, the preparation involves any other essential difference but if it is necessary it may be the principal food from the mam-tom manufacture. together with rice. I wish to call attention here to the two words Mam-tom (shrimp paste from Annam and Cochin- mot and ruoc; the former refers to the entriils of china) . fish, the latter designates shrimp. Preparations, vcry similar to Cambodian and Laotian This paste is made, from shrimps, along the pastes are reported from Siam Pla-chao and kung-chao coast of Annam and Cochinchina (Rose 8r BrQmond, are made from several kinds of frmh water fish and from 1918; BrBmond, 1919; Brkmond &RosB, 1919). The shrimps respectively, with the addltlon of kao mak, a pre- following species are mentioned as material for this paration of glutinous rice. In the case of pla-chao, the mam (Gruvel, 192 5, p, 104). fish (= pla) are dressed, washed, salted and stored in jars for 3 days. After that. the pieces are washed and Con-tom-chieh (Spirontocaris gibbcrosa M.Edw.) partially dried, and are then, very much as for the Cam- Con-tom-cang (Alphaeus macrochirus Richters) bodm n~am-chao, mixed with the glutmous rice, hut also with a small quantity of potassium nitrate. The Con-tom (Pmaeus scmisaclcatus de Haan mixture is put back into the jars and left to fennent (= P. monodon (Fabr.) for 1 month. Alcock) , probably identical with Bang-kang. If shrimps (= kong) are used, (either marine or Besides ~aq-kan~,Bremond ( 191 9 ) mentions from fresh water) they are heacled, washed and salted in a proportion of 1 part of salt to 3 parts of shrimp. three other names, Bang-kang-proun, Praht and After 3 days kao-rnak is added, but in case no kao-mak Kompus, some of which are perhaps identical with is available, a mixture of roasted rice and sesame is used the above mentioned species. as a substitute. After being returned to the jar, and The mam-tom is prepared in several ways being left to ferment for 8-10 days, the kung-chao is ready for consumption, and can be kept about 2-3 depending upon the region. The liquid is never months without putrefaction. utilized as such, since shrimps give only a small Pla-chom and kung-chom are mentioned as Siamese quantity of pickle. One form of preparation is fish or shrimp products prepared with cooked rice. After reported by Bremond and Rose (see also Gruvel, the usual preliminary treatment; the fish or small shrimps 1925, p. 247). are salted and kept under pressure in jars. The mixing with cooked rice is carried out after several days. Then A quantity of 12 kg. of shrimps is mixed by the mixture is transferred back to the jars and again left hand with 1 kg. of salt, and then placed in a large to season for some dam under a tight cwer, after which jar or in a tub. After 24 hours, the shrimps are the preparation is finished with the addition of powdered removed and pressed to squeeze out the pickle, which roasted rice. In a few days, the pla-chom ancl the kung- is kept for later use. The shrimps are half dried chom can be eaten raw wit11 wgetaisles. and then rubbed to a paste, made as Pla-mam is a fish paste, usuaIlv prepared by Catholic fine as possible, for the quality of the product is Siamese. Fresh Ophiocephalus striatus B!. ancl 0. micro- oeltes C.V. are used esclusi~ely. The fish are first headed, based on the fineness of the paste. This paste is scaled, gutted, filietecl and then sliced into pieces. Only returned to the jar or small tub utilized in the flesh and stomach are used; these are mixed together beginning, and the pickle is poured over the doughy with fine salt and roasted powdered rice. The mixture is mass which is stirred with a stick. Sometimes the then tightly pressed in jars, ancl left for 5-6 months. pickle is boiled before adding it to the paste. The After that it is taken out and mixed n.ith some honey or sliced pine-apple and replaced in the jar for seasoning. mixture is then exposed to the sun for two weeks Pla-mam is either eaten ran. nith vegetables, or steamed or longer. The whole process requires a month and with cocoanut milk and some additional ingredients. the mam thus prepared keeps for an almost un- Another important area of production of oaste fishen limited time. Its quality even seems to improve products outside Indochina is Malaya. n-it11 the opposite with age. The product is' stored in containers and Sumatra coast and the ceiqhbo!~rin? sixaller is!ands. according to the demand is molded into balls for Enomlous quantities of belaclian ismull ll~sidshrimps) sale (Breymann, 1902). are repeatedl~ dried. saltcd and pounded into a paste, which is also called belachan. Though the real belachan The fishing season is during the south monsoon is made only of the small Mysid shrimps, very often stale from the end of April to the end of September, and rotten fish are also worked up in the large scale September being the most productive month. production of thexe pastes. The ready product is packed in cylindrical packages of matting (made from palm or The manufacture of nuoc-mam requires for panclan leaves). The largest manufacturing and exporting equipment only one or more series of vats; five vats p!aces for be'achan are B3ga11 Si A?i Api in Siak constitute the minimum number in a series. The (Sumatra), and Bagan Luar, opposite Penang (Malaya ) . vats, which are of cylindrical shape, are made of 111 this Chinese and Malay mass production, the profit mainly depends on quantity, and hence control of quality the native wood bang-lang (Lagerstroemia sp.) and is often neglected. A high quality Mysid shrimp paste is, chui-lieu (Terminalia sp.) , encircled with ,braided or however, procluced on the north coast of Java. In twisted bamboo. Their dimensions are the follow- Javanese, this prodnct is designated as terasi. ing: diameter 1.25 m. to 1.70 m. and height 1.40 m. C. Pickles. to 1.50 m. These vats are provided .at the. base with one Nuoc-man. (fish pickle from Annam and Cochin- or two taps, simple tubes of bamboo closed with a china) . wooden spigot covered at the end with a piece of The manufacture of nuoc-mam has been des- cloth. At the inner side of the opening the tap is cribed in detail and adequately investigated (Legrand buried beneath shells sometimes mixed with rice de la Liraye, 1869; Tirant, 188 5, c.f. Chevey, 1929, husks. This heap of shells is piled against the wall p. 106; Baurac, 1898; Rosb, 1918, a,b,c, 1919, a; covering the tap to a height of about 40 cm. The Mesnard & Rose, 1920; Gruvel, 1925; Guillerm, inner opening of the tap is filled with a tuft of hair 1928). The most detailed and original information in order to improve the filtering power of the on the nuoc-mam industry and its chemical aspects apparatus, and the liquid escapes only in a small is found in Rose's classical pilblications (chiefly stream. Bull. Econ. de I'Indochine but also Ann. Inst. Pasteur, The relative quantity of salt to fish varies with Paris) . the species of fish used, and also with the different Nuoc-mam is a fish pickle obtained by salting strata of the vat. To some species of fish propor- small fish, usually Clupeids not over 20 cm. long. tionally more salt is added to the upper stratum than Literally the name nuoc-mam means "saltish fish to the middle or the bottom. The relative number water". of baskets of fish and salt are the following. The production of nuoc-mam is an active indus- try, the most important centres of manufacture 1 1 being situated in the province of Binh-Tuan (South i bottom middle . top Annam) and on the island of Phu-Quoc. Other Ca-coin, 4 5 centres of production exist all along the coast and 5 it is not an exaggeration to say that wherever the Ca-moi or Ca-tap 5 people fish, nuoc-mam is manufactured in more or A small quantity of salt is added to each less large quantities. measure of fish and stirred to bring about uniform In the primitive manufacture (Baurac, 1898) salting. After the vat is filled to the brim, a small fish are first kneaded and pressed by hand and mixture of salt and fish is placed on top of the vat then placed with salt in earthenware pots which are to form a conical heap, and more salt is added to tightly sealed. These are then buried in the ground cover the whole mass completely. and left there several months. Finally they are dug After the salted fish have stood fpr three days, up, opened and the pickle that has formed is carefuIly the initial pickle, the so-called nuoc-boi, is drained decanted. This is the nuoc-mam. off slowly during about three days. The procedure of large scale manufacture, as According to Guillerm (1930, p. 128) the practiced at Mui-Ne in South Annam, is described turbid and reddish brown pickle loses its co!our by Rose. In this industry' the following fish are easily and becomes clear on contact with the air. used as raw material: Meanwhile the fish have settled below the top I Sfo!rpbovzrs sbj, Ca-com- of the vat, and the pi!e of salt has almost dis- I Cl~r$eoidrs lile Bk. 1 Clupeids. appeared. The fish are now tramped thoroughly so Ca-!ey- Engrazr/t.i nrjsfnu (B!. Schn.) that the upper surface is smooth. Fina!ly the fish Ca-mci- Dorosonza naszr (B!och. ) must be placed 'under pressure. In order to do this, Ca-nut-- Dr+trrzrs sjj, Carangids. the surface is covered with a layer of cocoanut leaves Ca-ta p- 712i.v-frtre of t~rionsspecies and taw semicircular bamboo trays with the parallel sides touching. Then some slats are placed on top, The undissolved fish residuum, the so called xat- and pressure is obtained by forcing wedges between mam or nuoc-xat is obcained as a byproduct, and is the slats and two 'bars fixed transversally to form a usually sold as ferti!izer. clamp. When using the fish, Ca-moi (Dorosoma nasus Next the nuoc-boi at first kept aside is ~oured Bloch:) as the raw material, an oil is also obtained which floats to the surface during seasoning (Mar- over the fish in order to maintain a layer of liquid celet, 1929). In the following pages this product of about 10 cm. over the fish. This is said to will be discussed in more detail. prevent the fish from becoming contaminated with fly larvae. The fish are left standing to macerate; The second centre of production is the island the length of time depends upon the species of fish of Phu-Quoc, in the Gulf of Siam near the coasts used: of Cochinchina and Cambodia. Here the manu- facture is not uniform, and several methods are used Ca-nuc = 4% months; Ca-com and Ca-lep = differing only in slight detail. One of these methods 3 5 months; Ca-moi and Ca-tap = 1 year. is fully given by RosB (1918 a). After this lapse of time, the pickle is permitted In this procedure several kinds of Ca-corn are to run off at a rate of 40 to 60 jars (of 7 litres used, e.g. each) per 24 hours. The first pickle to be drawn off Ca-soc-trang Stolepkorus hctcrolobus Riipp. is nuoc-mam of first quality or nuoc-nut. The Ca-soc-phan Stolephorus indims v. Hass. quantity of nuoc-nut recovered from each vat may Ca-soc-tieu Stolcphorus tri (Bllir.) be as much as 60 to 80 jars. Ca-corn-do Stolephorus zollingmi (Blkr.) The vats emptied of the first harvest of nuoc- The season lasts from the end of August till the mam are then leached in order to increase the yield middle of February, with the highest production in with a second quality product. In order to obtain October and November. The fisheries are especially this increased yield, fresh brine is poured over the fruitful during the period of the monsoon change. fish in the first vat of a series; the second quality nuoc-mam so obtained is then tapped, again at a rate A number of vats made of the wood boi-loi 2, of 40 to 60 jars a day. As soon as the quality joined with bark of the tree tram (Melaleuca leu- becomes inferior, the extract from the first vat is used cadendra L.