Publisher’s Note

Defining Documents in American Historyseries, political and religious sermons, laws, government produced by Salem Press, consists of a collection reports, and trial notes, among other genres. An of essays on important historical documents by a important feature of each essays is a close reading of diverse range of writers on a broad range of subjects in the primary source that develops evidence of broader American history. This established series offers a dozen themes, such as the author’s rhetorical purpose, social titles ranging from Colonial America to Post War 1940s. or class position, point of view, and other relevant issues. In addition, essays are organized by section This volume, Defining Documents in World History: themes, listed above, highlighting major issues of the , broadens the scope of the series to include period, many of which extend across eras and continue world history. Middle Ages surveys key writing and to shape life as we know it around the world. Each documents produced from 476 to 1500, and includes section begins with a brief introduction that defines a number of maps to help the reader understand the questions and problems underlying the subjects in the state of the world during this period. The material is historical documents. A brief glossary included at the organized under five broad categories: end of each document highlights keywords important in the study of the primary source. Each essay also • Byzantium and Western Europe in the Early includes a Bibliography and Additional Reading section Middle Ages for further research. • The Catholic Church and its Vicissitudes • and Appendixes • The Near East and Beyond • Chronological List arranges all documents by • Philosophy, Religion, and Science year. • Web Resources is an annotated list of web sites Historical documents provide a compelling view of that offer valuable supplemental resources. ancient world history. Designed for high school and • Bibliography lists helpful articles and books for college students, the aim of the series is to advance further study. historical document studies as an important activity in learning about history. Contributors Salem Press would like to extend its appreciation to all Essay Format involved in the development and production of this work. Middle Ages contains 40 primary source documents – The essays have been written and signed by scholars many in their entirety. Each document is supported of history, humanities, and other disciplines related to by a critical essay, written by historians and teachers, the essay’s topics. Without these expert contributions, that includes a Summary Overview, Defining Moment, a project of this nature would not be possible. A full list Author Biography, Document Analysis, and Essential of contributor’s names and affiliations appears in the Themes. Readers will appreciate the diversity of the front matter of this volume. collected texts, including journals, letters, speeches,

