The SoundScape of China: The Role ofHUGO CDs in Chinese Cultural Memory
Wong King-chung
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Philosophy
In
Ethnomusicology
© The Chinese University of Hong Kong January 2005
The Chinese University of Hong Kong holds the copyright of this thesis. Any person(s) intending to use a part or whole of the materials in the thesis in a proposed publication must seek copyright release from the Dean of the Graduate School. N^^BRARY SYSTEMx^W Abstract
The SoundScape of China: The Role of HUGO CDs in Chinese Cultural Memory Abstract
Wong King-chung
Audio-visual media, such as cassette tapes, CDs, VCDs, MDs, DVDs, and MPS have fostered and indeed accelerated changes in musical cultures around the world. People not only leam music from scores and manuscripts, but also leam and experience from recordings. In addition, audio-visual media not only record music, but also provide a new kind of aural transmission.
As a window of China, Hong Kong began her cooperation with Chinese record companies to record music in the early 1900s. Indeed, the recording industry of Hong Kong was established in the 1920s. The flourishing development of the recording industry in the territory was marked by the establishment of both foreign-owned and Chinese record companies. They produced numerous records of Guangdongyinyue (廣東音樂）[Cantonese music] andj^weyw (專劇）[Cantonese opera]. The broadcasting industry in the Guangdong area was congenial to the development of the recording industry, and it undoubtedly facilitated the growth of record companies in Hong Kong.
In this thesis, the author will propose the study of Chinese music through a case-study of a Hong Kong-based record company, HUGO Production (HfC) Ltd. (hereafter HUGO) which was established in 1987，with the aim of examining the cultural implications of consuming Chinese music outside of mainland China.
In addition, this project focuses on the role of HUGO in the production and consumption of Chinese music CDs, which in turn maps Chinese music in the collective aural memory of Chinese people. The thesis will be based on the comparison of similarities and differences between the HUGO CD catalogue and Chinese music reference books (including dictionaries of music, encyclopedias and textbooks) with regard to the classification systems of Chinese music.
i Abstract (Chinese)
唱片中國 雨果唱片在塑造中國人文化記憶中所扮演的角色 中文摘要 王景松
十九世紀末，人類的音樂進入科技化年代° Thomas Edison (1847-1931)於 1877年發明了唱筒式留聲機（Phonograph) ’人類展開了一個記錄音樂的新年代。 隨後 Emile Berliner( 1851-1929)於 1882 年發明了 唱盤式留聲機（Gramophone) ’ 以唱盤（黑膠唱片，record, disc)代替笨重的唱筒（cylinder)�而踏進二十世紀， 形形色色的錄音工具不斷被改良’記錄音樂的媒介更改為以錄音帶、CD�VCD� MD�DVD�MP3等聲音媒體（Audio Media)代替傳統的唱盤，更將音樂的記 錄模式由模擬形式（Analogue)提升到數碼形式（Digital)的層面。
聲音媒體的出現對以樂譜為記錄及傳播音樂的傳統方法，提供了 一個接觸及 轮聽音樂的新途徑。由於新的傳播媒體興起（Internet...),人類不需要實際地參 與表演活動，亦能跨聽及觀看到不同類型的音樂表演。誠然，這些聲音媒體改變 了音樂傳播的方法，而其傳播速度及層面亦較以往的方式更快及更廣。
隨著錄音科技進步，唱片工業更於十九世紀末得到重大發展。多所國際性的 唱片公司相繼成立，如哥林（Columbia)�謀得利（Gramophone)及勝利（Victor) 等，她們更著力擴展海外市場’在世界各地設立分公司，並錄製當地民間及傳統 音樂。各分公司的設立’更令市場湧現一批規模較小的本土唱片公司，若以香港 為例，於八十年代時’已超150所外資或華資的唱片公司在香港成立。
面對著幕多的唱片公司，本論文將選擇於八十年代末於香港成立的一所以錄 製中國音樂為主的唱片公司——雨果（HUGO)及其創辦人易有伍先生為對象’ 結合民族音樂學及傳播學的理論，分析其唱片目錄，並揭示雨果唱片所投射的一 幅中國音樂地圃。繼而揉合二十世紀有關中國音樂的論述，探討一所海外唱片公 司如何理解中國音樂，並如何塑造國内、外華人的中國音樂觀念。
ii Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement
As many science students told me, it is hard for a science-based student to write out his idea into lengthy articles. However, it comes possible for me to finish this thesis finally. Although it is not a brilliant and comfort in writing, it is a mark and a record for my academic life.
I would like to say thanks to most people who help me in different stages of writing this thesis. Without any of them, this thesis may not be finished. First, I thank to the members of my thesis committee, Professor Witzleben, Lawrence, my supervisor who pays much effort to correct my writing and suggest all possibilities in shaping my idea. He also explores the perspective of Chinese music in Western scholarship. Professor Yu Siu-wah lets me know historical, theoretical and cultural aspects of Chinese music in my academic journey. His suggestions help me much to shape my thesis in preliminary stage. Professor Chan Sau-yan expresses his attitude of doing research. He requests us to be a serious student in his lesson that is unforgettable in my future life. Also, much thank has to express to all professors in music department, CUHK who bring me into the musical world.
I cannot forget all my classmates in graduate school. Special thanks to Wong
Chuen-fung who encourages me every time and let me joining academic chatting.
Also thanks to Cheng Yin-hung, So Hon-tou, Law Bing-kuen, Zhang Zhan-tau and
Zang Yi-bing.
My two English editors, Lorraine Wong and Leung Sok-yee, paid much of their time to correct and polish my English grammar. Without them, I cannot imagine what English will be written.
iii Acknowledgement
Thanks for my informants, especially Mr. Aik Yeh-goh. His story lets me know part of history of Hong Kong from perspective of a musician. After chatting with him, I ensure HUGO CD story not only the story of him but also a story of Hong
Kong musical culture.
Last but not least, to my family, especially my wife, Wai-tak, for her patience and support all the times.
iv Table of Content
Table of Contents Abstract i Abstract (Chinese) ii Acknowledgement iii Table of Contents v List of Figures and Tables vii
Chapter 1—Introduction A New Age of Sound 1 Academic Background and Related Studies 2 Chinese Music and the Media 4 The Present Study and Methodology 5
Chapter 2—SoundScape of China: The Influence of Ethnomusicology in China in the 1980，s Introduction 8 From Comparative to Cultural: Chinese Music Scholarship in the Twentieth 10 Century Mainland China Revealing a Soundscape of Chinese MusicDevelopment of Musical Genre 13 Study Concluding Remarks 18
Chapter 3^Mapping a Soundscape: Analyzing the HUGO CD Catalogue(s) Introduction 20 Classification, Category and Catalogue 20 Recording Industry in Hong Kong 22 Aik Yeh-goh and HUGO Production (HK) Ltd. 28 HUGO'S Label Division 29 Statistical Analysis of HUGO CD Catalogues 31 An Aural Map~Soundscape of China 3 8 Concluding Remarks 42
V Table of Content
Chapter 4—Whose Music? The Role of the HUGO CD Catalogue in Chinese Cultural Memory Introduction 44 Communication Theory in Studying Recording Industry 46 Lass well's 5-W Formula as a System 46 Lewin's Gatekeeping Theory 50 The Role of HUGO CD: Imagination of Chinese Music outside Mainland 52 China Concluding Remarks 54
Appendix A: Name List of Record Companies in Hong Kong before the 1990，s 56 Appendix B: The Catalogue of the HUGO CDs 58 Selected Bibliography 66
vi List of Figures and Tables
List of Figures and Tables
Table 3.1 The Statistic of HUGO CD Catalogues from 2001-2004 32 Table 3.2 The Summary of the Label HUGO 33 Table 3.3 The Summary and Statistic of HUGO CD Catalogue 2004 (web 36 version) Table 3.4 The Comparison of Chinese Music Classifications between 39 HUGO CD Catalogue and Three Common Reference Books of Chinese Music Table 3.5 Ratios among Categories of Introduction by Page Numbers 41 Table 3.6 Ratios among Categories of the HUGO CDs Catalogue 42 2001-2002 by Number of CDs Figure 3.1 The Balance among the Various Large Categories in the 41 Introduction Figure 3.2 The Balance among the Various Large Categories in the 42 Catalogue 2001-2002 Figure 4.1 The Flow Chart of Message Transmission: System Theory 49 Figure 4.2 Simple Diagram of the Gatekeeping Concept 51
vii Chapter Three
Chapter One Introduction
A New Age of Sound
As a form of cultural production, music is transmitted live in rituals, ceremonies, festivals, and concerts to participants therein. Around the turn of the twentieth century, new technology provided new media for the transcription and play-back of music.
