When Zoo Became Nature Copenhagen Zoo and Perceptions of Animals and Nature Around 1900

TfK 1-2010 ombrukket_TfK 1-2-2007 02.03.10 15.55 Side 22 When Zoo became Nature Copenhagen Zoo and perceptions of animals and nature around 1900 Anne Katrine Gjerløff Københavns universitet [email protected] Keywords Abstract History of animals, This article points out central historical themes in the debates and arguments given by the conservation, directors of Copenhagen Zoo for the zoo as an alternative to nature. When Copenhagen Copenhagen Zoo, Zoo was founded in 1859, its purpose was divided equally between entertainment, perceptions of nature, enlightenment and symbolizing the glory of the Danish capital. During this period animal protection though, it also became possible for the zoo to stage itself as a kinder place for animals than “real” nature. In the early 20th century, the zoo attracted attention from animal rights movements, wherefore the debates came to be structured around two radically different perceptions of nature. The article takes its outset in the arguments formulated by the three successive directors: Julius Schiøtt, Waldemar Dreyer and Theodor Alving. Nature in here This was a time when anthropomor- This article will investigate an institution phic and popular descriptions of animals that is readily associated with nature by were challenged by new ideas of animal most, but which in fact is a cultural phe- welfare, as well as by a professionalized and nomenon; ‘the zoo’. ‘Nature’, as presented scientific approach to zoo keeping. At the in zoos, is not untouched, authentic or same time, developments made it possible wild. Rather, the presence of animals and for zoos to stage themselves as worthy alter- many institutionalized and conscious dis- natives to an externalized nature, through courses about nature are effectuated in the the discourse of conservation and ideals zoo, making it an excellent location for regarding realistic surroundings and land- identifying definitions and perceptions of scaping for the animals. nature. The following pages will trace con- “Nature itself” will not be analyzed, ceptions of ‘the wild’ as something, which is nor (unlike Hanson 2004 or Hancocks “out there” – in contrast to ‘cultural nature’. 2001) will the attempts to recreate nature This will be done by analyzing Copenhagen in the zoo, but rather it is the idea of nature Zoo and especially its discourse on zoo ani- that is of concern, as this was communicat- mals in the decades around 1900. ed – more or less indirectly – by staff and 22 Tidsskrift for kulturforskning. Volum 9, nr. 1 • 2010, s. 22-37 TfK 1-2010 ombrukket_TfK 1-2-2007 02.03.10 15.55 Side 23 commentators of Copenhagen Zoo. It will house designed by Norman Foster. In addi- be the historical discourse on the animals tion, a new “savannah” was opened and and their (place in) nature, which is the increased emphasis was placed on the main theme – not an analysis of animals as importance of zoos in wildlife conserva- such. tion. Its beginnings were humbler, but had This article therefore differs from sever- equally strong aspirations (see e.g.Bing al critical zoo-studies (f.ex. Mullan & 1984, Jørgensen 1984). Marvin 1999; Malamud in Marino et al. In the autumn of 1859, the amateur 2009), by being a historical analysis, rather ornithologist Niels Kjærbølling announced than a cultural analysis. Other zoo-studies the opening of a zoo that was inspired by have been less radical than these, such as larger and well known zoos in London and Elizabeth Hanson and David Hancocks’ Germany. Copenhagen Zoo was thus not works. Hancocks argues, while remaining founded by a scientific institution or socie- quite critical towards zoos as institutions in ty (as were the zoos in London or Bronx), general, that an increase in natural sur- nor developed from an existing menagerie roundings and landscapes in zoos may have (like zoos in Paris and Vienna). Copen - a positive effect on attaining the education- hagen Zoo was the result of private initia- al purpose of zoos. Hanson covers much tive and an ambition to create an institu- the same ground as Hancocks, but seems to tion that would enhance the glory of the equate the presence of animals with the Danish capital by providing entertainment presence of nature. These studies thus dif- and education for its citizens. The early fer in their definitions of nature at the zoo years were characterized by few and non- and in their attitudes to whether zoos can exotic animals, poor buildings and be considered nature at all, or must be cramped space, but support from the King viewed as altogether cultural (or artificial) and the government allowed for Copen - institutions. hagen Zoo to expand and become a popu- Cultural studies are not interested in lar place of amusement. nature per se, but rather perceptions, uses In terms of financing, the zoo was in and definitions of nature. This is the main constant