vii Editor’s Introduction

The Middle Ages is a period in European history fall- an end by the late 14th century. In the rest of Europe, ing between the classical age (ancient history) and on the other hand, it took another century before the the emergence of the Renaissance in the 15th century. Middle Ages had faded, yielding to a new Age of Dis- Humanists of the Renaissance, in fact, were the first covery. By both convention and convenience, then, one to employ the term “middle ages”—along with its syn- can safely date the end of the Middle Ages in Europe onym, “Dark Ages”— to describe the era that immedi- at around 1500. ately preceded their own. That era was thought to have been something of a dark period in history because The Early Middle Ages of its legacy of barbarism, ignorance (or scantiness of With the Roman Empire in sharp decline by the 4th learning), superstition, and ecclesiastical crudity (un- century, various Germanic tribes, having already infil- der the Crusades, etc.). Alternatively, it was viewed as trated the empire, began a migration through much of a kind of transition between the great achievements of Europe. The (or Vesi), for example, moved the classical era and the later developments of the Re- into the Danube River valley and then south to Italy. naissance—hence the notion of a “middle time.” Not From there, likely in response to Hunnic invasions from that any of these characterizations holds up completely the east, they migrated southwest to (France) and in light of the objective historical evidence—every era, Iberia (Spain and Portugal). There they founded a Vi- after all, seems to have its own forms of barbarism and sigothic kingdom, which existed between 415 and 711, ignorance. But such is how the Renaissance scholars when Moorish invaders from North Africa disunited it. viewed the matter, and the designation stuck (although The Visigoths were replaced in the east by the Ostro- the term “dark ages” is no longer used). goths, who, under King Theodoric, conquered Italy and The start of the Middle Ages is traditionally assigned Sicily. With the death of Theodoric in 526, his king- the date of 476, when the last Roman emperor in the dom collapsed, leaving the Lombards (or Langobards) West, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Ger- to build a kingdom in northern Italy while the Byzan- man chief Odoacer. Although that event brought an tine emperor Justinian reestablished imperial rule in end to the Western Roman Empire, the empire in the southern Italy and Sicily. Another Germanic tribe, the east, based in Constantinople (Istanbul), survived as Vandals, ravaged Gaul, entered Spain, and extended the Christianized Byzantine Empire. The ancient world their reach into northern Africa, where they established did not end abruptly in 476 but rather declined gradu- a kingdom. The latter kingdom disrupted Mediterra- ally from the 3d century through the 7th century. By “de- nean shipping and pillaged widely until Justinian retook clined” one means that longstanding institutions and North Africa in the 6th century. systems of thought and governance were overturned In Gaul, beginning in the late 5th century, the and not necessarily replaced with institutions or sys- moved in from the Rhine River region. Under their tems of comparable stature or durability. Even so, the chief, Clovis (reigned 481-511), the Franks conquered Middle Ages is the time when the Roman Catholic other Germanic tribes and came to occupy most of Church came to the fore throughout Europe, as the Gaul. Clovis accepted Christianity and obtained the “pagan” beliefs of the earlier Roman era and the ensu- support of the pope for himself and his people. The ing “barbarian” invasions gave way to Christian doctrine move laid the foundation of the Merovingian kingdom, and a well organized clerical order. By the 5th century which existed until 751. the bishop of Rome, known as the pope, was recognized In Britain at the start of the Middle Ages, the Romans as the head of the church. The Byzantine, or Eastern were expelled by the Angles and Saxons, two Germanic Orthodox Church took a different path. tribes that eventually mingled (hence Anglo-Saxon) and The end date of the Middle Ages is a little fuzzier, coexisted, not always peacefully, with the native Celtic in the scheme of things. It stands amid the transition peoples. Eventually, the Anglo-Saxons came to occupy to the Renaissance in 15th century. It is generally un- most of Britain—Wales and northern Scotland ex- derstood that in Italy, where the first effects of Renais- cepted. By the 7th century, England consisted of seven sance culture were felt, the Middle Ages had come to Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Most of these later succumbed