-M. cajzrputi Roxb.) constitute the to leach the second vat and so on, leaching each vat major part of the equipment for manufacture. These vats rather vary in size and in form, but as a of a series with a fluid which has already passed rule the vat content is about 20 to 30 piculs of fish through the foregoing vats in succession. In this and 12 piculs of salt. The ratio of salting thus way, $00 to 800 jars of liquid are passed through ranges from 1:3 to 1:2. each of the vats. Immediately after the catch, the fish and the Before leaching, the covering layer of leaves is salt are mixed by hand, thrown into the vat, piled removed, and the exposed fish must be again covered high above the top and the whole is then covered with salt. Sometimes a hole is made in the centre of salt. the residual mass, and caramel is added. This ingredient darkens the colour and imparts a certain After 3 days, the initial pickle or nuoc-boi flavour to the product. At the same time this pro- is tapped and kept separate. The heap of fish is cedure is said to improve the keeping properties of levelled and pressed below the top of the vat, covered nuoc-mam of the poorer quality (RosC, 1918, a,c; with leaves of the nipa palm (Nipa fruticans Guillerm, 1928). About 30 years ago, german dyes Thunb.), and with a tray cov&ing the whole. The (fucsin) were imported and used to darken the contents of the vat are then kept under heavy product but they did not improve the keeping pro- pressure by crossed slats held in position by clamps. perties (Rosk, 1918 a, p. 159). The nuoc-boi is then poured over the fish. At Mui-Ne, Ca-moi and Ca-tap are ordinarily Ten days later (that is on the 13th day from used for the preparation of a pickle which is taken the beginning) the pickle is again tapped. The first after 3 to 5 months to leach the vats with the other half of it has a bad odour and is poured back over species. This procedure adds to the production and the fish, the second half of the pickle is the nuoc- yields a greater quantity. mam of first quality.

2 it is not quite clear whether the author means Tritasis garrdi-chaudii Baillon (Euphorbiacee) or Litsca rang Lecomte (Lauuracee). The Annamite names of these two species differ but in some accents, not indicated b!. Rose.

( 135 After 10 more days (that is, on the 23rd day of tinh keeps the poor product from putrefying. from the beginning) all the pickle is drained off. Because of the inferior quality produced, Rosk has The greater part of this h;trvest is of second quality, mentioned the practice without appreciation, but only the last fifth being of first quality. nevertheless these native preservation techniques are Then a small portion of the residual fish is trans- very remarkable and deserve scientific research. ferred to a small container, and stirred with a boiling In ~orthAnnam the residual fish mass is some- brine (60 kg. of salt and 280 1. water). The liquid times worked up into mam, after the first nuoc- thus prepared is poured over the contents of the marn is tapped. This is practised according to the large vat. After 10 days or on the 33rd day from demand for mam and for nuoc-mam. the beginning, the new pickle is tapped, and poured A special variation of nuoc-mam preparation is back over the fish. This is repeated after 10 days. reported from the province of Cantho in the extreme At last, on the 63rd day, the pickle is drained, the West of Cochinchina (Chevey, 193 1, p. 29) Here first 70% being of 3rd quality and the last 30% . the fish are first gutted and then salted as in the 2nd quality. pra-hoc preparation. Pineapple juice is added after- The leaching is repeated three times, the last wards to effect the digestion of the flesh. extraction requiring three months and a 3rd quality In Tonkin nuoc-mam is prepared from fresh nuoc-mam results. water fish. The procedure differs only in one respect Though at Phu-Quoc several different from the ordinary manufacture, the fish being gutted procedures are employed, they all agree in one before salting. respect, namely that the harvest starts much earlier In the South the nuoc-mam is marketed in than at Mui-Ne. This is perhaps not due to the earthen pots containing 3 to 3 litres; in the North difference in methods, but may be ascribed to the (Tonkin and North Annam) it is marketed in large more delicate fish at Phu-Quoc, in which digestion tins or in large, internally glazed earthen pots of takes place easily. over 100 litres. All these containers. when filled From North Annam considerable variation in with nuoc-mam, must bear a label with legend "nuoc- methods has been reported by Rose (1918 c). It mam of the South" or "nuoc-mam of the North" would be confusing to cite all these details, and and an indication that the contents conform to regu- therefore we shall confine our attention to some cases lations. This legend must be given in three langu- that are of special interest. ages: French, Chinese and Quo-ngu (Cordemoy, At Ly-Nhon rather large fish (30 cm.) are 1932). salted in the round, one picul of salt being used for The market price of nuoc-mam varies from 0.03 two piculs of fish. Some days later the nuoc-boi is to 0.40 piasters per litre, averaging from 0.10 to 0.20 tapped and poured back over the fish. Four months piasters (Rod, 19 18 a & c) later, a certain quantity of brine and caramelised . honey is added in order to obtain the 1st quantity The nuoc-marn production of Indochina is nuoc-mam. After leaching, the residual fish is consumed almost completely by the inland trade, cooked in brine, which is then used for the leaching although formerly exports were made to Siam and of other containers involved in the production. Malaya. It is not easy to determine the total annual production so that the estimates range from 3 5,000 At Dong-Hoi the fish is salted in proportion to 100,000 tons of nuoc-mam per annum (Gruvel, of 1 basket of salt to 3 baskets of fish. After 15' days the nuoc-boi is tapped. Then roasted and 1925, p. 246; Cordernoy, 1932). The economic pounded maize is mixed with the fish, the nuoc-boi part played by the nuoc-rnam is some regions may is cooked and poured over the fish when boiling. be estimated from the amount of salt hsed. In the year 1921 the total salt used in the province of Binh- At Guong-Giang the nuoc-boi is usually tapped Tuan aggregated 15, 130,800 kgs., 15,000,000 kgs. and boiled on the 3rd or 4th day, while roasted rice of which were intended for the manufacture of is added to the fish instead of maize. The addition 40,618,160 litres of nuoc-mam (Guillerm, 1928, of roasted rice is also reported from many other p. 36). places in North Annam, especially when the fish is slightly salted, e.g. at a proportion of 1 to 10 in The most important markets for this product weight. in the South are those of Saigon and Cochinchina, As a general feature of nuoc-mam preparation which consume the well known products of Binh- in North Annam, we may note economy in use of Tuan and of the island of Phu-Quoc. For the North salt and excessive leaching of the fish. In many (North Annam and Tonkin) the markets of Nam- cases the boiling of the nuoc-boi, and the addition Dinh and of Hanoi may be mentioned, which are, however, far less important than those of the South Ga-bong (Ophiocephalus micropeltes C.V.) (Cordemoy, 1932). (Chevey & Le Poulain, 1940). During the worl'd war of 1914-18, the shipping 10 kg. of unwashed livers are salted with 1 kg. of nuoc-mam became urgent for the supply of of salt. This mixture is placed in jars, which are Annamite troops in Europe. The earthern pots of exposcd.to the sun for eight to ten days for active 5 to 6 litres proved .to be rather unsatisfactory. In fermentation. After this lapse of time, 10 litres order to meet the difiiculty, the volume of the nuoc- of pickle and half digested livers are poured in a mam was reduced by evaporation and the heavy shallow iron pan, together with 7 litres of water and syrup thus obtained, could be easily packed in tins gr. sugar. Then the liquid is boiled for one RosB, 1919 d) . The evaporation was carried hour, in order to dissolve the livers. The product out in pots placed in hot sand over a fire, and a thus obtained is strained through a cloth and finally continuous stirring prevented the boiling mass from filtered through Chinese paper. scorching. For use 1 kg. of the condensed product The nuoc-mam-gau-ca is now 'ready for imme- was diluted with 3% litres of water, yielding 4 litres of nuoc-mam. 50 cc. of the diluted product make diate use, or it may be stored in tightly sealed jars a man's ration. and preserved for many years. Nuoc-mam is said to be submitted to continued Nzcoc-mam-ruoc (shrimp Pickle from the Gulf of evaporation and sold dry. This is practised only Siam ) . occasionally in the Northern provinces Merle, 1880). When shrimps are treated in the same way as Ca-mam (a fish pickle reported from Tonkin and fish, and some brine is added, a product analogous Siam). to nuoc-mam, but of quite a different flavour is obtained. This is the so called nuoc-mam-ruoc, Ca-mam is a fish pickle of far less import- which gets its name from the fact that it is prepared ance than nuoc-mam, made in Tonkin and from ruoc, a type of shrimp found aIong the islands Siam of fresh water fish, and concerning which there of the Gulf of Siam (Tirant, 188 5, cf. Chevey, 1929, is only scanty .reference in literature (Chevey & p. 47). Lemasson, 1937, p. 182). The preparation is described as follows: the fish The me of tinh (roasted rice or maize) and other are gutted and mixed with salt in the proportion of additional ingredients. 