Audio-visual media, such as cassette tapes, CDs, VCDs, MDs, DVDs, and MPS have fostered and indeed accelerated changes in musical cultures around the world.
People not only leam music from scores and manuscripts, but also leam and experience from recordings. In addition, people use audio-visual media not only to record music, but also to provide a new kind of aural transmission.
Music transmission is a kind of human communication. Communication can be defined as “a process by which A sends a message to B upon whom it has an effect
(Fiske 1994: 50)，’ which points to the carriage of messages in communication. In other words, understanding is deemed to be the ultimate goal in communicative practices. However, how does the process of comprehension occur? Lasswell
(1948) problematizes communication from another perspective: “Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?” Identifying different stages of communication, Lasswell in a way reminds us of the importance of the channel, or rather, the form of communicative practices. With reference to Lass well's model, no message can be transmitted without a channel (medium).
In Helen Myers's book Ethnomusicology: An Introduction, media studies (the
1 Chapter Three recording industry) is recently acknowledged as an important new direction within the field of ethnomusicology (Myers 1994). However, the chapter's short bibliography
(by Krister Malm) in relation to the recording industry reflects the fact that this topic is still relatively new and unexplored within ethnomusicology (Malm 1994).
Academic Background and Related Studies
Indeed, audio-visual media are inarguably one of the most important ways for cultural exchanges of modernity, but, ironically, they receive relatively little academic attention in communication studies. The relationship between music communication and cultural exchanges should be studied through an inter-disciplinary approach drawing analytical devices from the disciplines of anthropology, sociology, and ethnomusicology.
During the earliest days of ethnomusicological studies, scholars were concerned with the management and use of recording technology in the field (Shelemay 1991:
277). Bruno Nettl, for instance, stresses the strategic and technical use of sound recording in collecting and preserving musical sound, its analytical process, and its impetus for sound archives (1964: 16-17).
In the view of ethnomusicologists, the cylinder phonograph initiated a new age of "transmitted" (Rosing 1984) or "mediated" (Keil 1984) musical experience.
Charles Keil points out that those recordings "may have been the single most important factor in getting...ethnomusicology started.(1984: 91). Kay Kaufman
Shelemay alludes to the potential of using recording technology for studying a musical system over time, which enables the scholar to juxtapose the past with the present (1991: 287). The sense of "newness" and "breakthrough" associated with
2 Chapter Three
the new transmission technology is telling in that the consumption of music is an
unprecedented modem experience which unfolds a story of global exchanges in the
realms of science, economy and culture.
There are abundant publications from scholars about the recording industries of
diverse locales after the 1970s. Pekka Gronow provides a general idea of studying
the recording industry as a mass medium (Gronow 1983; Gronow and Saunio 1998)
and has written an important history of the recording industry reaching the Orient.
Geoffrey P. Hull's book (1998) provides a detailed description of the whole recording
industry. Moreover, ethnomusicologists have conducted studies of the recording
industry and ethnic music in different regions, including China (Jones 2001)，Egypt
(El-Shawan 1987; Racy 1976)，India (Manuel 1993)，Japan (Keil 1984)，Java (Sutton
1985)，the Soviet Union (Gronow 1975, 1982), Syrian-Jews in New York (Shelemay
1988) and the United States (Spottswood 1982). In addition, there •are many studies
of the relationship between popular music and the recording industry (Bowman 1997;
Denisoff 1975，1986; Gronow 1973)，and Roger Wallis and Krister Malm have
conducted a more comprehensive project on the cultural, economic and political
influences of big recording companies in some small countries (Wallis and Malm
1984).
Although there are insufficient Chinese writings about the recording industry,
there are several important and influential monographs covering the topic. Two
valuable articles written by Yung Sai-shing (容世誠）address the musical and social
changes of the western gramophone record industry in the early twentieth century and
Cantonese musical art (Yung 2001), and the impact of the New Moon Gramophone
Company on the development of Cantonese popular literature in Hong Kong during
3 Chapter Three
the 1920s (Yung 2002). Wong Chi-wai (黃志緯）has written a comprehensive thesis
about the impact of the hegemony of international gramophone enterprises on the
development of Hong Kong canto-pop (Wong 1991). A sociological project
conducted by a group of students in 1987 explored the possibilities of studying the
recording industry in Hong Kong (Qiu et al. 1989). Apart from historical and
sociological approaches, Taiwan scholar Sheng Kai (盛鍾）employs semiotics
concepts to analyze messages from classical CD covers (Sheng 2000).
Chinese Music and the Media
As a window of China, Hong Kong started to cooperate with Chinese record
companies to record music in the early 1900s (Yung 2001: 513). Indeed, the
recording industry of Hong Kong was established in the 1920s (Yung 2002: 152).
The flourishing development of the recording industry in the territory was marked by
the establishment of both foreign-owned and Chinese record companies^. They
produced numerous records of Guangdong yinyue (廣東音樂）[Cantonese music] and yueju (粤劇）[Cantonese opera]. The broadcasting industry in the Guangdong area
was congenial to the development of the recording industry, and it surely facilitated
the growth of record companies in Hong Kong (Yung 2002: 133).
In the way that "landscape" refers to mapping in geography, the term
“soundscape，，，as coined by the Canadian composer R. Murray Schafer, refers to the
acoustic environment of a particular place constituted by both man-made and natural
sounds (Schafer 1980). Here, the concept of soundscape will be employed to
1 These oxq New Moon 新月，Hen Sheng 天聲,Fang Heng 風行’ U Sheng 藝聲，Hong Kong Record， Naxos, EMI, BMQ Philips, Polygram, HUGO 雨果 andROI 龍音.
4 Chapter Three
describe the scope of human musical activities in China at the turn of the century^.
In this thesis, the author will study Chinese music through a case-study of a
Hong Kong-based record company, HUGO Production (HK) Ltd. (hereafter HUGO)
which was established in 1987，with the aim of examining the cultural implications of
consuming Chinese music outside of mainland China. Distinguished from record
companies of an earlier age, HUGO'S products offered a wider scope of Chinese
music which, the author shall argue, is congenial to the soundscape of China. Apart
from Guangdong yinyue (廣東音樂)，the record products of HUGO include qiyue (器
樂）[Chinese instrumental music], minge (民歌）[Chinese folk song], quyi (曲藝）
[Chinese narrative music], and western and Chinese orchestral music composed by
Chinese composers, as well as Chinese music in new age styles. Such a prolific
soundscape, the author shall argue, reflects the emerging hybridity, or rather, the
impact of global exchanges on the projection and imagination of Chinese identity.
This project focuses on the role of HUGO in the production and consumption of
Chinese music CDs, which in turn maps Chinese music in the collective aural memory of Chinese people. The objective of the thesis is to compare the similarities and differences between the HUGO CD catalogue and Chinese music reference books
(including dictionaries of music, encyclopedias and textbooks) with regard to the classification systems of Chinese music.
The Present Study and Methodology
In the interest of developing a fresh perspective for the study of Chinese music,
2 In the field of Chinese music, Tsao Penyeh has also applied the concept of soundscape to his research on Daoist rituals (Tsao 2000).
5 Chapter Three the author proposes to adopt an interdisciplinary approach which combines methodologies used in the disciplines of anthropology, history, ethnomusicology, cultural studies and communication studies. A combination of ethnographic and historical research is indeed essential.
The author will start this project with a literature review of canonical works on
Chinese music and theories in ethnomusicology. As a canonical work on communication theories, Lasswell's model (1948) provides a framework for studying
Chinese music and media. The idea of "gatekeeping" proposed by Kurt Lewin
(1947) is useful in conceptualizing the behaviour of producers, including HUGO in the present study.
