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I N F O R M a T I O N T O Users INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master, UMI films the text directly firom the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 Nortfi Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 Order Number 9227229 Crossing the color line: A biography of Paul Laurence Dunbar, 1872-1906 Best, Felton O’Neal, Ph.D. The Ohio State University, 1992 UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 CROSSING THE COLOR LINE: ft BIOGRAPHY OF PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR, 1872-1906 DISSERTATION Presented In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Felton O'Neal Best, B.A., M.A. * * * * The Ohio State University 1992 Dissertation Corranittee: Approved by Warren VanTine , / ___ Merton L. Dillon Paul C. Bowers Advisor Department of History DEDICATION To My Parents This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Mr. Moses James Best and Mrs. Ethel Grace Best of Greenville, North Carolina. Thanks for all of your endeavors throughout the years to provide me with a good education. I also appreciate the confidence that you instilled within me to be an achiever. I am fortunate to have parents of your caliber to make my dream of obtaining a Ph.D a reality. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I express sincere appreciation to Dr. Warren VanTine, chair of my dissertation committee, for his guidance and insight throughout the research and writing process. Thanks go to the other members of my dissertation committee: Drs. Paul C. Bowers and Merton L. Dillon. Gratitude for technical assistance is expressed to: Sharon Talbert, Graduate Studies Secretary, Department of History, The Ohio State University; Eleanor Daniel, Black Studies Librarian, The Ohio State University; Gary Arnold, Archivist, The Ohio Historical Society; and Dr. Mary Ann Pellerin, Professor Emeritus, Department of Educational Technology and Media, Central Connecticut State University. To my friends, Stacey Close, Dr. Lawrence Greenfield, Robin Balthorpe, Nanetta Durneil, Selika Ducksworth, Keith Johnson, and Eric Karolak, I offer i i i sincere thanks for your support. To the parishioners at Wells Chapel Church, Acts Temple Church, World Harvest Church, First Pentecostal Church, Wings of Victory Church, Shiloh Baptist Church, Saint Ayden's Catholic Cathedral, and First Church of The Living God, I am eternally grateful for your prayers. To my wife, Janice, I offer sincere thanks for your frequent words of encouragement and willingness to endure the vicissitudes of my academic endeavors. To my children, Corey and Kevin, I thank you for understanding my frequent absences. i V VITA October 7, 1956....... Born-Greenvi11e , North Carolina 1978.................... B.A., North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 1979-198 2 .............. Production Supervisor, Union Carbide Corporation, Asheboro, North Carolina 1980-198 8 .............. Pastor, Acts Temple Church of God in Christ, Randleman, North Carolina 198 6 .................... M.A., Social Science Education, North Carolina A&T State Univ­ ersity, Greensboro, North Car­ ol ina 1986-1987 .............. History Teacher, Randleman High School, Randleman, North Caro- 1 ina 198 7 .................... M.A., Educational Administra­ tion, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 1987-198 8 .............. Instructor, Department of Hist- tory. North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 1988 .................... M.A., History, North Carolina A&T State University, Greens­ boro, North Carolina 1988-198 9 .............. Minority Fellow, Department of History, The Ohio State Univer­ sity, Columbus, Ohio 1990-Summe r ............ Researcher, The Ohio Historical Society, Columbus, Ohio 1989-1991.............. Teaching Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 1991-Presen t........... Assistant Professor, Department of History, Central Connecticut State University, New Britan, Connecticut FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: History Sub Fields: United States History to 1877 United States History since 1877 African-American History Religious History V 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION.............................................. il ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................... ill VITA...................................................... V INTRODUCTION............................................ 1 CHAPTER PAGE I. APPROACHING THE COLOR LINE: PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR'S CHILDHOOD, INTERMEDIATE, AND HIGH SCHOOL YEARS, 1872-1891.............. 25 II. STANDING AT THE COLOR LINE: THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR'S PROFESSIONAL WRITING CAREER, 1891-1895____ 68 III. CROSSING THE COLOR LINE: THE MAJOR WRITING YEARS, 1895-1902.................... 128 IV. PERSONAL AND POLITICAL TENSIONS: 1898-1802...................................... 196 V. THE FINAL YEARS: PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR'S PROTEST LITERATURE, 1898-1906.............. 216 VI. PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR THROUGH THE AGES: 1906-PRESENT................................... 254 VII. CONCLUSION..................................... 294 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................. 296 vii INTRODUCTION This is not the first dissertation written on Paul Laurence Dunbar. However it is the first one which has utilized a full run of the records from The Paul Laurence Dunbar Papers, The Life and Works of Paul Laurence Dunbar, The Booker T. Washington Papers, The W.E.B. DuBois Papers, and Dunbar's correspondence with Frederick Douglass and James Weldon Johnson. In addition it is the first one to analyze Dunbar's effectiveness or ineffectiveness in "crossing the color line" in the literary profession during the era of Jim Crow. Likewise, it refutes the arguments made by many authors- that Dunbar was an "Uncle Tom" because he wrote in Negro dialect which negatively reflected upon black Southerners, wrote short stories which featured white characters, and refused to write protest literature despite the lynchings and Jim Crow Laws as an endeavor to promote his career. African-American historians and historians of African-American literature have developed opposing perceptions of Paul Laurence Dunbar. In addition to the 1 arguement that he promoted "Uncle TomIsm" by falling to agitate for black civil rights, and by depicting black Southerners as ridiculous and frivolous beings, these authors who include Vernon C. Farrington and Gossie H. Hudson, have suggested that Dunbar's relationship with Booker T. Washington led him to advance an accomodation 1st culture. Other authors, such as Waldo Phillips, Theodora W. Daniel, and Darwin Turner are sensitive to the criticisms of Dunbar and contend that Dunbar's relationship with W.E.B. DuBois led the writer to an increased sense of "African cultural awareness" - thus making him eventually more African than he was American. Neither description accurately fits Dunbar's character and motives. Unlike Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois, both of whom supported various aspects of black nationalism, Dunbar became an advocate of full racial integration. Dunbar wanted to be perceived as an American writer having African ancestry rather than a Negro poet who was handicapped by the limitations of his race. His writings, letters, and literature reviews, along with his actions, reveal his advocacy of race intergration and race advancement. Dunbar developed an audience of both black and white readers and became noted as the most accomplished American writer of African descent of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In this context Dunbar was successful In his endeavor to "cross the color line." The concept of the "color line" has been developed by several scholars, who also focus on Ohio as a microcosm for the North. Frank Qui 1 Ian's, The Color Line In Ohio: A History of Race Prejudice In A Typical Northern State (1913) traces the development of race relations In Ohio from statehood In 1803 until 1912. Qui 1 Ian drew upon Alfred Holt Stone's earlier study. Studies In the American Race Problem (1908), and came to similar conclusions. Qui 1 Ian concluded that race prejudice against blacks Increased with the growth of Ohio's population, blacks were worse off In the North than the South since they were Isolated from Industrial
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