1 part of salt to 2 parts of fish; sometimes some alcohol and chopped leaves of the betel (Piper betle The preparation of several mams includes the L.) are added, and the whole mixture put into a jar, addition of tinh (that is, roasted and pounded rice or which is carefully closed. The ca-mam thus obtain- maize, screened or unscreened). The a'ction of ed can be consumed after two months. adding the roasted matter is also called tinh. After the addition of tinh, the salted fish remains firmly Tsk-trey (boiled fish pickle from Cambodia). pressed in the jars, and afterwards is usually exposed to the sun. This is a preservation technique, that Tuk-trey is a liquid condiment obtained as a is applied also to the large scale production, and byproduct in the manufacture of salted and dried deserves special attention because of its advantages fish on the lakes of Cambodia (Chevey & Le Poulain, (Chevey, 1938, priv. comm.). 1940) . 1. The pickle from the brine tanks is boiled and The tinh is said to retard the rate of dis- integration a certain extent, thus improving the then strained through an old salt sack. This filter- " ing is repeated twice, a finer cloth being used the keeping property of the rnam. last time. After this, the pickle is boiled again 2. The tinh gives a special dour which is for 5 minutes and then transferred into iars which desired and demanded on the market. The odour are tightly sealed. The tuk-trey may be preserved depends on the type of tinh used. The roasted and for one year. This product replaces the nuoc-mam pounded rice is much used in Cochinchina and in the diet of the coolies on the lakes, but the even more in Cambodia. The maize is used parti- nitrogen content of the substitute is much inferior cularly in Annam and also in Tonkin. to that of the real nuoc-mam. 3. The tinh gives to the mam a reddish colour, more desirable for commercial use than the greenish ATvoc-mnm-gau-ca (fish liver pickle from Canzbodia). coIour of the fish that is preserved with salt only. This product is prepared from the livers of The reddish colour is not obtained with the tinh Ca-tra (Clnrzas sp.) and of without the combined action of the sun, which makes the manufacture of mam with the addition of tinh material is cooked with fresh water in iron pots, and possible only in the dry season.. ' after several hours the floating oil>h gathered with a 4. The tinh is said I% counteract the salt taste wooden spoon, then roughly decanted and stored in of the products under the action of the sun. petroleum tins. Since the entrails used for the pro- The use of tinh is also reported in the preparation cedure are already putrid before being cooked, the of salted and dried fish in Tonkin (Chevey & oil has an offensive odour. Lemasson, 1937, p. 182) and in the manufacture On the coast of Annam near Phan-Ri and Phan- of nuoc-mam in North Annam (Rose, 1918 c). TiCt, the oil is extensively obtained oniy from Ca- This vractice is not confined to Indochina. but is moi (Dorosoma nasus Bloch.) (Clupied) during the known also in Siam and South Borneo. months of February, March, April and May, and again Tinh and rice bran are likely to contain in November and December. The last season is antioxidants, and these perhaps aid in improving the especially favourable for oil making, since the Ca- keeping property of the products. On the other moi are exceedingly fat at this time. The oil is hand, the caramelised compounds in the roasted obtained by cooking the fish with brine in petroleum ingredients perhaps exert some bactericidal activity. tins. Layers of fish and layers of salt are alternately The preserving action which is attributed to placed in the tins and a 10% brine is poured over cooked rice and such like fermenting ingredients it. After 7 hours cooking the liquid is poured off, suggests the formation of organic acids (e.g. lactic allowed to cool and the oil is then decanted. One petroleum tin, containing 20 kg. Ca-moi, wilI give acid) or other compounds, checking protein putre- one litre of oil. faction. In conclusion, we may state that our under- The cooked Ca-moi remains in the tins that have standing of these o!d empirical preservation techni- been used for the operation; after having been ques is, to say the least, still very incomplete. The thoroughly drained, the containers with the fish are subject is highly complex, involving a variety of sent to Cochinchina, where it is highly esteemed chemical and biochemical aspects. as food. Ca-moi oil also obtained as a byproduct in the D. Fish oil. manufacture of nuoc-mam, as we have already noted in the preceding pages. In this process salt is used Prcjaration methods. in a proportion of three baskets of Ca-moi to one Most of the fatty matter, extracted from fish, basket of sa!t. This mixture is allowed to season in is completely liquid at 3oCC, which is a normal large vats of 3 tons capacity. As has been described temperature for the country, so that it may be con- previously, the pickle is drained for three days. Then sidered fish oil. The trade, however, makes a distinc- the tap is closed, and the contents pressed by a tion between "huile" (=oil), and "graisse" (=grease), bamboo tray with stones on top, and the pickle that the former being prepared from sea fish, the latter has been kept aside is again poured over it. The from fresh water fish. seasoning for the nuoc-mam manufacture takes seve- Native oil reduction on a large scale is practised ral months, but within a few days the oil will float with fresh water fish of Cambodia (Finelle, 1923; on the surface, where it is gathered as soon as it Chevey & Le Poulain, 1939, 1940), and with sea appears. One vat of 3 tons capacity, in which the fish on the coast of Annarn in the province of Phan- quantity of sal~amounts to 1250 kg. and the fresh. Tibt (Marce!et, 1929). Ca-moi to 1800 kg., will yield 170 litres of oil with the fat Ca-moi of October-November, and 100 litres In the primitive manufacture of fish oil, the with the medium fat Ca-moi 3f Marcb-.june. Cambodians extract a certain quantity of oil by rudi- mentary means, chiefly from the entrails. The raw he commercial quality of oil depends on the material is exposed to the sun on trays, the oil amount of foreign material that remains in suspen- separates and trickles down into the pots below, sion, and also on the quantity of water in the bottom containing a little water. When the pots are full, of the tins. The decantation of the oil is usually they are allowed to stand in the sun for several carried out rather carelessly so that considerable days, and the oil gradually floats to the surface of quantities of water and of flaky detritus that wi!I the putrid liquid. The oil is skimmed off with a nct separate easily, are poured off with the oil, giving large wooden spoon and transferred to tins it a t-xbid appearance. in which the stinking oil is usually stored. The foreign material is estimated at sight by the In addition to this primitive procedure, Cambo- buyers. The water content is estimated by dipping dians prepare oil by cooking small fish (Cyprinids) a stick, with dry rags attached, to the bottom of the or the entrails of the fish used for drying. The raw container; the rags absorb oil, and water if present. If the rags contain water, they will not burn, or only with mach crackling; if they contain subsequent!^ qaantitative analysis was made oil they will burn without noise. by the following mithods: Cantamination is ~ractisedby emulsifying water Cilrltion of samples: For analytical purpose nuoc- in the oil (Finelle, 1923.). When heated, a cdn- man1 sapples are clilnted twentltljfold. taminated sample will deposit a pasty substance, Aciditv: 50 cc. of diluted nuoc-mam are transferred which will not liquefy, since it contains starch and into nu Erlcnme!~r-fiask; 4 drops of a 370 alcol~olic cellulcse debris originating from the broken rice or phenolphthalein solution adclcci and titmtion farried out the rice husks used for emulsifying the water. with 0.1 N NaOII. In native life, the fish oil is principally used in Total 11itrogen jafter Kjeldahlj : 10 cc. of diluted mot-mnam, 15 cc. of solfuric acid and I drop of mercury, lamps. Possibilities of modern industrial application are trausfcrrccl into a Kjeldahl-flask of 700 to 800 cc. have been investigated by Marcelet, 1928, b, 1929), Conlpletc digestion is accomplisl~ed by 11eating in the and will be discussed in our third section. usua! way. Ncst abont 250 cc. of distillecl water and Foreign commerce in fish oil is of notable im- about 2 g. of sodiunl hypophosphite are added and the mixture slightly l~eatecl 1rntiI all the mercury has bcen portance. About 1500 tons of oil are exported turned into a gray precipitate. Excess soclium hydroxide annually from Cambodia to other countries in the solution is adclccl and about 2/3 of the total volume clis- Far East, and Northern Europe. One picul of 62 tilled in a suitable apparatus jafter the method of d'Aubin kg. costs 8 piasters (Chevey & Le Poulain, 1938, or Celattre) and col!ectcd in a receiver of 250 cc. of 1940). 0.1 N H,SO, and i cc. of cochincal tincture. Titration is carried out with sodium hydroside solution until the cochineal turns violet. 11. SECTION CHEMICAL RESELCaRCH Volatilc bases: 50 cc. of diluted mot-mam 100 cc. A. Muac-marn and died products. of distilled water, some magnesia and scvcral picces of pumice stone, arc placcd in a distilling flask of 600 to Prchinary tests. 800 cc. cxpacity. Distillation and titration are carried out in the same way as in the dctcnnination of total The inferior quality nuoc-mam is often produced nitrogen. by excessive lixiviation. The manufacturer is able Form01 titratable ~~itrogcit(after Sore~iscn ~uodified to judge the quality of the nuoc-mam by the by Effront) : quantity obtained. For the buyers, however, it is (Effront.