A substantial part of the primary source material comes from interviews, personal conversations and the observations of the author, which are the techniques frequently applied by ethnomusicologists in research but rarely applied in studies of the recording industry (Bowman 1997; Sutton 1985). As regards the case-study of
HUGO, the HUGO CD catalogues (HUGO 2001, 2002) provide information on the classification of HUGO'S products, and The Story of HUGO (Aik 2002) gives abundant historical information on each product. The author will make a critical examination on both in order to unveil the process of how Chinese music is mapped.
In sum, the present study remains open in its approach. In the absence of a ruling theoretical model, a new and eclectic theoretical framework is needed in this new area.
* * * *
To explain how the music CDs shape a collective aural memory for Chinese
6 Chapter Three people, the author is going to divide the remaining thesis into three chapter .
Chapter two will point out how the concept of Chinese music has been conceptualized by Chinese scholars and their writings since Chinese musicologist Wang Guang-qi 王
光祈，s approach. It will also discuss the development and the influence of ethnomusicology in China in the 1980s to point out that Chinese scholars request a more systematic and scientific method in studying Chinese music. Chapter three is related to the classification system of Chinese music in a local record company,
HUGO, and its director Aik Yeh-goh's concept of Chinese music. By analyzing
HUGO'S CD catalogue and comparing it with academic classification of Chinese music, the author will suggest reading all classification systems as a map and argue that HUGO'S classification changes the map dynamically from the academic classification. The author experienced the power of CDs throughout the process for learning the performance techniques of Chinese instruments in the 1990s in Hong
Kong. When the author and numerous performers first encountered learning
Chinese instrumental music, the CDs provided an important reference in learning performing skills. Hence, chapter four will show that the soimdscape of CDs is a reconstructed and imagined world. Theories of communication studies provide a framework for examining the relationship between living music and the process of producing music CDs. The author problemizes this process by arguing that the music from CDs is not a "real" soimdscape, but is an "imagined" soundscape that is explained by the theory of gatekeeping. The gatekeeper, the director of a record company is authorized to select the kind of music the company schedules to be published. In other words, what the audience listens to is the music selected by someone else.
7 Chapter Three
Chapter Two
SoundScape of China—The Influence of Ethnomusicology in China in the 1980s
Introduction
In 1950, Dutch scholar Jaap Kunst coined a new term, "ethno-musicology" (later revised to "ethnomusicology" and used as the title of his book Ethnomusicology
(1959)) to replace the term "comparative musicology" as the title of the discipline which is given specially to the study of music within its cultural context (Myers
1992a:3). American scholar Alan Merriam later used the term "anthropology of music” as the title of the discipline in his book Anthropology of Music (1964) that is clearly described as a method for the discipline of ethnomusicology. Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, "ethnomusicology" had emerged and soon gained its popularity, and the discipline has established its own definitions, research methods, and scope of studies. Helen Myers has briefly defined ethnomusicology as including "the study of folk music, Eastern art music and contemporary music in oral tradition as well as conceptual issues such as the origins of music, musical change, music as symbol，universals in music, the function of music in society, the comparison of musical systems and the biological basis of music and dance (1992a:3)."
Ethnomusicology is commonly accepted as a study of different the musics of different ethnic groups and their cultures. The concepts of traditional, indigenous, and non-Western music are the features that are used to distinguish this study of music from the dominance of Western classical music. Merriam's suggestion of applying anthropology knowledge in ethnomusicology has consolidated the development of the discipline for fifty years.
Ethnomusicologists Helen Myers, Anthony Seeger, Stephen Blum, Richard
8 Chapter Three
Widdess etc. have written, and summarized their knowledge of ethnomusicology and their monographs are compiled into a textbook volumes entitled Ethnomusicology: An
Introduction and Ethnomusicology: Historical and Regional Studies (Myers 1992a and 1992b). Nowadays most music departments in universities worldwide have established a programme of ethnomusicology in their curricula.
As studying non-Western music becoming the principle agenda of ethnomusicology, not only have Western scholars concerned with the musical cultures of the non-Western world, but non-Western scholars have also started to pay attention to their own musical cultures. In this chapter, the author will focus on the growth of music study in the twentieth century in the mainland China^ and how Chinese scholars have reacted to ethnomusicology.
Between the 1970s and the 1980s, knowledge of ethnomusicology was widespread in the mainland China. The debate of the discipline usually focused on the translation of its title, definition of the discipline, the realm of the study, and theories and methods as well as the position of ethnomusicology in the study of
Chinese music (Gao 1980:8-25). The discussion of those conceptual issues has not only influenced the theories and methods of studying Chinese music, but has also revealed a broader scope for studying Chinese music.
When Chinese scholars discuss the issues of ethnomusicology, they usually date back to the 1920s, at which the knowledge of comparative musicology was introduced by musicologist Wang Guang-qi 王光祈.Luo has described the history of introduction of comparative musicology to Chinese music scholarship in the early
1 In this study, "Chinese scholars" do not include scholars outside the mainland China.
9 Chapter Three twentieth century as follows:
“Since the 1920s, Wang Guang-qi introduced music ethnology [comparative musicology] from the Berlin School to the Orient [China]. He tried hard to make use of the knowledge from music ethnology to study Chinese traditional music theories, and further introduced Chinese music into the realm of the three-major musical systems [China, India and Greece] worldwide and studied it in a broader scope and context^ (Luo 1989:808)."
Chinese scholars sometimes put the two disciplines, ethnomusicology and comparative ethnomusicology, on an equal basis and in parallel (Luo 1989:808).
Why did Chinese scholars combine the knowledge of two different disciplines together in discussion and why didn't a hot debate happen until the 1980s? How did ethnomusicology influence the study of Chinese music? In this chapter, the author is going to discuss how Chinese scholars have received, understood, and applied their knowledge of ethnomusicology and how ethnomusicology has influenced the study of
Chinese music.
From Comparative to Cultural: Chinese Music Scholarship in the Twentieth
Century in the Mainland China
Chinese musicologist, Shen Qia 沈》'合 divides the development of ethnomusicology in Mainland China into four periods, the period of comparative musicology in the 1920s to the 1930s, the period of the study of folk music in the
1940s to the 1950s, the period of establishing folk music theories in the 1950s to the
1970s, and the period of ethnomusicology in the 1980s and afterwards (1996:5). The division not only shows the changes of the titles in these periods, but also shows the
2 Original Chinese text:進入二十世紀以後’王光祈最早將柏林學派的音樂民族學引進東方，力 ffi從音樂民族學的角度研究中國的傳統音樂理論，並將中國音樂列入世界三大樂系之中，在音樂 的廣關背景中加以考查°
10 Chapter Three
conceptual development of Chinese music studies.
Wang Guang-qi studied comparative musicology at the University of Berlin in
Germany in 1927. He was the earliest scholar who applied the methods of
comparative musicology to study music of the West and the Orient systematically.
His notable writings Dongfang Minzu zhi Yinyue 東方民族之音樂(Music of the
Ethnic Groups of the Orient) and Dongxi Yuezhi zhi Bijiao 東西樂制之比較
(Comparative Study of the Musical Systems of the West and the Orient) are
recognized by Chinese scholars (Wu 1997:8 and Chen 1996:7) as the landmarks of
ethnomusicology in mainland China.
Chinese folk music became attractive to Chinese composers in the 1930s.
Composers adopted the melodies, especially folk songs and operatic music, from
Chinese folk music in composing their music. The activities of collecting and recording Chinese folk music therefore increased. In 1941, Lu Ji 呂镇 established the zhongguo minjian yinyue yanjiuhui^ 中國民間音樂研究會(Association of
Chinese Folk Music Study) (Wu 1997:8). After 1949, Chinese scholars referred the activities of collecting Chinese folk music as ''minzu yinyue lilun 民族音樂理論
(Theories of Folk Music)". Numerous scholars, like Yang Yin-liu 揚薩劉，Cao
An-he 曹安和，Li Yuan-qing 李元慶 etc, conducted substantial research on Chinese folk music and numerous influential writings have published.
In the 1980s, a debate aroused between Western ethnomusicology and Chinese music study. A historically important conference held in Nanjing in 1980 was
3 The Association was the minke yanjiuhui 民歌研究會（Association of Folk Songs Study) being established in the music department at the Conservatory of Yanan Lu Xun in 1939 formerly (Wu 1997:8).