trouble and its organisation and point in Jennifer Price’s book Flight Maps– management were problematic at best. Adventures with nature in modern America When Kjærbølling died, it was re-consti- (Price 1999). It is not nature “out there” tuted as a non-profit, joint-stock company, that is in focus for the historian, anthropol- aimed at maintaining the garden. The fact ogist or cultural studies researcher, but that the board, directors and employees nature “in here”. In this case, Copenhagen were in constant conflict regarding money Zoo may be used as a case study, which and personal matters, overshadowed the highlights the debates on these issues in the few positive developments in the last early 20th century. decades of the 19th century. Management changed around 1900 and the three charismatic directors that Copenhagen Zoo – History and back- ruled the zoo from then and until 1942, ground had considerably more power, space for ini- Copenhagen Zoo celebrated its 150th tiatives and a much better budget balance, anniversary in 2009 with a new elephant than former directors. Julius Schiøtt was When Zoo became Nature. 23 TfK 1-2010 ombrukket_TfK 1-2-2007 02.03.10 15.55 Side 24 the director from 1900 till his death in regarding animal care, hygiene and archi- 1910. He was an editor and had a passion tecture (Alving 2009, Hansen 2009). for popularizing scientific knowledge. His Schiøtt, Dreyer and Alving all had strong major journal Frem (literally “Forward”) personalities and ambitions for Copen - was influential in this regard and had the hagen Zoo. They communicated their motto: “Knowledge is power”. views and insights on the zoo and its inhab- Even though the Schiøtt-years were not itants both verbally and in writing. characterized by a scientific approach as Sources on the zoo are scarce and anec- such, they were certainly a turning point in dotal for the time preceding the 20th cen- terms of zoo-popularity. Schiøtt renewed tury. However, one is still left with an the establishment’s failing contacts with the impression regarding perceptions of ani- German animal trader Carl Hagenbeck, mals and nature for that time. The few who provided advice and spectacular col- remaining texts suggest the existence of lections of animals, panoramas and cara- similar notions of animals and nature as vans of exotic people for exhibition tainted by a schism: nature and its animal (Rothfels 2002). Schiøtt also introduced inhabitants are idealised, but the animals music, lotto, exhibitions and other enter- are spoken of as culture, not nature. This is taining activities, such as the “Eiffel tower” found both in popular magazines (En that is still the landmark of Copenhagen Naturforsker 1865, Anon. 1873, Juel- Zoo. Hansen 1874) in texts by zoo directors Schiøtt’s successor was a close friend – (Klein 1896) and by inspired poets Doctor Waldemar Dreyer – who was also (Stuckenberg 1905). an enthusiastic supporter of popular science education. Dreyer wrote extensively about zoology and other natural science Girlish bears and feminist elephants subjects in books and magazines. This body In the decades preceding 1900, Copen - of work includes Fra Naturens Værksted hagen Zoo was described as a place where (”From the Workshop of Nature”), published you could encounter and come to attain a 1912–16. Dreyer was an eager observer and better understanding of nature. Nature was commentator of developments in other tranquil, dark and hidden; a romantic zoological gardens. He admired Carl wilderness in which the animals were noble Hagenbeck and praised the groundbreak- beasts. In almost every early text on ing Bronx Zoo, founded in 1899, which Copenhagen Zoo, nature was idealized as was also committed to wildlife conserva- the opposite of culture. However, when the tion (Hanson 2004, chap.1). texts address actual zoo animals, the When Dreyer died in 1924, the lawyer descriptions swell with anthropocentrisms Theodor Alving became director. Alving and cultural references – the animals are had a long-time passion for zoos and had described essentially as humans. The young spent two years in New York training as a bear Gine is a coquette, a young girl who zoo-director with William Hornaday of wants to have fun, described as bound by a Bronx Zoo. This experience secured Alving leash, but not by marriage. The Elephants the position at Copenhagen Zoo. His main are an old quarrelling couple; the female achievement was a radical reorganisation of teaches the male a lesson or two when he the zoo according to newer principles does not behave properly. The lion king 24 Anne Katrine Gjerløff TfK 1-2010 ombrukket_TfK 1-2-2007 02.03.10 15.55 Side 25 keeps his females from such behaviour by a mals”) was founded in 1875 and focused good spanking (Klein 1896). Animals in mainly on humane slaughter and the plight Copenhagen Zoo were spoken of as indi- of horses in the cities.

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