-Les ntalysenrs biochimiqucs claos la vie not such an easy matter, but it is said that one can et dam l'industrie.- Edition 13;unocl & Pinat, Paris, 1914). roughly estimate the quality by the persistance of This detcmmination requires the following reagents: the odour on a finger dipped in to it. The dour 1) . A solution containing 0.5% pllci~o~pl~tl~alei~~in 50% of excessively leached nuoc-mam is washed off easily, alcol~ol. 2) Litmus pper of high scmivity. 3) A for- but that of first quality nuoc-mam persists. maldehycle solution, fresh!y prcparcd in the folldwi~~gway: To 50 cc. of comnmcial formaldchydc, 2 cc. of the The practice of excessive leaching has led to an phenolphthalein is adclcd, and 0.1 N NaOII, sufficient to inquiry into the customary methods of manufacture, tnn~thc co!our pink. 4) A xlturatccl sohtion of baryta, and a chemical investigation was made at the same Ra(ON), in metll!d a!cohol. In order to arxy out the time. The methods of analysis have been described defennination, 50 cc. of diluted nuoc-rnam, 1 cc. of in detail (ROSE,1918 a; Guillerm, 1928), partly sohiion of phenolphthaicin in 5070 alcohol, and 2 g. of in connection with maintaining legal standards. BaCI, arc transfcrrcd kto a gnduatcd flask of 100 cc. capcity. Tllc l~antasolution is then added drop by The chemical investigations started with a series drop, sufficient to givc the solution a pink colour, and an of qualitative tests: additional 5 cc. added. The solr~tionis allowed to stand Millon's test. When diluted nuoc-mam is for a quarter of an hour, and theil filtered if neceswy. The first detcainicat~on is done with 2; cc. of this heared with acetic acid, a slight turbidity indicates filtrate, d~ichis first madc neutra; to litnlus paper with traces of albumines. 0.1 N IICI. Then 1@ cc. of the for11101 solution is After heating and filtering the nuoc-mam in added, making the liquid acid; it is now titrated with order to free it cf albumines, neither a) picric acid 0.1 N XaOI-I until the co!our turns pink. b) Briicke's reagent nor c) a 1OC/; solution tri- A seco~:d titration is carricd out with another 25 cc. chioracetic acid gives any precipitate, indicating that uf the filtrate. no proteoses are present. Amino acids: Thc amount of nitrogen of amino acids is calcn'atecl by ntbtracting the nitrogen of volatile A positive biuret reaction reveals traces of pep- bases iron tlic fonnol titrat:~b!e nitrogen. tone. Chloricl'es. iaftcr Char~~er~fic~-~'oll~arcl~: 10 cc. of Tryptophane is easiiy detected by the violet diluted nuoc-mm, 50 cc. 0.; S :\gTO, solution. 5 cc. colour and by the precipitate, given by bromine saturated ferric alun solution: 5 cc. strong pure IISO, an6 water. 130 cc. of distilled water, are transierred into an Erlen- meyer flask of 250 cc. capacity. The solution is titntecl Willstiitter. Although the results of this investiga- back with 0.1 N KCNS until red. tion are unreliable in detail, polypeptic, purinic, diamino-acid and ammonia nitrogen seem to have Nitrogen partition in nrro:-mom and legislation. been detected. As a result of the pioneering research of Rod it was stipulated in the decree -of December Some years later the investigation of nuoc-mam 21st, 1916 that the total amount of nitrogen might was undertaken once more by M. Autret & A. vary from 15 to 25 g. per litre, and the amount of Vialard-Goudou ( 19 39). organic nitrogen from 10 to 20 g:per litre. $0 to The tryptophane known as an indispensable con- 77% of the total of nitrogen must be titratable stituent of the human diet, was examined first. with form01 (amino acids and volatile bases) and After a careful choice among the methods described no more than one half of this nitrogen may belong in literature, the authors adapted the colorimetric to volatile bases (principally ammonia). method after Voisenet ( 1905, BulE. Soc, Chint, Vol. This matter was again settled by decree on 33, p. ,1198) modified by Furth & Lieben (1920, April 23rd, 1933. Since then the total amount of Bioch. Zcit. Vol. 109, p. 124). The reaction is nitrogen required is: based on a violet coloration caused by tryptophane in the presence of formaldehyde and sodium nitrite, for nuoc-nut 18 gr. per litre. in a strong hydrochloric medium. This reaction for nuoc-mam of the South 15 g. per litre and appeared not to be disturbed by the presence of NaCl. for nuoc-mam of the North 1 g. per litre. The colour readings were carried out with an According to the decree promulgated by the electric photo-calorimeter, using a red screen. 72 Governor General (October 13 th, 193 3 ) certain samples have been tested in this way and the trypto- tolerances for the nitrogen contents are allowed. phane content turned out to range from 0.2 1 g. to A tolerance of 4 g. per litre is allowed for nuoc-nut 1.31 g. per litre. In conformity with the decree of and for nuoc-marn of the South and a tolerance of October 13th 1933, the tryptophane content in 2 g. per litre for nuoc-mam of the North. ordinary samples varies from 0.29 to 0.55 g. with a A nuoc-mam df 20 g. total nitrogen should mean value of 0.37 g. contain at least 240 g. NaCl per litre, whereas 200 g. Contrary to the tryptophane determination, rhe per Iitre is sufficient for qualities richer in nitrogen methods for other amino-acids, as for instance (Guillerm, 1928, p. 48). A slight salting of the tyrosin and arginin do not hold good in ordinary fish causes putrefaction, in other words a predomin- nuoc-mam (Autret & Vialard-Goudou, 1940). This ance of ammonia nitrogen over the amino acids. w is due to the considerable quantities of NaCl present Excessive salting on the other hand, reduces the in the samples (210-290 g. per litre). ammonia-amino acid ratio to a minimum, but at the same time retards the digestion of the proteins, In order to remove the salt, the samples are thus keeping down the nitrogen content of the evaporated under low pressure and the residuum is nuoc-mam (Rosk, 1918 a). washed in a mixture of 100 cc. alcohol (94-9~%) The proportion of nitrogen of volatile bases and 20 cc. strong hydrochloric acid. In this mixture (ammonia etc.) to amino acid nitrogen may be NaCl dissolves but little, so that the salt crystals roughly judged by the pH, for the reaction should remain behind. The soIution is again evaporated at be acid to phenol-red. In order to have inferior and low pressure and the residuum is finally dissolved even putrid nuoc-mam meet this requirement, boil- in water. ing is sometimes resorted to, though this was not The authors made certain that* the nitrogen the intention of the law. partition remained unaltered by this treatment. In In chemical composition nuoc-mam greatly this work considerable experience was gained in the resemb!es the so called soyou, a Japanese sauce, made determination of some amino-acids. Suitable of soy-beans (Soya hispida Sieb. et Zucc.) (Rosh, methods for tyrosin, cystin, arginin, histidin and 1918 b). lysin are listed. As yet no numerical data are given on the composition of nuoc-mam. Sz~pjlerncvtaryresearch on Nzcoc-7nnm. Then a study was made of the sulphur corn- Later an attempt was made to obtain a more pounds of nuoc-mam (A. Vialard-Goudou & Dang- detailed analysis of the partition of the nitrogen in Van-Tien, 1941), to examine the occurrence of nuoc-mam (Peirier & Nguyen-Kim-Kin, 193 3), by decay in which H2S develops. In order to prepare using the methods indicated by Sorensen and by a microbiological investigation the partition of sulphur in nuoc-mam over its principal forms e.g. chloroform, it was believed that the acticn was due total, organic and inorganic compounds was studied. to enzymes. The investigation was, therefore, The determinathn of the inorganic sulphur directed .towards the enzyme action and began with compounds was carried out by precipitating them the study of salt free solutions (Mesnard & Rose, as barium sulphate which only takes place quanti- 1920). tatively under controlled conditions. A ch~oroformextract was prepared by hanging To determine the total quantity of S the bruised fresh fish, wrapped in a cloth, in chloroformr organic sulphur compounds are first mineralized. vapour under low pressure. The juice from the fish The destruction is carried out in a Kjeldahl-flask and was collected for a period of 24 hours and its action is attained by combining an oxidation with nitric on gelatine investigated. The juice thus prepared acid and copper with an oxidation by perchloric from the meat did not liquefy the gelatine, while a acid. The technique needs to be practised in order chloroform extract of the organs, on the other hand, to prevent explosions. After this the total quantity proved to be highly active upon gelatine but this of organic sulphur compounds precipitated as barium action did not continue long. For that reason a sulphate can be determined. preparation was sought that wouId be more per- The quantity of organic sulphur compounds is sistently active. To this end gIycerine extracts computed by subtracting the inorganic sulphur from were prepared as follows: the total sulphur. The fish was bruised and mixed with an equal It was found, that the organic sulphur content weight of gIycerine without the addition of salt, 30°C, of nuoc-mam varies from 0.54 to 1.165 g. per litre, and after standing for 48 hours at was filtered. the greatest amount usually being found in nuoc- This glycerine extract was less active than the mam containing the greatest amount of organic chloroform extract, but remained active longer, and nitrogen. Furthermore the ratio of organic nitrogen was therefore more suitable for further investigation. and organic sulphur was computed, and appeared to The action of these extracts on the following be rather variable, the extreme values being 8.6 and substances was studied: IT.4; it is therefore not possible to deduce the quan- gelatine (liquefaction). tity of organic sulpuhur from the organic nitrogen. coagulated eggwhite (clarification and solution) . In nuoc-mam the quantity of inorganic S sur- peptone (disappearance of biuret reaction and passes the quantity of organic S. There is no increase of amino-acids-form01 titration). correlation between the quantity of inorganic S and In these experiments the salt free extracts were the quantity of salt. preserved from putrefaction by totuol. The results Shortly before the war some additional work were as follows. was done by A. G. van Veen (Eykman Inst. Batavia, Java) (priv. comm. 1940). Dialysis suhtance examinecl gelatine coagulated peptone egg white experiments have demonstrated that in nuoc-mam -- - .