11 Chapter Three
named "minzu yinyuexue xueshu yantaohui 民族音樂學學術研言寸會(Academic
Conference of Ethnomusicology)”. Chinese scholars focused on defining the
position of ethnomusicology in the realm of Chinese music study (Gao 1980; Dong
and Chen 1982). Since then, overseas Chinese scholars have published several
articles to explain what the discipline is (Yang 2000; Zheng 2000). However, the
debate continued at "the Conference of Ethnomusicology" held by Conservatory of
Chinese Music in Beijing on 25 May 2000 (Yu 2000). Yu Feng 余峰 quoted a
participant's Li Bao-jie 李寶杰，s view,
"Chinese scholars are deeply influenced by Chinese Confucian ideology where everything should be defined properly. In the years before introducing the concept of Western ethnomusicology, we felt easy with the activities of collecting and recording folk music，and conducting research as well as with defining our folk music. We became skeptical and started to negate the work we have done when we encounter the discipline of ethnomusicology and its concept, theories and methods. Actually, the concepts in our studies and ethnomusicology are basically the same and we have not been opposed to ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology [can be dealt with] as a kind of methodology rather than as a [new] discipline^ (Yu 2000:24) ”
Li's opinion reveals an idea commonly shared amongst Chinese scholars that the knowledge of ethnomusicology had already existed in Chinese music scholarship before the 1980s. When Chinese scholars encountered the knowledge of ethnomusicology, the attitude of them was to neither totally accept Western knowledge nor reject it. Moreover, they expected to combine their knowledge
"Original Chinese text:深受中華馆學浸满的學者們似乎歷來都有一個習慣——凡事喜歡名正言 順。幾十年前在西方‘民族音樂學’概念還沒有傳入的時候，我們的採風、記錄民歌、調（查） 研（究）以及民族音樂的解釋都顯得心安理得，而當我們的‘民族音樂研究’與西方的‘民族音 樂學’發生碰撞以後，由於觀念、方法、範圍等各個方面的問題，使得自己竟懷疑自己以往的做 法，甚至連‘名分’都顯得不那麼牢靠了。其實，我們的民族音樂研究與西方的民族音樂學在本 貧上不應該是截然不同的概念’再不該對立起來。民族音樂學應該是一個方法論問題’而不是一 個學科本體問題。
12 Chapter Three
between the disciplines in order to create a "Chinese style" ethnomusicology^.
Although the debate continued, the influence of ethnomusicology has been implanted
and has changed the practices of Chinese music scholarship in the second half of the
twentieth century.
Revealing a Soundscape of Chinese Music~The Development of Musical Genre
Study
Wang Guang-qi's approach to Chinese music scholarship was included in his
article, Ouzhou yinyue jinhualun 歐洲音樂進化論(An Evolutionary Theory of
European Music) ([1924] 1992). His approach was deeply influenced by
evolutionary theory^. In his words, Chinese music was at a primitive stage so that
"Chinese people had to climb up the evolutionary ladder by creating their own
national music. Meticulous historical research is required in order to construct a national music by using ancient music elements (Wang [1924] 1992:33)." His argument, with no doubts, strongly reflected intellectuals' sense of self-weakness and skepticism towards Chinese tradition since the late nineteenth century after suffering military defeat by European nations and later by Japan. Moreover, he urged
“constructing a national music upon studying ancient music and contemporary folk music by employing scientific methods from Western music." He hoped that “China has created her own national music, and then China will be qualified to take part in the world's musics, and to achieve an equal status with Western music. Perhaps, some outstanding musicians can combine the two major musics of the east and west to
5 The local awareness reacted to Western ethnomusicology has already appeared in many Asian countries, such as Korea (Park 1998). Lawrence Witzleben (1997) and Philip Bohlman (2001) have addressed these issues. 6 Chinese scholars usually agree evolutionary theory that was introduced by Yan Fu 嚴復’s Chinese translation entitled Tien Yan Lun 天演論（[1898] 1915) of Huxley's ^vo/wr/ow and Ethnics, and Other Essays (1844) (See Wong Chuen-fong 2002:6).
13 Chapter Three
create a new kind of world music ([1924] 1992:2)." Hence, Wang's approach was
agreed by intellectuals and scholars especially in the Chinese music scholarship in the
1980s. Chinese music scholarship is divided into two academic streams: Some
Chinese scholars have focused their research on writing Chinese music history and,
some others have done field research like minzuyinyue yanjiu 民族音樂研究（study
of folk music).
Wong Chuen-fung has commented on the academic activities following Wang's
notions: "progressive and evolutionary approaches have underlain most historical
research. History is seen as sequences of facts and truths that are resting quietly
somewhere, and are waiting for historians to "discover" them. Musical or historical
research, it turns out, is regarded as a long and tough journey, where the moment
"now" is located somewhere near the starting point (2002:7)."
After the ten-year Cultural Revolution, the Chinese government carried out a
series of policies in order to revive the economy and traditional culture in the 1980s.
Again, Western academic knowledge gradually influenced Chinese scholarship. An
academic conference on ethnomusicology was held in 1980 in Nanjing. Lu Ji, a
musicologist, echoed Wang Guang-qi's aims and called out "if we cannot employ scientific methods to explain [our] rich music, our music cannot have development^
(Lu 1981:1).，，Meanwhile, musicologists Dong Wei-song 董維松 and Shen Qia pointed out that “[the knowledge of] ethnomusicology marks Chinese scholarship entering a new stage in the realm of scientific methodology^ (Dong and Shen
1982:33)." Musicologist Wu Guo-dong 伍國楝 summarized the influence of
7 Original Chinese text:對這樣蜜富的音樂如不能科學地予以說明’就不能促進其向前發展。 8 Original Chinese text:民族音樂學標訪著中國在這個領域的科學研究進入了一個新的階段。
14 Chapter Two
ethnomusicology in Chinese scholarship throughout the 1980s:
"With the idea of the policy of 'reform and opening to the outside world' and the initiation of Chinese scholarship, Chinese ethnomusicologists have integrated a foundation in the experiences, methodology and latest research of Western ethnomusicology into their study of the music of China's various ethnic groups, and in academic conferences. By then, Chinese ethnomusicology had a new feature. By the end of the 1980s, Chinese ethnomusicologists not only reached the stage of constructing the discipline and methodology, but also did substantial and notable research^ (Wu 1997:10).”
If an example is needed to illustrate the influence of ethnomusicology in China,
I there is no doubt that the sub-discipline of Chinese music, yuezhongxue 樂種學
(musical genre study), is the proper one. According to the study by musicologist
Yuan Jing-fang 袁靜芳，the term樂種(musical genre) was first used in
Yang Yin-Iiu and Cao An-he's book Sunan Chuida Qu 蘇南吹打曲(Sunan wind and
percussion music) (1951) where they stated that “...this music...became a musical genre of folk music in between the Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty.. •(Yuan
1999:2)" However, Yang and Cao only used but did not define the Xonayuezhong.