ix to Viking invasions from the north. Only the kingdom of injustices throughout the region, along with corruption Wessex, under Alfred the Great (reigned 871-899), re- and ecclesiastical intrigue—just as there was, in equal mained unconquered. Indeed, subsequent Wessexian measure, the cultivation of chivalry, or a code of con- leaders expanded their control into the rest of England, duct pertaining to knighthood and courtly interactions. creating an Anglo-Saxon kingdom that survived into the With the Investiture Controversy, a struggle for pow- 11th century. The conquest of England by Norman in- er took place between the German emperor Henry IV vaders from across the channel took place in 1066. (reigned 1056-1106) and Pope Gregory VII (reigned Meanwhile, another legacy of the “dark ages” was the 1073-1085). Gregory’s victory in 1077 weakened lay rise of Catholicism (Christianity) along with the aban- rulers’ control over the church. Yet, similar confronta- donment of Latin and Greek literatures, which were tions erupted in later years, most notably one in Eng- thought, now, pagan. Only a few of the clergy retained land between Thomas Becket, archbishop of Can- Latin, and Greek scholarship became a very limited ac- terbury, and King Henry II. The struggle ended with tivity. Boethius (480-522) wrote a treatise, The Conso- Becket’s murder in 1170 and a newly strengthened lation of Philosophy, while jailed under Theodoric and king. During this period, too, the church sought to ex- awaiting execution for treason. Gregory of Tours (538- tend its control militarily by means of the Crusades. It 594) wrote his History of the Franks in corrupted Latin encouraged the bringing of its dogmas and doctrines and with little evidence. Isidore of Seville (c. 560-636) to the heathens and infidels of the world (i.e., pagans compiled a questionable summary of all knowledge to and non-Christians). The First Crusade (1096-1099) date. In contrast, Bede the Venerable (673-735), a Nor- targeted Turks in Asia Minor and the Levant and largely thumbrian monk, prepared a useful Ecclesiastical His- achieved its ends. Later Crusades, however, proved less tory of the English People. successful—though during the Fourth Crusade (1201- The most significant figure of the early Middle Ages, 1202) Constantinople was taken from the Byzantine though, was (Latin, Carolus; c. 742-814), emperors. creator or the , which covered most of western Europe. Charlemagne introduced a well The functioning system of central and local administration, Between 1100 and 1300, medieval civilization in Eu- oversaw a uniform system of justice, strove to build rope reached its height. Relatively stable states, headed a general economy, and helped to reform the church by kings, developed, along with strong institutions. and religious education. In 800 he was crowned in There were new, more efficient economies and finan- Rome as emperor by Pope Leo III, thus inaugurating cial organizations. The church reached its peak in pow- what later was called the Holy Roman Empire. Under er and authority. Intellectual and artistic activities were Charlemagne, Latin study and religious education were such that scholars have variously applied the terms preserved and further developed. Yet, a series of Vi- “renewal,” “revival,” or even “renaissance” (with a small king and Arab attacks brought disarray toward the end “r”) to the period. of his reign. By 887 the Carolingian empire was gone, The English kings, whose power was almost abso- and within a hundred years Europe was a mosaic of lute by the late 12th century, established an efficient competing feudal states. Feudalism, with its fiefdoms, central administration made up of an exchequer and a lords, knights, and vassals, became the prevailing sys- court contingent consisting of highly effective individu- tem through the end of the 13th century. The church, als. To confront major questions of the day, kings could too, became feudal in nature, with bishops and abbots assemble a council of court officials and leading mag- receiving fiefs in return for services rendered, including nates, although the final decision was the king’s along military services. Not even a revived Holy Roman Em- to make. The reign (1199-1216) of King John was pire, on a smaller scale, under Otto the Great (reigned marked by controversy. Locked in a struggle with Pope 936-972), could tame the evident turbulence in Eu- Innocent III, unpopular with the magnates for losing ropean politics and culture during this era. Although English possessions to France, and known to flaunt merchant and craft guilds, along with development of a laws and civil procedures, John faced an aristocratic re- middle or bourgeois class, contributed to a stable eco- volt in 1215 and was obliged to grant concessions to the nomic environment and the rise of large towns and cit- barons of the realm in the form of a written document ies, there continued to be enormous inequalities and known as Magna Carta. The document affirmed that