-.- .-. .- . - -. .. -... - .-. . . -. . . . -- .. - - - - the proteins have indeed been digested practically fish ineat - - + 100%. Gl!;cerine extract of On special request of Guillerm, van Veen fish organs + '7 + Fish pickle + - - carried out determinations of vitamin BI nu trace of -. which could be detected, and the same was the Thus only the juices of the organs are able to case with the other B vitamins (B2--complex). decompose the proteins from tke beginning, while those prepared from the meat were only active when decomposition had already begun; the latter Many variations in the methods of nuoc-mam being ab!e to decompose the intermediate products preparation have been reported, but they all come such as peptone. The fish ~ickleis not the active to the same fact, that the meat of the fish is dis- agent, since most of the process cakes place in the solved. The pickle contains in the beginning, there- body of the fish. The principal function of the fore, essentially dissolved proteins (biuret reaction). pickle is to hold the decomposition products in The proteins are s!omly decomposed and there are solution and to retard the growth of the aerobic given off principally amino acids (and ammonia). bacteria. Thus the juices of the organs prove to Since the solution of the proteins and the sub- be the most important solvent in the preparation of sequent decomposition into amino acids takes place the nuoc-mam and for that reason a further study even if the entire process is kept sterile by the use of was made of the g!ycerine extract of these organs. Thc cptimum temperature for the action on to economize in the use of salt in the case of nuoc- gelatine proves to lie between 36" and 44°C. mam that is so unstable and alkaline that even satu- Furthermore, it was foundathat the glycerine extract ration with salt would not stop putrefaction. In was active exclusively in a neutral or alkaline some instances it appears possible that a ratio of 1 medium. A weak acid reaction hinders the digestion part of salt by weight to ten parts of fish is sdcient. of coagulated egg-white very markedly and- less In some regions the addition of tinh is supple- amino acids are formed. mented by another process. Thtee or four days Salt also slows up the enzyme action. 20% of after the first salting the pickle is drained off, boiled salt (NaCl) reduced the activity of the enzyme to and again poured over the fish (RosC, 1918 c) . one third. A nuoc-mam of good quality contains In the publication describing this method it was from 20 to 25% of salt. If a specimen contains regarded as a primitive attempt at sterilisation. This Icss salt the enzymes can react better, but unless comparative!^ rough and ready process can, however, some disinfecting medium is used the aerobic bacteria have no real significance in that direction and its true multiply so rapidly that putrefactive action predo- purpose is still obscure. minates. Nitrogen partition in solid condiments. Keeping fioperties. In connection with the investigations on nuoc- As we have seen above, Rosd has stated as a mam, some work has also been done on the solid criterion of good nuoc-mam that the amount of condiments, pra-hoc, pa-dec and mam-tom. formoltitratab!e nitrogen should amount to at least These pastes have a soluble and an insoluble half of the total nitrogen. Should a nuoc-mam content. The solub!e fraction consists of the contain less amino acids it is unstable because of digested flesh, and of the mineral salts, nearly all of the ammonia formed, which may occur even when which originate from the sea. The insoluble fraction the product is sterile. consists of the unaltered parts of the flesh and of TIGs criterion of Rose appears indeed to be a insoluble salts. guarantee of durability. The amino acids themselves When dissolved in water, the solub!e fraction act as preservatives, a fact that is clearly shown in gives a solution, which closely resembles nuoc-mam, the case of the condensed, salt free "nuoc-mam" wen the partition of the nitrogen compounds, but prepared in the laboratory under sterile conditions, the ammonia nitrogen sometimes predominates over and reduced to one quarter of its original volume the amino acid nitrogen especially in older samples. (Guillerm, 1928, p. 39). This liquid may be kept Based on the analysis of a few samples, Brkmond for an almost indefinite time, which is ascribed to and Rosed (1 9 18, 19 19) give the following limits for a high content of amino acids. A low ammonia- the three condiments: amino acid ratio in the solution procures an acid moisture 52-63% reaction. soluble fraction 26-30% The durabiIity of commercial nuoc-mam also coincides with an acid reaction (low pH). Good insoluble fraction 8-17% nuoc-mam diluted with distilled water in the pro- In describing the partition of the nitrogen with- portion of 1 to 10 or 20, should give a clear yellow in the soluble fraction, the authors give the follow- colour with phenoIred. If there is a tinge of red, ing data computed in percent of total soluble it cannot be kept for long without undergoing putre- nitrogen. faction. pra-hoc pa-doc mam-tom As we have seen above, in North Annam tinh organic nitrogen . . 80.0 7j.2 68.9 is added to the nuoc-mam and sometimes molasses form01 titratable nitrogen 52.1 1.6 60.2 or maize which has first been boiled and then roasted (RosB, 19 18 a & c ; Gui!lerm, 192 8 ) . This serves aminoacidnitrogen.. 3 26.8 29.1 amongst other things to render the colour of the volatile nitrogen . pcorer qualities ssaewhat darker when the leaching (ammonia included) 20. - 24.8 31.1 has been carried too far; but it also seems to have The insoiuble nitrogen amounts to only the a certain preservative action, possibly because th- minor portion of the total nitrogen, as may be seen carbohydrates of thc tinh, maize or molasses are con- from the following percentages: ~ertedto acids by bacterial action. In addition, the use of several roasted ingredients suggests a bacte- in pra-hoc ...... 47 ricidal activity of caramelised carbohydrates. At any in pa-dec ...... 35 race it appears that by these additions it is possible in mam-tom ...... 10 ihe saturated. The saturated acids were separated into several fractions by means of repeated crystallis- Estimation of qualityi ation after being dissolved in hot alcohol. The quality of fish oil depends almost entirely In this investigation it was found, that the oil 'In practice this is roughly on the water content. from Dorosoma nasus may contain considerable estimated by burning a rag which has been dipped amounts of unsaturated fatty acids. The into the oil, as alieady described (Finelle, 1923). bulk of the saturated material had a melting point of Attempts have been made to carry out more exact determinations, but considerable difficulty was experi- 55°C and this fraction turned out to consist of an enced in taking random samples, since the water acid, not hitherto Imown, its formula being quickly accumulates on the bottom of the containers, CleH&OOH; this fatty acid was termed dorosomic even after a thorough stirring of the oil. Some in- acid. convenience was also caused by an increase of weight Another fraction had its melting point at of the samples stored in a stove at 10S°C, which 62.5 OC corresponding to palmetic acid, and still was due to oxidation. The water-content of un- another at 69.5 "C corresponding to stearic acid. In contaminated samples ranges from 0 to 2%% . Oil small , quantities, still other fractions were isolated, containing more moisture may be regarded as con- containing unknown acids. taminated. In later years, the grease of Ca-linh-banh (Thynnichthys thynnoides Bleeker) , and some other Chemical methods and results. fresh water fish from Cambodia, has been investigated The investigation of fish oil, especially that made along similar lines (Marcelet, 1940). Dorosomic from Dorosoma nasus Bloch. was subsequently taken acid was again detected. in hand by Marcelet (1928, a, 1929). In respect of the possibilities of technical applications of the Prosjmts for technical use. oil its physical properties were examined. The chemical invesGgation was initiated with some pre- Possibilities of industrial application have been liminary test. investigated by Marcelet (1928, b; 1929; 1940). Acidity, indicating the content of free acids in The low content of unsaponifiable matter of the % weight. An oil sample of 100 g. was dissolved Ca-moi oil yields a product of high utility vaiue in in 10 cc. chloroform and 10 cc. neutralised alcohol soap manufacture. It has great drying properties 95 %, containing some phenolpthalein. Titration and this makes it valuab!e as a replacement of was carried out in the ordinary way with a standard- linseed oil as the vehicle in paint. It gives satisfac- ized NaOH solution. The acidity ranges from 2% tory results in the treatment of leather. to 1276 or still more according to age. This index Hydrogenation deodorises the oil easily, and may be regarded as a measure of preservation; the fixes it into a fat suitable for cooking purposes. purer the oil, the better its keeping properties and Trials have been made to use the product as the lower its acidity. The dark-coloured oil, obtained fuel in diesel motors. In Europe the viscosity caused as a by-product in the nuoc-mam manufacture, some inconvenience but later experiments made in the contains much more free acid than the cooked country gave satisfactory results, the tropical tem- samples. perature making it more fluid. Although the petro- Iodine index (after Vijs). This index indicates leum. oils are much cheaper than the oils of fish, it the amQunt of iodine % of weight that can rbi fixed is interesting to note this result in a region such as to the 'fatty substances. The determination is taken ,Indochina which has no natural Source of petroleum. as a measure of. the amount of unsaturated consti- Similar possibilities of technical use have been tuents. The results were similar to those obtained established for the grease of Ca-linh-banh. with other fish oi!s. A cracking procedure has been applied in the Saponification index, indicating the amount of Ca-moi oil experiments in order to obtain