The book Minzu Yinyue Gailun 民族音樂相义論(An Introduction to Ethnic Music) published by zhongguo yinyue yanjiusuo 中國音樂研究所(The Research Institute of Chinese Music) first defined the XQxmyuezhong as "genre with different instrumentation, repertoires and musical styles^^ (1964:252)." However, the term yuezhong was rarely discussed after Minzu Yinyue Gailun until Yang Jing-fang's
9 Original Chinese text:隨著改革開放意識的增強和學術界的倡導，中國民族音樂學學者們在借 黎國外相同學科理論建設經驗、方法及其最新研究成果的基礎上，結合中國各民族傳統音樂實 除，通過學術討論和研究實踐’學科面貌有了很大改觀。至80年代末’中國民族音樂學無論是 學科基礎理論和方法建設’還是具體的調查採集及各種專題研究，都取得了引人注目的成绩。 Original Chinese text:在明末清初……這種音樂……成為民間音樂的一個樂種…… “Original Chinese text:不同的樂器組合’加上不同的曲目和演奏風格，形成了多種多樣的器樂 樂種。
•‘ 15 Chapter Three
article yuezhongxue gouxiang 樂種學構想（Preliminary Thoughts on Musical Genre
Study). In her article, she tried to define the term yuezhong as "a kind of musical
performance in a particular region of China with a long history, with well organized
music association and with typical music morphology and a standard form of
performing'^ (1988:17)." Meanwhile, Dong Wei-song defined the tQvmyuezhong as
having two meanings, as it"...is used to describe instrumental music on the one hand
and to describe all kind of folk music on the other hand'^ (1988a:58) ”
The definitions as mentioned above are from a theoretical aspect. Numerous
scholars have tried to define the term from a practical aspect. In musicologist Gao
Hou-yong 高厚永，s bookM/rtzw 民族器樂概論(An Introduction to
Ethnic Instrumental Music), he pointed out that, "however, [scholars] cannot
compromise the definition of yuezhong, I suggest defining it with the principle of
instrumentation and its characteristics^'^ (1981:3) ” Musicologist Ye Dong 葉棟
defined the term as having two categories, sizhuyue 絲竹樂（silk and bamboo music)
and chuidayue 吹打樂(wind and percussion music) (1983). Percussionist Li
Min-xiong 李民雄 had a definition similar to Ye Dong where he divided traditional instrumental music into two categories (1997). An early publication by Yuan
Jing-fang defined the term into five categories with different instrumentation and characteristics (1987:11-12). However, music of the minorities in China was not included until her latest publication Yuezhongxue 樂種學（The Study of Musical
Genre) in which she included the music of Xinjiang 新疆音樂 in the categories of
I2 Original Chinese text:歷史傳承於某一地域内的，具有嚴密的組織體系’典型的音樂形態構架， 規範化的序列表演程式’並以音樂為其表現主體的各種藝術形式，均可成為樂種》 U Original Chinese text:……狭義概念，即對“民族器樂"中各品種的稱謂……廣義一面，即它 是一切傳統音樂中各個“種"的泛指。 I4 Original Chinese text:但赛於目前對於「樂種」的劃分在細則上不盡一致’因此筆者在此提出 以樂器編制及其配置特點為不則的分類辦法》
16 Chapter Three
Pipa music 琵琶系樂種 and SuonaMusic 哨响系樂種（1999:278-280).
In sum, scholars do not reach conclusions on the XQvm yuezhong, but two points
can be summarised. First，the term yuezhong has a close relationship with traditional
music in China, especially with instrumental music. Second, the term is used with
common agreement and scholars use it naturally without bothering to define it.
A Chinese musicologist Yang Mu 揚沐 in Australia exemplifies the trends in
modem Chinese music scholarship that "emphasizes a scientific methodology and
presentation. To fulfill and summarize the aim of such discourse, Chinese music
scholarship tries to construct a logical, scientific, modernistic and highly specific
analytical narrating system ^^ (2001:34-39). ” At the end of the 1980s, Dong
Wei-song (1988a) and Yuan Jing-fang (1988) proposed to construct a new systematic
and scientific sub-discipline of Chinese music, yuezhongxue that echoed Lu Ji's
request to build up a scientific method in studying Chinese music. Yuan Jing-fang
points out that “we have many wonderful musical genres and numerous scholars who
concentrate on the study of musical genre." Hence, they "renew and re-create the
discipline systematically and scientifically which allow it to reach a higher level, and
then construct it with Chinese stylei6 (1988:17; 1999:3).’，
In order to build up an education system, Chinese musicologists not only used
the concept of yuezhong but, during the 1950s, also developed a sidajian 四大件
(fourfold or later fivefold), classification system of Chinese music including qiyue 器
15 Original Chinese text:強调「科學」的方法和表達法，為達到總結上述巨型理論的目的，力圓 建立一整套邏輯的、「科學J的、符合現代主義宏大敛述需要的、高度精煉的分析語言系統。 16 Original Chinese text:我國既有豐富多彩的樂種，又有一批長時期從事樂種工作的學者’對樂 種研究從維系化、科學化方面加以更新和改造，使樂種研究上升到一個更高的層次，建設具有中 國自己研究特色的專門學科。
17 Chapter Three
樂（instrumental music)，/mwge 民歌(folk songs), xiqu 戲曲（opera) and or
shuochang 曲藝/說唱(narrative singing) (Jones 1995:4). Since the 1980s,
Chinese scholars have been working on a project of the collection, transcription and
documentation of regional music of China which is entitled Zhongguo Minzu Minjian
Yinyue Jicheng 中國民族民間音樂集成（Anthology of Chinese Folk Music). The
Anthology project adopts the sidajian system. However, Chinese scholars also began
to “aware of the pitfalls of this system (Jones 1995:5).，，Since the fourfold system
cannot include the areas of dance music or song-and-dance music, they began "to
re-consider the whole issue and since late in the 1980s a new field of ‘music-genre
study' has arisen in an attempt to tackle it (Jones 1995:5).，，
Concluding Remarks
When discussing the start of the interaction between China and the West, Wong
Chuen-fung notes that “a binary concept between China/the East and
Euro-America/the West has been used to articulate much cultural interpretation [in
Chinese music scholarship]. In other words, the image of Chinese music is to a certain extent a projection of Western music (2002:7)." Furthermore, Naoki Sakai points out that the concept of "the West" is something that "peoples in the so-called non-West have to refer to and rely on ... so as to construct their own cultural and historical identity (1997:61).，’ Their notions emphasized that the "narrative of classification of Chinese music" by employing yuezhong and sidajian, in certain extent, is a result after a long journey of academic activities in the twentieth century
China. Yuan Jing-fang proposes "the co-operation relationship between the studies ofyuezhongxue and other humanities in order to reach the combination with global
18 Chapter Four
music scholarship丨7 (2000:50).’，
This narrative of classification not only aroused academic awareness, but also led
to its application in the process of cultural institution. There is no doubt that most
Chinese music curricula at the universities, primary and secondary schools have
adopted this narrative of classification. Yung Sai-shing, professor of the Department
of Chinese Studies at the National University of Singapore, suggests treating the
activities of record companies as part of the process of cultural institution in which
they "played a decisive role in shaping the special expressive forms ... which had
become a special kind of Hong Kong popular literature in the 1920s (2002:132)."
Hence, the author is going to use a local record company, HUGO, as a case study in
Chapter three in order to illustrate the academic influence of classification of Chinese
music under this narrative of classification.
口 Original Chinese text:拓寬樂種學與人文學科關係的研究（如民俗學、民族學、音樂宗教學、 音樂祭把學、地理文化學等等）’力求將樂種學的研究與全球音樂學研究接軌°
19 Chapter Three
Chapter Three
Mapping a SoundScape: Analyzing the HUGO CD Catalogue(s)
Introduction
Ethnomusicology is one of the disciplines in which the scholars are highly
concerned with the preservation of sound recordings. In ethnomusicological
fieldwork, scholars put much effort in recording the sound and keeping records of
their recordings in order. A lot of valuable audio data base therefore established.
If we look at those data base, it is not difficult to put together a catalogue for each of
them. However, systematic research and academic discussion on collections of
recordings are rare.
Classification, Category and Catalogue
Music as a cultural product reflects human activities in the world. At the
same time, recordings from the recording industry record human musical activities.
Before the discussion on the recording industry, one shall not ignore its catalogue.
A catalogue is a classification in which products are divided into numerous distinct
categories. Indeed, a recording catalogue is like a check list which tells readers
about the record company's products. It is common that a classical music CD
catalogue is arranged in the following ways: the names of composers, musical
instruments, vocal-instrumental music, and genres like concerto，symphony and etc
(NAXOS 2003). Each catalogue not only documents the products of a record company, but also maps a soundscape of a community and its historical context.
The way a record company categorizes music projects its imagination of its recorded music. Although the catalogue is mainly a guide for commercial retail purpose, its perspective will influence consumers the way they understand and re-imagine the music passively. To unravel the message from a catalogue, the best way is to
20 Chapter Three
understand its underlying concept of classification.
Classification is an activity of assigning people, things, concepts, relations,
forces and so on, into distinct categories. To some extent, human beings are different
from animals in that they manipulate their environment in terms of the categories
which they impose upon them. Meanwhile, they depend on such creative cognitive
manipulations for stabilizing an environment and making it a socio-culturally
suitable place to live.
The early academic discussions on classification can be dated back to
Durkheim and Mauss's Primitive Classification (1903). They state that society
provides the prior model for primitive classification such as divisions between
habitations, between annual festivities, between age-grades, between
cause-and-efFect, between power and authority, and so on. People are members of
a society who will share in the collective consciousness of the whole using the same
classificatory system. According to their words, classifications ‘express the very
societies in which they were elaborated' (1970 [1903]: 85，66).