x the king was subject to the law, a premise central to the feudal society was based, began to unravel. Peasants form of government known as constitutional monarchy. were released or claimed their freedom, as landholders By the late 13th century, an assembly, or parliament, was could no longer sustain their enterprises. The middle in place, giving voice to lords and commoners. class became ever stronger in light of the budding shift In France, Germany, and Italy, meanwhile, different from manorial forms to capitalist (mercantile) forms of developments took place. France varied in its institu- economic activity. Kings now sometimes aligned them- tions by region. French kings, more so than the English, selves with the commoners over the aristocracy in order consolidated their power by pitting one region against to gain advantage. Such a broad-based alliance between the other. The French kings also retained absolute au- ruler and ruled spelled the end of the feudal state and thority under the principle of the divine right of kings, the rise of the nation state. which made them essentially vehicles of god. German Thus, by the 14th century a variety of medieval pat- kings, in contrast, remained relatively weak owing to terns were being replaced by newer ones. In central the Investiture Controversy and to their failed attempts Europe, the emerging Habsburg dynasty increased its at controlling northern Italy. With few effective rulers, power by acquiring the Low Countries (Netherlands) various princes assumed authority and made Germa- through the marriage of archduke Maximilian of Aus- ny into a patchwork of principalities, which remained tria to the daughter of the Burgundian duke Charles the central there into the 19th century. Italy, on the other Bold. In itself, lying between Germany and hand, was convulsed by struggles between the German France and separate from either, a remarkable culture kings and the papacy, both of whom sought authority developed, rivaling that of England and France. Even- over it. With neither side achieving a decisive, lasting tually, Spain too would become a Habsburg possession victory, what remained in Italy were independent city- through another opportunistic marriage, and Spanish states such as Venice and Florence. Similar city-states, culture would flourish. or emergent states based on stable cities, were present Meanwhile, for over one hundred years between in Spain, Portugal, and elsewhere. In such locations, 1337 and 1453, France and England would be at war capitalism took hold and flourished along with arts (the Hundred Years’ War). It began with a claim by and letters. Edward III that he was heir to the French crown and Despite some heresies and challenges to its author- would recapture English possessions lost to France. ity, the church stood triumphant in the 12th and 13th Despite English combat successes at Crécy (1346) and centuries. Crusades were ordered by the pope, kings (1356), the war drew out into an endless series were often humbled by ecclesiastical expressions of of skirmishes and retaliations. The French court was power, and church doctrine itself was occasionally ad- dealing with its own internal factional conflict at the justed to ensure its continuing supremacy over secular time, thus weakening its military efforts. In England, a life. Even so, variations from the norm could and did string of weak kings left the English magnates largely in occur—such as the establishment of the Franciscan fri- charge of political and legal affairs. Only when Joan of ars, devoted to austerity and assisting the poor, by Fran- Arc (1412-1431), a peasant girl from Lorraine, sought cis of Assisi in 1209. Other specialized religious orders to rally French forces at the Siege of Orléans (1428- arose at this time, as well. Through it all, papal govern- 1429), was a turning point reached and England was ment remained exceptionally efficient and continued to forced to give up its continental claims. And, yet, im- accrue to the church a wealth of valuable holdings. mediately after the Hundred Years’ War, England faced a civil war, the War of the Roses (1453-1485), brought The Late Middle Ages on by a dispute over the crown between rival families Except in northern Italy, by the late 13th century eco- from York and Lancaster. The war ended when Henry nomic growth had halted and a lengthy cycle of stag- Tudor defeated and killed the Yorkist king, Richard III. nation took root, causing considerable social strife. Italy during this period was likewise marked by po- There were peasant revolts in England, France, and litical and military maneuvering, as various small states the Netherlands. Worse, the Plague, or Black Death, aligned and realigned themselves under a shifting array cut through European society between 1348 and 1350, of princes and mercenaries. Milan was seized by Fran- killing nearly a quarter of the population. In conse- cesco Sforza in 1450; Florence fell under the sway of quence, seignorialism, or the manor system on which the Medici family; the Papal States were wracked by

xi dissension and struggle; and Sicily went to the house Bibliography and Additional Reading of Aragon while southern Italy went to the Angevins. Bennett, Judith. Medieval Europe: A Short History. New The Catholic Church, too, became notably unsettled, York: McGraw Hill, 2010. with Pope Clement V (reigned 1305-1314) and his suc- Fried, Johannes. The Middle Ages. Cambridge, MA: cessors taking up residence in Avignon (France) rather Belknap Press, 2015. than in Rome. With Gregory XI, the papacy returned Frugoni, Chiara. A Day in a Medieval City. Chicago: to Rome, in 1377, and yet the following year saw the University of Chicago Press, 2005. eruption of a great schism whereby different claimants Herlihy, David V., ed. Medieval Culture and Society. at different times and places declared themselves pope. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1993. The schism ended only in 1417, by which time the Jordan William Chester. Europe in the High Middle church had already suffered a great decline in prestige. Ages. New York: Viking, 2001. Events during that long rivalry, and lingering criticisms Lyon, Bryce D., ed. The High Middle Ages. New York: afterward, laid the foundation for the rise of a new re- Free Press, 1984. ligious vision, one that eventually would take the form of the Protestant Reformation as set out by Martin Lu- ther. By then, a new age was in the making.

Michael Shally-Jensen, PhD

xii Italy, 1175 „ Letter from Peter of Blois to Queen Eleanor of England Date: 1173 Country: England Author: Peter of Blois