substitutes KOH that can be bound to free or esterified fatty for petro!eum derivates (Chevey, 1934). One trial acids. The tested samples appeared to contain only yielded small amounts of unsaponifiable matter, ranging 2 5 '; benzene from 2 to 3S;/c, which is similar to the constitution of other fish oils. 5 5 gas-oil Fattv acids. With the techniaue of the lead 1 5 96 lubricating oil salts, the unsaturated fatty acids were separated from 5 C/c loss SECTION 111. INDUSTRIAL TRIALS AND fish waste was dried and at the same time pulverised BACTERIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. by the combined action of heat and mechanical agita- A. Introduction of Western Industry. tion, the intestines being transformed into a blackish powder from which the oil could be extracted at any General remarks. time afterwards. The French government of Indochina was seek- ing methods of preparing fish quickly and economi- Fish meal. cally which might offer the country products for When the whole fresh fat fish is used, a 3 hour exportation. Although no success has been attained treatment by the method described above ytelds a in building up a profitable industry, the attempts white mass, occasionally containing 40 to 50% of fat. are interesting in connection with the above mention- Since the product contains only 10% moisture, it ed investigations because several of the native may be stored for a considerable lengtn or tlme, lr methods of preparing fish were taken as a guide and properly protected against mites and insects. In the investigations have contributed towards extension order to prevent the fatty substances becoming of the knowledge of the subject. rancid, limited contact with the air is recommended. After extraction of the oil and suitable refinement Fish oil. of the stock, a fish meal remains which is suitable for human consumption, and is not to be regarded The first attempt to modernize the fisheries as a waste product. industries included the manufacture of fish oil. It was hoped to double the Cambodia fish oil produc- Thus the primary interest was diverted from the tion by a suitable application of modern principles, oil and centered on the preparation of fish meal. In since by modern procedure twice as much 011 might subsequent trials the meal was therefore prepared be extracted from the same fish waste as by eh: old from non-oily fish, the procedure being simpler with- Cambodian methods. Only a small amount of the out fat extraction. Before processing, the fish were fish waste of the Great Laire is ut~ilzcdby the natives, usually cut in two oblique longitudinal sections so and this circumstance seemed to offer possibilities of that one part consisted of the head and viscera and increasing production. the other of the musculature of the back and the tail The "Socibt6 du Grand Lac" tried to operate (Krempf, 1925, 1934). The head and viscera were kept apart for other use, and only the fleshy parts a floating plant on the lakes (Krempf, 1927, p. 20). fish In the procedure adopted the freeing of fatty sub- were worked up to meal. stances was effected by direct contact of steam with the fish enclosed in large autoclaves. The steamed Autolysate. fish was then transferred from the autoclaves into a As a supplement to the above work, an egort continuous press in order to separate the solid masses was made to develop a method of preparing autoly- from the liquid portion, that is the water content and sate in which the solvent acticn of the juices from the the oil. Unexpected difticulties were encountered in viscera should be more intensive than in the nuoc- the separation of the oil from the water, a persistent mam procedure, so that the preparation time should emulsion hindering the manufacture. thereby be shortened. Since it has been demonstrated On examination, one of the causes of this failure that the autolytic action of the enzymes was reduced pro~edto be the emulsifying property of the contents to one third by the customary quantitjl of salt, at- of the intestinal tract of mud eating fish of the lakes tempts were made to replace the salt by some other used for the preparation. Although the method had anti-putref active substance. This might have brought previously given quite satisfactory results in Europe with it the advantage that the product could be used for the reduction of herring oil, this and any other as a principal article of diet, which is not the case with the original nuoc-mam because of its high salt wet procedure is doomed to failure applied on the content (Krempf, 1925, p. 14). lakes of Cambodia. For this reason possibilities here were restricted to methods involving an initial drying The first experiments were made with chloro- or the hsh; separation of the oil was then carried out form, but later nitrochloroform (= "chloropicrin"- by pressure at a temperature of 80°C. and a subse- CCIsN02) was chosen as being more suitable. Since quent aln~ost complete chemical extraction by tri- this is one of the most active military gases, great care must be taken in making such experiments. chlorc-ethylene or other solvents that could be easily The authors claim to hare been able to obtain com- rcgaintd. plete sterilisation by the application of nitrochloro- The steam-heated driet mas provided with a form without hindering autolysis in any way. The ccntral shaft, to which stirrer blades were fixed. The volatility of the preservative had the advantage that it could be driven of£ readily by evaporating under Diagnosis of new Clostridium. low pressure, as soon as its presence was no longer Anaerobic rods, Gram positive, sporulating in S required (Kremif, bravet &invention 5 7 1.1 18 ) . days in Veillon solution. Spores oval, subterminal, The head and viscera were kept separate from resistant to 5 minutes at 80GC,but killed within 30 the fish meal preparation, then ground and left to minutes,at the same temperature. autolyse as they would with 2 to 3'10~ of nitrochloro- On Veillon-agar colonies appearing within 24 form. In this manner as much protein was di- hours, attaining 2 to 3 mrn. in diameter within some solved in five days as required months in the native days; centre blurred, surrounded by short, bulky and process. After two weeks the solution contained 1% well defined ramifications. Gas within 24 hours and times as much autolysed products as good nuoc-mam breaking up of the medium in 3 to 4 days. Charac- that conforms to the legal requirements (Boez & teristic smell of nuoc-mam without putrid odour. Guillerm, 1930, b, p. 1056, c, p. 20). The auto- Growth abundant at 2tI0C, even more at 37O lysate was then concentrated in vacuo at a low tempe- and 41"C, still active at $O0C, doubtful at perature, which drove out the dangerous preservative. 12 "C. On surf ace under anaerobic conditions, giant When the volume had been reduced to one quarter of colonies of about ? cm. in diameter, much remified. its orlginal amount the product is protected by its Beef medium (under vaseline) becoming vivid own amino acid content from further disintegration red in 24 hours, turning slightly'bro*wnish after third and is therefore durable (Guillerm, 1928, p. 39). or fourth day; gas production (several cc.) ; very The autolysate obtained by this sterile process, active digestion from first day, affecting half of the as welt as the hsh meal prepared by the heat method, muscular mass in five days; characteristic odour. have not been well rece~vedby the natives, in spite .Bouillon Martin under anaerobic conditions: of the original high expectations. The excellent food growth, gas production, no indol formed. value was demonstrated by several tests made in Milk: coagulation and progressive digestion. garrisons, hospitals and on estates, but where the Coagulated egg-white: active digestion. choice of food was left free, the powerfuliy penetra- No H2S formed in lead acetate medium, even tmg fishy odour that is typical of the native fish when hypo is added. product, proved clearly enough to be more eccept- Fermentation of all the sugars tried (glucose, able. maltose, Iaevulose, saccharose, mannite) , with gas production especially abundant with glucose and B. Bacteriology maltose. General remarh. This diagnosis enables us -to recognise the organ- The failure to find local markets gave impetus ism as a Clostridium. to fresh investigations which showed that the charac- Culture media. teristic dour so desired by natives was caused by the action of bacteria. In the native preparation of Dr. Guillerm kindly procured me the recipes nuoc-mam and pra-hoc from the second day there after which he prepared his Martin's and Veillon's culture media. develops a homogeneous flora of an anaerobic spore former, especially in the fleshy parts of the fish, be- MARTIN'S DIGEST SOLUTION. fore a considerable quantity of salt has penetrated. Pickle and viscera, on the other hand, appear to offer a. Stomach digest solution. no suitable medium for the development of this Constituents: Water 1000 .cc., chopped hog organism. Isolation of this spore forming organism stomach 200 g. was rendered somewhat difficult by its anaerobic pro- Preparation: Chop' the stomachs of five hogs into perties, so that former attempts had remained un- small pieces. Mix 200 g. of these pieces, 1000 cc. water and 10 cc, pure HCI at 50°C. ~UOWto stand at 50°C successful (Denier, 19 15 ) . This must have been one for 24 hours. Heat at 100T €or half an hour. Strain of the reasons that no thought was given for so long through a layer of absorbent cotton. Add 10% solution to anything except enzyme action. The characteris- of sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to the heated tics of this organism were further studied, but un- filtrate till litmus paper gives an alkaline reaction. Filter fortunately not according to the American methods, the flnid' through paper to clarify. Distribute quantities of 500 cc, in flasks d 1 litre, and sterilise by heating so that insertion in Bergy's system, which has obtained at 115°C for half an hour. international validity, is not yet possible. The diag- (Compare: Levine & Schocnlin.-A compilation of nosis as given by the authors runs as foliows (BoGz culture media for the cultivati~n of micro-organisms.