In the 1960s, Levi-Strauss pointed out that "any classification is superior to
chaos" (1966:15). He assumed that the matters of the world are not in an "order".
In other words, a system is needed for us to understand the world. Anthropologists
Nigel Rapport and Joanna Overing (2000:32) explain that classification provides a paradigm for humans to think about and know the world, as well as one for our activities within it. Anthropologist Roy Ellen (1996:103) also has a similar argument that human can think about the world through assigning it into categories.
He further elaborates that categories not only help human to think about the world,
21 Chapter Three
but also act upon it.
Although classification empowers human to act and know the world, it limits
human in some ways. Classification gives in to definition, order and framework
which create an impoverishment and a constraint. All human activities are viewed
in a pre-given way that simultaneously tends to preclude our views from other ways.
In short, Karl Mannheim points out the fact that ‘we give names to things which are
in flux implies inevitably a certain stabilization... It excludes other configurational
organizations of the data which tend in different directions (1952: 20).，In the
following, the author will elucidate these arguments with his analysis of the HUGO
CD catalogue.
Recording Industry in Hong Kong
At the turn of the nineteenth century, Thomas Edison invented the first phonograph in 1877 and Emile Berliner invented his gramophone ten years later, and they introduced the age of recording technology. In the 1890s, the function of the gramophone changed from data storage (for which it was originally intended) to entertainment purposes, and a new and profitable industry was created. Several big record companies were established in Europe and North America, like Columbia
Phonograph Company (Columbia), which was established in the US in the 1890s and renamed to the Columbia Graphophone Company in 1913, and Pathe Freres
(Pathe) in France in 1897, Gramophone Company (Gramophone) in Britian in 1898，
Deutsche Grammophon Company (DG) in Germany in 1898，Victor Talking
Machine Company (Victor) in the US in 1901/1902 as well as Odeon and Beka in
Germany in 1903. In 1931, Gramophone Company and Columbia Graphophone
Company merged to form Electric & Musical Industries (EMI) Ltd. (Gronow 1981;
22 Chapter Three
Yung 2001).
Western record companies were established in the early twentieth century and
their business expanded rapidly. In 1889, an important and representative
recording engineer, Fred Gaisberg (1873-1951)，joined Berliner's enterprise,
Berliner Gramophone Company, which later became Victor. He was sent to
London to initiate recording activities with William Owen (1860-1914), the founder
of Gramophone Company. Jerrold Northrop Moore noted that "it was announced
that the Gramophone Company would expand its manufacturing interests. William
Barry Owen had always felt that the popularity of the gramophone was a temporary
phenomenon, and he had persuaded the directors to diversify (Moore 1976: 52)."
Hence, Gaisberg was asked to “open up new markets, establish agencies, and acquire a catalogue of native records" (Gaisberg 1942:48). Before starting his recording in a two-year trip to the Orient from 1902 to 1903, Gaisberg had already toured and recorded throughout Europe. Later on, in his trips to the Orient，he visited Calcutta, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Tokyo and Bangkok, etc. and recorded over 1700 records including Indian, Burmese, Siamese, Malay, Javanese,
Chinese and Japanese music (Gronow 1981:251). Within a few years, Heinrich
Bumb of Beka arrived in Hong Kong in 1906 to establish a local agent ofBeka.
He observed that "the Columbia Graphophone Company had just finished its latest recordings一said to be of 1000 titles, for which fees of 50000 dollars had been paid.
[...]'Victor,' 'Grammophon' as well as 'Zonophon-Records' and 'Odeon' were represented in the colony (Bumb 1976:731 His findings reflected a number of major record companies had made recordings and established their agencies actively
1 The quotation is originally published in the article of Heinrich Bumb (1976, "The Great Beka 'Expedition' 1905-6" The Talking Machine Review (41):729-733) (quoted from Gronow 1981:251)
23 Chapter Three
in the early twentieth century in Hong Kong and the mainland China.
In March 1903，the pioneer recording engineer Gaisberg first arrived in
Shanghai, China and began to record 325 titles of Peking opera, which actually
included a number of recordings of kunqu (a kind of Chinese opera famous in the
south-east China). A month later, when he arrived in Hong Kong which was then a
British colony, he spent four days recording 145 titles^ of Cantonese opera (Moore
1976:82-84). A few years later, a French, Labansat, established the first record
company in the mainland China in Shanghai, Pathe Orient (Dongfang baidai
changpian gongsi 東方百代唱片公司）and began to record Peking opera in 1908
(Jones 2001:53).
As mentioned above, recording activities developed rapidly in the early 1900s.
All record companies recorded, mainly, Chinese opera music, and there is no doubt
that Chinese operatic music was an important musical genre in both Hong Kong and
the mainland China at that time. Yung Sai-shing (2001，2002) conducted
comprehensive studies on the early recording industry in Hong Kong which shows
that Cantonese operatic music was mainly recorded by foreign major record
companies.
Recording activities of Cantonese operatic music lasted for a century.
According to Li Mo-ru 李镆如，s article (1987:34), '50 years Review for Hong Kong
Recording Industry', Li noted that record companies recorded and published
Cantonese operatic music mainly in the first half of the twentieth century. In
2 In Yung's article (2001:513), he calculated the number of titles of Gaisberg's recordings wrongly. The correct number of titles is 145 instead of 135.
24 Chapter Three
addition, Chaozhou operatic music was also recorded^. By the 1940s, record
companies published a couple of other musical genresMandarin Chinese pop from
Shanghai and Cantonese music:
"Mandarin Chinese pop is established in 1940's Shanghai. Li Jin-hui's music, mao-mao yu, becomes popular in Hong Kong. Besides Mandarin Chinese pop, another musical genre, Cantonese music, becomes popular as well. Many of the new pieces are composed and recorded in the 1940s. Numbers of famous musicians are renowned including Lu Wen-cheng, He Lang-ping, Yin Zi-zhong, He Da-sha, Chen Wen-da and etc*.”（Li 1987:34)
Since the 1950s, Mandarin Chinese pop, English songs, and Cantonese pop
developed rapidly, especially Cantonese pop. Zhou Cong 周聰 was a pioneer of
performing Cantonese pop. The main characteristic of Cantonese pop was
composed and performed deviating from the style of Cantonese operatic music, but
was in a style near that of Mandarin Chinese pop. Several foreign record
companies. Philips, Pathe from Shanghai, Diamond and Pathe EMI established their
agencies in Hong Kong. At the same time, several local recording companies,
including Lucky, Nam Sing, Crown and etc., established and published Cantonese
pop (Li 1987:35).
In the 1960s, Taiwan Mandarin Chinese pop dominated the market over that of
Cantonese pop for twenty years. Due to the increasing popularity of Sam Hui's
Cantonese pop in the 1980s, Taiwan Mandarin Chinese pop gradually faded out since then (Li 1987:34). However, recordings from the mainland China started to
3 Indeed, Cantonese operatic music still has its large market share. Fung Hang is still publishing recordings of Cantonese operatic music now. 4 Original Chinese text:四十年代也是國語流行曲在上海發初的時候，黎錦輝創作的「毛毛雨j， 亦是從上海激到香港來。四十年代的另一特色是廣東音樂譜子，都是那個年代創作的。名家有 呂文成、何浪萍、尹自重、何大傻、陳文達等。
25 Chapter Three
be sold in Hong Kong. A new record company, Art Tune^ was established in 1956
which published Chinese operatic music, Chinese folk songs and Chinese
instrumental music (Chow 1996).
With the implementation of the copyright law in the 1970s, numerous recording
companies, such as Polygram, WEA, CBS, Wing Hang and etc., started to publish
their recordings. Li's article states that "recording industries are protected by the
law of copyright. In addition, the society has abundant in economy. The local
market of recording industries grows vigorously. Hence，radio and television
broadcasting set up their own songs awards in the late 1970s^ (1987:35).” It
shows that those activities are evidence of the rapid development of the recording
industry in Hong Kong in the 1970s. Tsai Yee-ah (1997)，Wong Chi-wai (1991)
and Wong Siu-ling (1992) presented in their thesis an overview picture of the
recording industries in Hong Kong after the 1980s. Their studies focus on the
market of compact discs (Tsai 1997), the influence of foreign recording companies
in Cantonese pop (Wong 1991) and the variety of Cantonese popular songs in Hong
Kong through an analysis of various radio and TV broadcasting awards (Wong
1992).