Summary Overview Eleanor of was the French-born queen of heir to the throne. He was ambitious, and even though Henry II of England and one of the most influential his father had greatly enlarged their territory and had European women of the Middle Ages. She and Henry even gone so far as to crown Henry as the associate were a dynamic and successful pair who produced eight king, he had no real authority or land and grew bored children, many of whom would also become important and resentful. When the elder king made plans to give figures in medieval Europe. However, they became in- three castles in Young Henry’s territory of to his creasingly estranged, and Eleanor eventually left Eng- younger brother, John, the young king left his father land for Poitiers, in her own Duchy of Aquitaine, where and went to the French court of his father-in-law (and she established a court known for its literature, music, his mother’s first husband) in Paris, where enemies of and poetry. She received visiting monarchs and was the English king were plentiful. He may have travelled able to achieve a degree of independence impossible to Aquitaine, where his brothers Richard and Geoffrey in England. were staying with their mother, or his brothers may By 1173, Henry had vastly extended his territory, in- have been summoned from England by their mother. vading Ireland and dealing with rebellions in Wales and In any case, it is clear that Eleanor supported the revolt in his territory on the continent. Eleanor joined with of 1173, and with her help, Young Henry assembled a her three eldest sons in a revolt against their father. significant force. Though this letter from the French diplomat Peter of The elder Henry had made enemies across Europe Blois implored her to return to her husband peacefully, for his part in the slaying of the archbishop of Canter- she was arrested and imprisoned by Henry until his bury, Thomas Becket. Though the elder Henry was not death in 1189. directly implicated in the murder, he had fought with Becket over the limits of church authority, and it was Defining Moment rumored that he had ordered the killing. In addition, The marriage of and Henry of An- Young Henry was willing to promise land and titles from jou was one of the great dynastic matches in European his own inheritance to nobles who would fight for him. history. Eleanor was a ruler in her own right and had in- The rebellion did not succeed, however. Eleanor herited the Duchy of Aquitaine only to be spirited away was captured by Henry II and taken back to England, to marry the heir to the French throne, Louis VII. She where she lived as a prisoner for the next sixteen years. would be the queen consort of France for fifteen years, Young Henry and his brothers were defeated by their but did not find Louis a suitable match, and after she father and reconciled with him after eighteen months accompanied the king on a crusade in 1147, their rela- of fighting. tionship began to unravel. Eleanor asked publicly for an annulment, which was finally granted in 1152. Less Author Biography than two months later, Eleanor married Henry, Count Peter of Blois was born in 1130 in Blois, in modern-day of Anjou and Duke of , who was eleven years France. He was well-educated in history and the clas- her junior. Two years later, Henry became the king of sics as a young man, studying with notable teachers in England as well. Tours and Paris, and later travelling to Bologna to study Eleanor and Henry had eight children. The eldest of law. In 1167 he traveled to Sicily to tutor the young Eleanor’s surviving sons was known as Young Henry, the Sicilian king, William II. He returned to France once

78 Letter from Peter of Blois to Queen Eleanor of England • 79

again, but immigrated to England by 1173 to assist the Though he urged Eleanor of Aquitaine to make peace archbishop of Canterbury. with her husband, he later served her after the king’s In England, Peter also became a diplomat for King death. Peter held several important church positions Henry II, and helped to negotiate between the king, the in England, including archdeacon of Bath and London pope, and other European heads of state, particularly and dean of the college at Wolverhampton. He was a Louis VII of France. Peter was a secretary to the king prodigious letter writer, and much of his correspon- and an emissary to the pope during the 1173 revolt. dence survives. Peter died in 1203.