- & Guillerm, 1930, a e( c): Nonographs systematic bacteriolog). Vol. 2, 969 pp. Williams & Wilkins, 1930. See p. 306 Martin's pep Especially interesting in this connection is the tone. j . preparation of nuoc-mam in the province of Cantho, in the extreme West of Cochinchina (Chevey, 1931, b. Beef digest solution p. 29) . Here the fish are first gutted and then salted, Constitutents: Water 1000 cc., Bee£ 500 g., Sea- as is the case with preparation of pra-hoc; the fish do salt 5 g. not dissolve much, but develop the desired odour. Preparation: Chop the beef to small pieces. Mix 200 . of the chopped beef and 1000 cc. water, allow to Pineapple juice is then added to effect the digestion stanb at 5o.C for 20 to 24 hours. Strain through a of the flesh and thus nuoc-mam is obtained. So here linen, squeeze and catch the fluid. Add 5 g. sea-salt. the age-old empiricism of the people cleverly utilizes bacterial and enzymic reactions. c. Final mixture. Mix 500 cc. stomach digest solution and 500 cc. C. Flavouring trials beef d~g& solution, heat to 7PC and make slightly alkaline with caustic soda. Sterilise by heating at One thing and another induced the French also 11 5°C for 15 minutes. Filter and distribute in flasks to include the bacteria in their process. After expul- or tubes. Sterilise at llOC for 20 minutes. sion of the nitrochloroform the sterile autolysate was inoculated with the essential microbe, either in pure VEILLON'S, SOLUTION. culture or not, and then tested occasionally for flav- Constituents: Water 1000 cc. glucose 5-15 g. our. If, after 24 to 40 hours, the liquid was satur- potassium nitrate 1 g. ated with salt, the product seemed to be identical Preparation: Mix the above constituents. Sterilise with the ordinary nuoc-mam (Krempf, 1929). The below 120°C for 20 minutes. When making Veillon's agar, add agar before sterilising. Dissolve constituents by preparation of the autolysate took 4 to 5 days and heating and distribute in large culture tubes. . Sterilise the expulsion of the nitrochloroform but a few below 120°C for 20 minutes. Cool quickly in vertical minutes so that this might indeed be called a quick position under water tap. Inoculate with deep stab. process as the native preparation takes months and 'fhe agar will exclude the air sufficiently to allow anaerobic months (Krempf, brevet d'invention 692.9 18 .) growth at the bottom of -the tube. Picking up the colonies is done with a narrow pipette. The manufacture of fish meal was also altered, the stirring being carried out at moderate tempera- Bacterial metabolism. ture. The mash resulting from this treatment was The proteolytic action of this newly found Clos- still moist from its own water content. It was spread out in the open, and soon the desired odour tridium, has been investigated more closely because of its bearing on the nuoc-mam manufacture. Proteo- developed. A fragrant fish meal was then obtained by subsequent drying in the sun or in vacuo at a low lvsis was therefore tested on sterilised hsh meat in an temperature. equal volume of water under a vaseline layer. Though the published data of this investigation are rather In order to present an unaccustomed product scanty, the authors arrive at the conclusion that, so to the people, it was provided in a familiar form far as the formation of formal titratable nitrogen is rather than in a powder. The fish meal-was there- concerned, there is no essential difference between fore mixed with the fermented autolysate which was bacterial action and the digestion by enzymes from condensed to a syrup, and this was mixed again with the muscies and the intestinal tract of the fish. tapioca flour. The flat cheesy lumps were cut into Against this a marked difference seems to be exhibited slices, in which form it was presented to the cus- in the production of volatile bases, as indicated by the tomers at the rate of 1 piaster per kg. A daily ration proportion of nitrogen from volatile bases to form01 of IOO g; of this highly nutritive and pro- titratable nitrogen. This ratio will amount to 10% duct was considered to be an ideal supplement to the in the products of bacterial proteolysis, whereas in ordinary menu. sterile enzymatic proteolysis, this ratio will range Apart from this, another experiment has been from 10 to 11%. made in France, by treating meat with nuoc-mam The analysis of some 200 samples of native nuoc- (Gauducheau, 1927) . Different extracts have been mam has given ratios ranging from 3 1 to 60%. This tried to give a special flavour to the flesh, when in- character, together with the characteristic odour of jected imo the arterial system shortly after slaughter. nuoc-mam, shows that besides enzymatic dissolution, This has been practised with fowls, small game and bacterial action is also instrumental in the manufac- even sheep. When after killing the bleeding has ture of native nuoc-mam. stopped, the necks are tied off and a quantity of With the preparation of pra-hoc, on the other liquid, amounting to 1/20 of the body weight is hand, bacterial action takes place in the first instance introduced into the blood vessels by injection. After owing to the removal of the entrails (Chevey, 193 1) . one or two hours the meat can be dressed and will be ready for use after one or two days. If the treat- 8 decembre 1924-Anete du Gouverneur General com- letant l'article 3, modifiant l'article 4 de I'arrete du ment is carried out with a mixture of tomato juice 41 decembre 1916 rcglemenbnt la vente du nuoc- and nuoc-mam, &he meat will acquire a gamy high mam. flavour which seems to be much desired in French Journal Officiel de l'hdochine Francaise. Hanoi. cookery. The gamy flavour is thus obtained artifi- Annee 36me, N0100, 1924, p. 2373. cially, without the action of putrefactive organisms. Archives des Instituts Pasteur d'lndochine. Saigon. Tome 2, No7, (1Vme Annec), 1928, LEGISLATION ON THE MANUFACTURE AND p. 49-50. THE TRADE OF NUOC-MAM AND ALLIED 23 Novembre 192GArrete du Gouverneur General sus- PRODUCTS. pendant au Tonkin et dans I? Nord-Annam (prw vince Thanh-Hoa a Quang-Tri mclus) f'applicatlon let aout 1905-Loi sur la repression des fraudes dans la des dispositions des arretes des 21 decembre 1916 et vente des marchandises et des falsifications des 8 decembre 1924 reglementant la vente du nuoc- denrees alimentaires et des produits agricoles; pro- mam et du nuoc-nhut. mulquee le 15 decembre 1W5, suivie en son article Journal Officiel de l'Indochine Francaw. Hanoi. 6 d'une circulaire ministerielle (Instice) en date du Annee 38-, N095, 1926, p. 3179. 28 decen~bre1911 et en son article 11 d'une circu- Archives des Instituts Pasteur cl'Indochine. laire du Procureur general en Indochine en date du Saigon. Tome 2. No7 (1Vlne Annee), 1928, 22 aout 1912. p. 50. Journal Officiel de la Republique Francaise. 17 aoot -1928-Decret portant reglement d'administration Paris. Annee 37me, N01, 1906, p. 2. publique pour I'application en Indochine de la loi Journal Officiel de l'hdochine Francaise. Hanoi. du ler aout 1905 sur la repression des fraudes (pro- Annee 18me, N01, 1906, p. 2. mulgue le 11 octobre 1928). 28 juillet 1912-1,oi tendant a modifier et a completer Joumal OfficieI de la Republique Francaise. la loi du ler aout 1905 sur la repression des fnudes Paris. Annee 60me, N0197, 1928, p. 9604-9607. dans la vente des marchandises (et de !a loi du 29 5 decembre 1929-Arrete ail sujet des conditions d'appli- join 1907 sur le mouillage et le sucrage des vins). cation du decret du 17 aout 1928, relatif au service Journal OiKciel de la Republique Francaise. de recherche et de constatation des fnudes. Paris. Annee 44me, N0207, 1912, p. 6897-6898. Bulletin Administratif cle la Cochinchme. Saigon. Annuaire International cle Legidation Agricole. Annee 29me, No3, 1930. Rome. (Institut International d'Agriculture) . 18 avril 1930-Arrete abrogeant et remplaant les arretes Annee 2me, (1912) 1913, p. 27-29. des 21 decembre 1916, 8 decenlbre 1924 et 23 9 avril 1913-Decret rendant applicable en Indochine la novembre 1926, portant definition legale du nuoc- loi du 28 juillet 1912 (promulgue le 12 juin 1913). nmrn et reglementation de la vente de ce produit. Journal OfficieI de l'Indochine Francaise. Hanoi. Joumal Officiel de l'hdochine Francaise. Hanoi. Annee 25me, NO.. , 1913, p. 1038. Annee 42-, N036, 1930, p. 1527. 21 avril 1915-Decret rendant applicables en Indochine 26 decembre 1930Lirculaire du Gouverneur de la divers lois et decrets sur la repression des fnudes Cochinchine au sujet de la repression des fraudes sur dans la vente des marchandises et des falsifications le nuoc-mam. des denrees alimentaires et des produits agricoles Bulletin Administratif de la Cochinchme. (promulgue le 16 juin 1915). Saigon. Anne 29me, 1930, p. 331 1. - Journal Officiel de l'Indochine Francaise. Hanoi. 2 decenibre 1931-Arrete du Gouverneur GeneraF Annee 27me, N049, 1915, p. 1034. modifiant l'arrete du 18 avril 1930 portant definition 21 decembre 1916Arrete du Gouverneur General legale du nuoc-rnam ou nuoc-nhut. reglementant la vente du nuoc-mam, suivi, en note, Journal Officiel de 1'Indochine Francaise. Hanoi. de la methode d'analvse du nuoc-mam a I'usage des Annee 43me, Nq9, 1931, p. 4178. laboratoires agres en Indochine pour la repression des fraudes sur les denrees alimentaires. 28 juin 1932-Circulaire du Couverneur General au sujet de la fraude sur le nuoc-mam. Journal Officiel de 1'Indochine Francaise. Hanoi. Annee 28me, N0103, 1916, p. 1987-1988. Bulletin Administratif de la Cochinchine. Archives des Instituts Pasteur d'Indochine. Saigon. Annee 3lme. 1932, p. 1454. Saigon. Tome 2, No7, (IVme Annee), 1928, 26 avril 1933-Decret portant definition legale du nuoc- p. 47-49. mam et du nnoc-nhut et determination des conditions 6 mai 1919-Loi re!ative a la protection des appellations de vente de ces produits ( promulgue le 10' juin 1933) . d'origine. Joumal Officiel de la Republique Francaise. Journal Officiel de la Republique Francaise. Paris. Annee 6Pv, N0103, 1933, p. 45884590. Pars. Anne jlme, N0125, p. 4726-4727. Joumal Officlel de l'lndochine Francaise. Hanol. Annuaxe International de Legislation Agricole. Annee 45me, N046, 1933, pfl 1866. Rome. (Institut International d'Agriculture) . Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes. Pars. Annee 91ne, (1919) 1920, p. 198-202. Annee 26me, N0198, 1933, p. 305-306, octobre 1933-Arrete du Gouverneur General B.F. 571.1 18 26 janvier 1924. adinettant certaines tolerances pour les nuoc-nhut et Procede de preparation et d'estraction inclustrielles les nuoc-mam. de derives azotes utilisaljles et de niatieres grasses Journal Officiel de 1'Indbchine Francaise. Hanoi. par dl estion artificielle, applicable aux poissons, Anne 45me, N083, 1933, p. 3411. aus decfl ets dc poissons et d'une manierc generale aiix noveinhre 1934-Arrete approwe par le Ministre des produits et dechets organiques d'origine anirnale. colonies, detenninant les produits chimiques et les A. Krempf. mat~eres colorantes dont l'cmploi est autorise en B.P. 208.144 February 12, 1925. Inclocliine pour la conservation ou pour 12 coloration Improved treatment of protein of aninla1 origin for a des marchandises et des denrees destinees l'alimen- indwtrial piirposes. .. tation ainsi que les conditions auxquelles reste su- A. Krempf. bordonne l'emploi des dites substances. U.S.P. 1.602.029 October 5, 1926. Journal Officiel de 1'Indochine Francaise. Hanoi Annee 47me, N039, 1935, p. 1930. Process of treating protein material. Societe Civile cl'Etudes des Produits dc la hfcr decemhre 1935-Ordonnance royale au Cambodge A. Krcmpf. No226. Vente du nuoc-mam au Cambodge. D.R.P. 453.642 I2 Dezember 1927. Bulletin Administratif do Cambodge. Pnom- Penh. Annee 35me, NoZ, 1936. D. 148-150. Verfahren znr Gewinnung von Eiu~issabbauproclukten , . uncl Fettstoffen aus Eiweissstoffen tierisclien Urs- 2 juillet 1937-Decret modifiant I'article 6 clu dccret du prungs. 26 avril 1933 ~ortantreelement d'administration .La Societe Civile <]'Etudes des Produits de la Mer. publique pour la' defiiitionvlegale du nuok-mam et du nnoc-nhut et la determination des conditions de B.F. 692.918 11 aout 1930. 13 vente cle ces produits (promulguc le 31 juillet Procede de fabrication de prduits alimentaires 1937). obtenus par autolyse dcs corps proteiques. Journal Ofiiciel de l'fndochine Francaise. IIanoi. A. Krempf. Annee 49m, N064, 1937, p. 2366. aout 1937-Decret portant approbation de la De- BIBLIOGRAPHY liberation du 21 avril 1937 par laquelle la Com- AUTRET, M. & A. Vialard-Goudou, (1939)-Lrs acid% mision permanente du Conseil de Gouvemement de amines du nuoc-man. IrC note: Le tryptophane dans h le nuoc-mam. I'Indochinc a demande suppression des droits de Revue Medicale Francaise @Extreme Orient, Hanoi. sortie sur les pates et sanmures de poissons exportes Annee 1939, Nu8, p. 1031-1038. de la colonie a destinat~ondes pays etrangers (pro- (1940) .-Les acids amines du nuoc-mam. mulgue le 19 octobre 1937). 26 note: Elimination du sel. Idem, Annee 1940, N04-5. p. 198-202. Journal Officiel de Undochine Francaise. Hanoi. BATJRAC, J. C., (1898) .-Courts notices sur 1'Indochine. Aunee 49me, N086, 1937, p. 3157. 11. Les pecheries. Bull. Soc. Etudes Indochinoises de janvier 1938-Arrete du Gouvemeur General instituant Saigon, No36, Fasc. 1, p. 36-38. une Commission consultative chargee d'etudier les BERNARD, Noel, (1922 ) .-see GUILLERM. J. testes reglementant le commerce du nuoc-mam et BOB, L. & J. auillerm, (1930) .-Le facteur microbien dans la fabrication de la saumure indochinoiss (nuoc-mam). de proposer les mesures propres a assurer leur appli- Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., Tome 190. NY~,534-535. cation. - / (1930).-Pouvoir proteolytique de la flore Journal Officiel de l'fndochine Francaise. Hanoi. anaerobic de la saumurp indochinoiso (nuoc-mam) . Aunee Some, No6, 1938, p. 377. COmpt. Rend. SOC. Biol., 103: 1054-1056. (1930) .-Le facteur micmbien dans la octobre 1938-Decision du Directeur des Douanes et fabrication du nuoc-mam. Arch. Inst. Pasteur d'lndo- Regies fixant le prix de vente du sel de Baria destine chine. Tome 3, N6'11, (VI"1c Annke), p. 17-21. a I'indusfne saumuriere et la preparation des poissons BREMOND, H. M. L., (1918).-see Rose, E., & H. M. L. sales a Hone Cone, Cheko et Snam Crabeu. Bremond. (1919j .-Recherche$ sur quelques condi- Journal Officiel de l'fndochine Francaise. Hanoi. ment azotes d'Extreme-Orient. These pour le doctorat de 1'Universite de Bordeaux. Annee 50nle, N084, 1938, p. 3614. Faculte de Medecine et de Pharmacie. Anbee 1918-1919, avril 1939-Loi ratifiant le decret du 25 aout 1937 N074, '82 pp. Impr. Gounouilhou. 9-11 rue Guidaude, portant suppression en Indochine des droits de sortie Bordeaux. BREMOND, R. M. L. & I. Rose, (1919) .-Condiments motes sur les pates et saumures de poissons (promulgue solides en Indochine. Annal. Inst. Pasteur, Paris. 33: le 13 mai 1939). 282-291. Jourqal Officiel de l'lndochine Francaise. Hanoi. BREXMANN, G., (1902).-La Peche en Indochine. Bull. Econ. Indochine, Hanoi. Annee 51uC NOUV.Serie, NO6. Annee 5lnle, N038, 1939, p. 1341. B. 379-392. CAMPOBASSO, (1912) .--see DELOCHE DE CAMPOBASSO. PATENTS ON THE PRODUCTION OF (19231 .--see DELOHE DE CAMPOBASSO. AUTOLYSATES WITH NITROCHLOROFORM. CAPUS, G. & D. Bois, (1912).-Les produits coloniaux. 1 Vol. in 80, VIII-657 pp. Librairie Arm. Colin. Paris. B.F. : Brevet francais. (Partie 2"'e, Produits du regne animal: Produits des B.P. : British Patent. Pecheries: Pecheries de 1'Indochine. p. 584-589). CHAT, TRAN VAN. (1922) .-See TRAN VAN CHAT. U.S.P. : United States Patent. CWEVEY, P., j192Si .-QEuvre ichthyologique de CS. Tirant. D,R.P. : Deutsches Reichs Patent. Relmpresaoa. Station maritime de Cauda. $ervlce Oceanographique des Peches de l'Indochine, Saigon. (1928) .-Le nuoc-mam et l'industrie sau- Notes. N06, 175 pp. muriere en Indochine. Arclt. Inst. Pasteur d'lndochine. (1931)L-Rapport sur le fonctionnement de Tome 2, NV. (IV'"+ AnnCe), p. 21-00. llnstitut Oceanographique de 1'Indochine pour l'amee (1930).-see Boez, L. & J. Guillerm. 1930-1931. Idem. N1~18.34 .PP.. (1930) .-L'explication sclentifique d'un (1933) .-Idem, pour l'annee 1931-1933. Idem, .phenomene, empirique, la production du nuoc-mam. N021. 22 pp... + 2 graph.- - Trans. 8th Cong. Far East. Assoc. Trop. Med., 1930. ( 1934) .-Idem, pour l'annee 1933-1934. Idem, Bangkok. 1: 122-132. No24, 21 pp + 11 planches. (1931) .-L'industrie du nuoc-mam en Indo- CBEVEY, P. & J. Lemasson, (1937) .-Contribution a l'etude chine. Exposition Coloniale Internationale a Paris en Idem, No%. 1931. Indochine Francaise. Section Scientlfique. des poisons das eaux douces tonkinoises. Instituts Pasteur d'Indochlne. Publie hors de volume. 183 pp. 36 pp. Imprimerie nouvelle Alb. Portail, 185-189 rue CHEWY. P: & F. Le Poulain, (1939) .-Fta~wrt preliminsire Catinat. Saigon. sur la peche dans les eaux doucei;. cambodgiennes. Bull. Econ. Zndochine, Hanoi. Annee 421111. Fascicule JACOB DE CORDEMOY, H., (1903) .-LeS produita colonisux 1 & 2, p. 39-83; 260-331, pl. I-XVI croquis 1-9. d'origine anamale. + + I Vol. in 80, VII + 396 pp. Librairie J. B. Bailliere & :1940) .-La peche dans eaux douces du fib. Paris. Cambodge. Trav. Selvice Oceanographique des Peches JACOTOT, H.. (1934).--See Morin, A. G. S. H. Jawtot & de 1'Indochine. Saigon. Memre 5"'~.Partie Ire, 193 J Oenevray. PP + 48 pl. JASINSKY, R., (1932) .-Le peche maritime en Cochinchine. COMPAGNIE DES C3RANDS LACS, (1925) .-L'industrie de La Revue de PaciFque, N"9, p. 288-292. la peehe an Cambodge. 33 pp. lmprimerie nouvolle Alb. Portail, 185-189 rue Catinat. Saigon. KREMPF, n.. (1926) .-Rapport sur le fonctionnernent du Servlce Oceanographlque des Peches de l'Indochine CORDEMOY, (1903).-see Jawb de Cordemoy. H. pendant l'annee 1924-1925. Station maritime de Cauda. (1932).-La nuqc mam. Bull. Agence Econ. Service Oceanographique des Peches de l'hdochme. Indochine. Annee 4"". Nouv. Serie. N"54.. -D. 200-205. Sainon Notes N"2, 16 pp. COTTE, J., (1906).-see G. Darboux, J. Cotte. P. Stephan (1926) .-Idem. pour I'annee 1925-19-6. Idem. & F. van Gaver. Nn5, 22 pp. & DANG-VAN-TIEN; (1941) .-see Vialard-Goudou. A Dang- ( 1927) .- Idem. pour l'anne 1926-1927.. Idem. van-Tien. N09, 23 pp. DARBOUX, G., J. Cotte, P. Stephen & 1". van Gaver, (1928).-Idem, pour l'annee 1927-1928. Idem. 11uOa) .-L'industrie des peches aux colonies. 2 vol. 19 Null, 32 pg~. 28, 261 & 516 pp. Paru a l'wcssion de 1'Exposition Coloniale a Marseille en 1906. Barlatier, Imprimcur- ( 1929) .-Idem. pour l'annee 1928-1939. Idem, Editeur, 17-19 rue Venture. Maseille. No 13, 43 pp. DELOCHE DE CAMPOBASSO. !1922).-Les productions du (1931) .-Travaux de 1'Institut Oceanogra- Cambodg?, notice commercielle et industrielle. phique. Resultats acquis jusqu'en 1931. Rechsrches DELOCHE DE CAMPOBASSO, (1923) .-Le Cambodge techniques. Traltement industrie1 du poisson. ewnomique. 17x25, 57 pp.-1 carte. Imp. d'Extreme- Exposition Coloniale Internationale a Parrs en 1931. Orient. . Hanoi. Indochine Francaise. Sectlon Scientifique. Compte Rencp des Ouvrages de l'hdochine, paru a l"0~~asiOn DENIER (1915) .-Etude bacteriologique de nuoc-mam. de 1-. Imprimerie d'Extreme Orient. Hanoi. p Rap&rt pour le Conseil Superieur de I'Indochine. 22-24. Octobre 1915. Unpublished report. (1934) & (1936) .-Preservation and utilisation DEVRAIGNE, (1917) .-L'Indochine economique. Son of fish products in the tropics. mouvement wmmsrcial. Ses principaux produits Proc. Fifth Pac. Sei. Cona.. Canada. 1933 Unlv. Press. naturels. oro onto.' 5: 3693-3697, 1934. [AL~O,Station maritim.: FLNELLE, (1923) .-Huile des poissons. Annexe NC24, a un de Cauda. Instltut Oceanographique de 1'Indochins. Rapport ipedit, depose dans les Archives de la Residence (Service Oceanographique des Peches de 1'Indochine). superleure du Cambodge. Phnom-Penh. Saigon. Notes No29, p. 31-37. FRO;DEVAUX, J., (1926) .-Le nuoc-mam. Condiment LABIGOTRYE. H. DE. (1919).-Le nuoc-mam indochinois. annamite. Annales des Falsifications et des Fraudes. Gazette coloniale, du 4 avri, p. 1. Paris. Anne 19111C,N0210, p. 326-334. For extract see: Annales des Falsiflcatfons et des Fraudes, Paris. Annee 12"1", p. 236. 1919. GAUDUCHEAU, A., (1927) & (1928).-L'embaumement des viandes, Le traitement des viandes par ,vole sang~be. LEBAS, J., (1925) .-Les pecheries du Tonle Sap (Cam- Les tntrasauces. Reuse Generate des Scaences pures et bodae).- Annal. "oeoor. - 34: 69-73. appliquees. Paris. 31 dxembre 1927. LEGRAND DE LA LIRAYE, T. 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13 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE MEETING BUT PUBLISHED ELSEWHERE HYDROLOGY PLANKTOLOGY VEEN, P. Ch. : "Monthly mean surface salini- BLACHE, J. : "Notes on the Fresh-water Surface ties in the Indonesian Archipelago" Plankton of Cambodia" Published in O.S.R. hTews Indonesia, June 19SO: Published by the Fisheries Research Institute, 2:66-68 Pnom-Penh, Indo-china:

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