Meanwhile, the market of Chinese music recordings grew in line with the
market of pop music. However, as mentioned previously, Cantonese pop music
5 According to Aik's information (2004)，Art Tune 藝聲 is the agency and mediator of Chinese Record 中國唱片 in Hong Kong to publish and sell its products. Because of the political consideration, China government cannot establish its company in Hong Kong officially. The company should be renamed and repacked their products before importing into Hong Kong and other Chinese communities like Chinese in Singapore. 6 Original Chinese text:由於唱片工業有了保陣’加上社會經濟轉入富裕期，所以’七十年代中 後期’本地唱片市場十分蓬勃，以至傳媒紛紛舉行十大金曲選舉、中文歌曲播台獎、金唱片頒 獎等活動來錦上添花。
26 Chapter Three
dominated the market of recordings through an effective mass media marketing
strategies on radio and TV broadcasting. Indeed, Chinese music recordings
captured a comparatively small market share. Only a minority of Chinese
music-philes, particularly musicians who play Chinese instruments and sing
Cantonese opera, bought these recordings. Of course, alternatively, Chinese
music could be heard in the Chinese traditional festivals and through the broadcasts
without buying recordings.
From 1980 onwards, there are three local based record companies in Hong
Kong7，NAXOS^, HUGO (which will be discussed in the following chapter) and
R0I9. Only HUGO and ROI target to publish Chinese music recordings.
NAXOS specializes in Western classical music, but also creates another label,
Marco-polo, under which non-Western classical music are published, of which
majority is Chinese music. Other companies which also publish Chinese music
recordings include HK Record, BMG，Art Tune, Tien Shing 天聲，Feng Hang, Lucky
etc. In addition, recordings imported from Taiwan companies such as China
Dragon 中國龍，Sunrise 上揚 and Wind Record 風潮 are helping to map the
Chinese music soundscape. However, most of these either include mainly
Cantonese operatic music (Tien Shing, Feng Hang and Lucky) or have small
proportion of Chinese music (BMG, NAXOS). As for the products of ROI, another local record company, their products project strongly the shadow of Chinese music, actually minyue, of the mainland China in the 1960s. In this study, the author
7 Over 140 record companies were established in Hong Kong before 1990s (see appendix A). 8 NAXOS was established by Klaus Heymann, a German-bom, in 1987 which mainly publishes budget-price CD. Before joining NAXOS, Heymann worked for the recording label, HK Record, and published most Chinese music as well as Western music. Later, he sold KCK Record to BMG and established his new company, NAXOS. 9 ROI, longyin 龍音，was established by two local Chinese musicians, Tan Yao-zong 禪耀宗 and Zheng Wei-tao 鄭偉滔.They are good at playing Chinese instruments. Most ofROFs recordings are Chinese instrumental music especially minyue from mainland China since 1950s.
27 Chapter Three
focuses on the study of HUGO'S recordings based on two reasons: 1) its philosophy
of Chinese music and 2) its broad variety of CD catalogue which is similar to the
concepts of academic classification of Chinese music.
AikYeh-goh and HUGO Production (HK) Ltd
HUGO Productions (HK) Ltd. (hereafter, HUGO) is a well-known local label
of music recordings in Hong Kong. It was established in 1987 by Aik Yeh-goh, the
founder and director of HUGO, who was bom in Singapore and is a well-known
musician, conductor, recording engineer and professional photographer^®. The
name, HUGO, is actually the pronunciation of his name, Yeh-goh in Fujian dialect
He is good at managing the technique of radio communication which he gained from
his participation of military service in Singapore, and made him familiarized with
recording technology. He played Erhu, a Chinese two strings fiddle, and flute and
cello in Singapore and that helped him establishing music career in Hong Kong. In
1977，he migrated from Singapore to Hong Kong and joined the Hong Kong
Chinese Orchestra upon invitation of the then music director, Wu Da-jiang 吳大江.
A year later, he left the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra and joined the Music Office
where began his career of conductor, music education and arts administration.
According to Aik's interview, the birth of HUGO can be traced back to his music
education experience gained from the Music Office (Aik 2004). He understood
that the most effective way to promote music is through CDs, like what he
Besides producing music recordings, Aik is keen on photography. Most of his photographs are chosen as liUGO album covers, wall calendars and lotus postcards including Lotus Zen, Shangri-La Image, Chaozhou Village, Blue Rhapsody and Tree. 11 Originally, the name of Aik's products is called ‘Yeh-goh’，his first name. However, the name 'Yeh-goh' is mis-read as 'Hugo' by foreigners. After then, Aik renamed his products brand as 'HUGO', a label we call now (Aik 2002b: 15). The amount of its products produces, like the meaning of its Chinese translation of the name HUGO as HU (yw 雨）which means 'rain' and GO iguo 果）which means 'fruit' denotes literally 'raining musical fruit (HUGO 2004)', from a few titles to more than four hundred comprehensive recordings in its catalogue.
28 Chapter Three
experienced in childhood in Singapore when he listened to Chinese music through
radio (Aik 2002:16’ 2004). With his two years experience'^ of making recordings
of amateur Chinese orchestras, he was encouraged by some friends to publish his
recording. At the beginning, HUGO made numerous recordings of Chinese music,
especially guqin music. Unluckily, no record company was willing to publish his
recordings. Hence, he established HUGO and published his first recordings by
himself with his experience of arts administration and marketing gained from the
Music Office.
Throughout the past sixteen years, Aik has successfully created his own labels,
HUGO, KIIGO, Music Library, twenty-one category-series and numerous
sub-category-series. In 2003, HUGO undergone a reconstruction and established a
new division, HUGO Media Group, in North American through which to sell its
products and increase market share worldwide. Meanwhile, the third new label
Dream has been initiated.
HUGO'S Label Divisions
The label, HUGO, was established in 1987 and forms the core of HUGO'S
products and cornerstones of its catalogue. In HUGO, eighteen category-series^^
can be found, most of which focus on Chinese music: 'Chinese instrumental music，
(including plucked-strings, bowed-strings, wind, percussion etc.), 'Ancient qin
music', ‘The art of zheng music', 'Folk songs, opera and other vocal pieces',
'Nanyin series', 'Guangdong music', 'Traditional Chinese orchestral music and
Aik's said that those recordings are only for reference originally that are used to improve his conducting technique. 13 In the HUGO Catalogue 2001-2002 and 2002-2003, the label HUGO has 18 category-series. The present number of category-series is updated on its English version website since 2003.
� 29 Chapter Three
favourite pieces', 'Chinese orchestral music and favourite pieces', 'Master Chinese
composition series'. Western classical and favourite pieces', 'Literature series', The
treasury of historical recordings', ‘Chinese ethnic music，，'Russian Balalaika' as
well as ‘HUGO best collection (Audiophiles or Hugophiles)'.
In 1990，Aik created a new label KIIGO which is a transformed name from
'kiwifruit'"^'. The music of this label is unique in style, taste and genre including
contemporary worldbeat music and new age music.
The new and budding label Dream was launched in 2003. The products under this label aim at producing a sense of new age with Chinese ontology and providing rooms for multi-media combination of different kinds of music such as new age music, orchestra music, and worldbeat with poetry, essays and photography. On the website of Dream, Aik has a detailed description (HUGO 2003)，
'[Dream is] lifestyle & new age music一for Bodywork, Yoga，Massage, Spas & the Healing Arts. In Chinese ontology (the philosophy of being), the universe is one holistic system where all parts and processes interact with one another. The goal of this cosmic symphony, so to speak, is to bring the human mind into a state of harmony and order. Indeed, it is possible for our hearts and souls to be touched by something beyond logic, something profound and mesmerizing. Dream, is intended to explore artistic creations, whether a work of art, a photograph, a poem or a piece of music. If only for a brief moment, these creations become the inexpressible "something," unifying the heart and spirit... inducing us into a condition of reverence and awe'^'.