HISTORICAL DOCUMENT

To Aleanor, Queen of England. We know that unless you return to your husband, you From the Archbishop of Rouen & his Suffragens: will be the cause of widespread disaster. While you alone are now the delinquent one, your actions will result in Greetings in the search for peace— ruin for everyone in the kingdom. Therefore, illustrious queen, return to your husband and our king. In your rec- Marriage is a firm and indissoluble union. This is pub- onciliation, peace will be restored from distress, and in lic knowledge and no Christian can take the liberty to your return, joy may return to all. If our pleadings do not ignore it. From the beginning biblical truth has veri- move you to this, at least let the affliction of the people, fied that marriage once entered into cannot be sepa- the imminent pressure of the church and the desolation rated. Truth cannot deceive: it says, “What God has of the kingdom stir you. For either truth deceives, or joined let us not put asunder.” Truly, whoever separates “every kingdom divided against itself will be destroyed.” a married couple becomes a transgressor of the divine Truly, this desolation cannot be stopped by the lord king commandment. but by his sons and their allies. So the woman is at fault who leaves her husband and Against all women and out of childish counsel, you fails to keep the trust of this social bond. When a mar- provoke disaster for the lord king, to whom powerful ried couple becomes one flesh, it is necessary that the kings bow the neck. And so, before this matter reaches union of bodies be accompanied by a unity and equality a bad end, you should return with your sons to your hus- of spirit through mutual consent. A woman who is not band, whom you have promised to obey and live with. under the headship of the husband violates the condi- Turn back so that neither you nor your sons become sus- tion of nature, the mandate of the Apostle, and the law pect. We are certain that he will show you every possible of Scripture: “The head of the woman is the man.” She is kindness and the surest guarantee of safety. created from him, she is united to him, and she is subject I beg you, advise your sons to be obedient and respect- to his power. ful to their father. He has suffered many anxieties, We deplore publicly and regretfully that, while you offences and grievances. Yet, so that imprudence might are a most prudent woman, you have left your husband. not demolish and scatter good will (which is acquired at The body tears at itself. The body did not sever itself such toil!), we say these things to you, most pious queen, from the head, but what is worse, you have opened the in the zeal of God and the disposition of sincere love. way for the lord king’s, and your own, children to rise Truly, you are our parishioner as much as your hus- up against the father. Deservedly the prophet says, “The band. We cannot fall short in justice: Either you will sons I have nurtured and raised, they now have spurned return to your husband, or we must call upon canon law me.” As another prophet calls to mind, “If only the final and use ecclesiastical censures against you. We say this hour of our life would come and the earth’s surface crack reluctantly, but unless you come back to your senses, open so that we might not see this evil”! with sorrow and tears, we will do so. 80 • ENGLAND AND FRANCE

GLOSSARY

apostle: one of the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ; here the reference is to Paul

canon law: laws made by church leadership

ecclesiastical: relating to the clergy of the Christian church

Suffragens: suffragan bishops, assistants to senior bishops

Document Analysis The letter ends with a plea and a threat. The king Peter of Blois’s letter to Eleanor is intended to entice has suffered enough from the loss of his wife and their the queen back to her husband and encourage her to sons, Peter argues. Eleanor needs to return herself and end the rebellion of her sons. Peter uses the language of their sons to his affection, and they will be forgiven and traditional Christian marriage vows to remind Eleanor their safety guaranteed. If she still refuses, however, that she had agreed to obey her husband, and if she “we must call upon canon law and use ecclesiastical refused to do this, she was violating not only a promise censures against you.” Peter underscores the fact that she made to him, but the trust of the people she gov- his side does not want to fight and hopes to still view erned and ultimately the will of God. Eleanor as a friend, but will be forced to take action in Peter reminds Eleanor that marriage is indissoluble, pursuit of justice if she does not repent. and once entered into, it was not possible to separate from it. Eleanor is reminded that in the taking of wed- Essential Themes ding vows she and her husband had come together in The main theme of this letter is the argument that Elea- “unity and equality of spirit,” but with her husband nor is obligated by her marriage vows, the teachings of as the head. The ideal of equality of spirit does not the church, the will of God, and the good of her people make husband and wife social equals in the eyes of the to return to her husband. Peter provides insight into the church, for “she is created from him, she is united to church’s views on women’s place in society during the him, and she is subject to his power.” Peter compares time period, as well as into diplomatic procedure. It is marriage to a body and argues that Eleanor’s actions clear that Eleanor was powerful and respected, despite are tearing the body apart unnaturally. In addition, he her actions that opposed the traditional power struc- claims that her separation from the king has inspired ture. Though she was threatened with physical harm her sons’ own rebellion against their father. He suggests and church censure, the arguments made in this let- that if she returns to the king, her sons will follow. ter were insufficient to sway her. If marriage was indis- If the argument that marriage was indissoluble was soluble, why had she been allowed an annulment from not convincing enough to Eleanor and the argument her first husband? If her husband was her head and she that Henry was her and their sons’ natural leader also was subject to his authority, why had she been able to failed to inspire obedience, Peter asks her to consider rule on her own terms so successfully? the impact on her people. He assures the rebel queen Eleanor may have genuinely believed that her sons that “your actions will result in ruin for everyone in the would be better rulers than her husband, and the coun- kingdom.” Surely even if she could not be made to obey try better off in their hands. It is also possible that she her husband, the good of her kingdom and the will of wanted revenge for Henry II’s infidelities. Whatever the God would be compelling enough to return her to Hen- case, Peter of Blois failed in his mission to reunite the ry, Peter reasons. He carefully places the responsibility feuding monarchs. Eleanor went to join her sons in Par- for the conflict on her; if she refuses to reconcile, there is, but was arrested on orders from Henry II and subse- is nothing the king can do: “Truly, this desolation can- quently imprisoned. Even after the rebellion failed and not be stopped by the lord king but by his sons and the family was reconciled, she remained captive and their allies.” was only freed after her husband’s death. After her son Letter from Peter of Blois to Queen Eleanor of England • 81

Richard was crowned king of England, Eleanor again Kramer, Ann. Eleanor of Aquitaine: The Queen Who became a highly influential political figure until her Rode Off to Battle. Washington: National Geograph- death in 1204. ic, 2006. Print. Seward, Desmond. Eleanor of Aquitaine: The Mother —Bethany Groff, MA Queen of the Middle Ages. New York: Pegasus, 2014. Print. Bibliography and Additional Reading Weir, Alison. Eleanor of Aquitaine: By the Wrath of God, Cotts, John D. The Clerical Dilemma: Peter of Blois and Queen of England. London: Vintage, 2008. Print. Literate Culture in the Twelfth Century. Washington: Catholic U of America P, 2009. Print. Chronological List

523: On Fate and Providence, from The Consolation of Philosophy ...... 173 530: Codex Justinianus: Children of the Unfree ...... 3 553: Novella 146: On Jews ...... 6 Seventh century: The Pact of Umar: Peace Accord to the Christians of Syria ...... 143 642: Excerpt from the Visigothic Code ...... 10 700: The Farmer’s Law, from Byzantium ...... 14 886: The Laws of Alfred, Guthrum, and Edward the Elder ...... 19 ca. 890: The Laws of King Alfred ...... 26 ca. 1075; 1076; 1122: Four Documents from the Investiture Controversy ...... 35 1077: Excerpt from St. Anselm’s Proslogium, or Discourse on the Existence of God ...... 180 1078: “In Behalf of the Fool”: A Response to St. Anslem ...... 185 1085: A Truce of God, Decree of the Emperor Henry IV ...... 41 1099: Excerpt from “The Capture of Jerusalem” ...... 51 1120: Prologue to Sic et non ...... 190 ca.1132: “Of the Perils of His Abbey,” from Abelard’s Historia Calamitatum...... 194 ca. 1140: The Crusaders in Mainz, May 27, 1096 ...... 46 1166: The Assize of Clarendon ...... 73 1173: Letter from Peter of Blois to Queen Eleanor of England ...... 78 ca. 1180: Excerpt from Dialogue Concerning the Exchequer ...... 82 ca. 1180: On the Rules of Love and Chivalry ...... 86 ca. 1204: Excerpt from Historia Constantinopolitana ...... 55 ca. 1226: Testament of St. Francis ...... 199 1215: Magna Carta ...... 89 ca. 1231: Statute in Favor of the Princes ...... 59 ca. 1252–6: On the Principles of Nature ...... 203 ca. 1265–74: Excerpt from Summa Theologica ...... 213 1268: “On Experimental Science” ...... 217 1295: Three Summonses to the Parliament of 1295 ...... 98 ca. 1300: Ordinances of the Merchant Gild of Southampton ...... 102 1305: Report from China ...... 63 1326: Ibn Battuta Makes the Pilgrimage to Mecca and Travels to Baghdad ...... 147 1326: Ibn Battuta’s Travels in Cairo, Damascus, and Jerusalem ...... 154 ca. 1345: Excerpt from The Love of Books ...... 224 1352: Ibn Battuta’s Travels to Mali ...... 163 1369: The Battle of Poitiers, from The Chronicles of Froissart ...... 106

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