Unlike other labels, HUGO constructed a budget-line series. Music Library in
14 Kiwi fruit was originated from China but subsequently became the fruit of New Zealand where it improved to "kiigo" which is "bigger and sweeter". See http://www.hugomedia.eom/calalog.htm#dream, 4 May 2004.
30 Chapter Three
1998 where it contains more than one hundred titles of various musical genres such
as Western classical, new age, easy listening, jazz, big band, contemporary and
traditional world and folk music as well as dance music from around the world.
Recordings on Music Library are not recorded by Aik, but edited and repackaged by
him under this label after paying the copyright fees to European record companies.
Hence, the lower price can be offered.
Statistical Analysis of HUGO CD Catalogues Before choosing ‘Catalogue 2001-2002，(HUGO 2001) as the studying material,
the author has compared it with 'Catalogue 2002-2003' (HUGO 2002) and
'Catalogue 2004' (HUGO 2003) on its English website^^ and its catalogues
inconstantly published in HUGO'S magazines, HUGO Express (volume 1 to volume
16) (HUGO 1989-1999). All of these catalogues are published in Chinese, while
the website is published in both Chinese (simplified) and English. Although the first catalogue with full categories can be found in ‘Catalogue 1999，(HUGO 1999) instead of ‘the new release comer' in HUGO Expresses, the names of each category are finalized from 'Catalogue 2001-2002'. Hence, the author will start the analysis with 'Catalogue 2001-2002' and try to construct an aural map from the catalogue.
In 'Catalogue 2001-2002，，the Chinese musical terms are used consistently among both Catalogues unlike the English version of 'Catalogue 2004，. The
English version of ‘Catalogue 2004，has been re-organized by the branch in North
American. According to Aik's interview, the English version was written by foreign colleagues which reflects the understanding of this foreigner's view (Aik
2004). In the following, the author is going to analyze 'Catalogue 2001-2002' and
See http://www.hugomedia.com.
31 Chapter Three
summarize it in tables to illustrate a soundscape of Chinese music as represented by
HUGO.
Table 3.1 presents the statistics for the catalogues from 2001 to 2004. In
'Catalogue 2001-2002', the label HUGO contains eighteen categories and three
hundred and twenty-eight titles. The label KIIGO contains twenty-four titles and
the label Music Library contains eighty-eight titles, of course, with three more
'others' titles 口 In terms of percentage, the label of HUGO comprises the main part
of the company's products.
Catalogue 2001-2002 2002-2003 2004 HUGO 216 224 291 KHGO 24 26 27 MUSIC LIBRARY 88 88 88 DREAM (established in 2003) / / 3 Total 328 338 409 Table 3.1 The Statistic of HUGO CD Catalogues from 2001-2004
Table 3.2 gives a summary for the HUGO label alone. English and Chinese translations are provided in parallel where the English translations are provided by
HUGO on its English version of the website posted in 2002.
17 These three titles cannot be classified within any category that HUGO puts them aside. They are 'a comparison of 10 power cords', 'HUGO millennium CD catalogue (2 CD set)' and 'music library sampler'.
32 Chapter Three
2001-2002 HUGO • Traditional Chinese Orchestral Music and Favourite Pieces 27 中國民族管弦及小品 • Guangdong Music 廣東音樂 4 • Literature Series 文學系列 4 • Folk Songs, Opera and other Vocal Pieces 地方民歌、戲曲 19 及其他歌類 參 Chinese Wind Instrumental Music 中國吹管樂 6 • Chinese Bowed-strings Music 中國拉弦樂 5 • Chinese Plucked-strings Music 中國彈撥樂 9 • Chinese Percussion Music 中國敲擊樂 6 參 Chinese Ethnic Music中國少數民族音樂 7 參 Russian Balalaika俄羅斯民間音樂 6 • Nanyin Series地水南音系列 5 • Chinese Orchestral Music and Favourite Pieces 中國管弦 19 樂及小品 • Master Chinese Composition Series 華人優秀作品系列 12 • Western Classical and Favourite Pieces 西洋古典音樂及 31 小品 參 The Art of Zheng Music箏的世界系列 13 • Ancient Qin Music 古琴音樂 23 • The Treasury of Historical Recordings 歷史錄音珍藏系列 8 • HUGO Best Collection 雨果出版精選 9 Total 213 Table 3.2. The Summary of the Label of HUGO
The variety under the label of HUGO covers a wide range of Chinese music from Chinese instrumental music, Chinese operatic music, Chinese folk songs and some contemporaiy Chinese music to Chinese composers' works. Aik explained that he did not have a sense of 'complete' catalogue in his mind at the very beginning when he made his recordings. The catalogue which appears now has evolved over ten years. Some series names are added as the number of recordings
33 Chapter Three
in a genre grows. Hence, there are some separate categories, like the 'Art of Zheng
music' and ‘Ancient Qin Music' from the category of'Chinese Plucked-stringed
Music'. Moreover, the category of 'Nanyin Series' is separated from the category
of ‘Folk songs. Opera and other Vocal pieces'.
Translations of three similar categories shall be first explained. The category
of 'Traditional Chinese Orchestral Music and Favourite Pieces' is misleading on the
concept of 'traditional'. In the Chinese version, the subject of this category is the
music of modem Chinese orchestra which matured in the mainland China in 1950s.
Hence, the music of this category does not reflect any conventional sense of
‘traditional，. In other word, it is much more 'modem' in historical context. It
may lead to confusion with another category, ‘Chinese Orchestral Music and
Favourite Pieces'. However, the Chinese version is much clearer on the concept of
'traditional'. Traditional' can be interpreted as people conceptualize Chinese
instruments that are 'traditional' and ‘folk，for the comparison with Western
instruments. The category of 'Chinese Orchestral Music and Favourite Pieces'
contains Western orchestral pieces by Chinese composers, conductors and musicians.
The most appropriated translation of this category should be 'Chinese Western
orchestral music', while the category of 'Master Chinese Composition Series'
highlights the music of master Chinese composers and Hong Kong Composers.
Aik points out that modem Chinese orchestras share similarities with the Russian
Balalaika ensemble and he is attracted by its music. Hence, he recorded the music
of the Russian Balalaika ensemble and included it in the catalogue, which reflects the fact that the process of forming the modem Chinese orchestra passed through
34 Chapter Three
Struggle similar to those of many other kinds of folk music ensemble'^.
The category of'The Treasury of Historical Recordings' was jointly formed
with Art Tune. Aik re-edited thousand of recordings including some Chinese folk
songs, Chinese instrumental music as well as Western classical music provided by
Art Tune with digital technology (Chow 1996). Not only did Aik supplement the
writing part, but also he carefully re-edited the music. To maintain the original
effect of Art Tune recordings, Aik retained part of the noise of original masters,
which continually revives audiences' memories of the music of the 1950s. A Hong
Kong music and cultural critic Chow Fan-fu 周凡夫 concluded the function of this category that "actually, tradition and memory are worth. After the process of digitalizing the Art Tune's recordings, over ten years recordings can be preserved and accessed properly. Not only it provides a room of memory, but also provides the base of academic study on the traditional Chinese music culture^^ (Chow
1996)."
Table 3.3 provides a summary of and statistics for ‘Catalogue 2004，(web version). Comparing the Chinese and English versions, the Chinese version still maintains the classifications of previous catalogues^®, but the English version has been considerably re-organized by foreign colleagues. These changes seem to correct the previous misleading translations of English version and make it closer to the Chinese version.
Sun Ke-ren et el has mentioned that there are several kinds of folk ensembles being the reference in the process of forming the modem Chinese orchestra in the 1960's mainland China (1982:16) 19 Original Chinese text:其實’傳統與回憶均是最珍貴的東西’「藝聲」過去數十年的錄音’經 過數碼化翻製CD後，當更便於保存和欣賞，這除會是不少人回憶的寶庫外’同樣會是研究中 國音樂文化傳統的寶藏。 20 The Chinese version of HUGO website can refer to http://www.hugoccl.com/html，while the English version can refer to http://www.hugomeclia.com.
35 Chapter Three
2003-2004 HUGO 297 Traditional, Folk & ‘Root，Music-the Musical Heritage of Chinese Culture • Traditional Instrumental Music • Regional Ensemble & Chamber Music • Folk Songs, Art Songs, Opera & Other Vocal Works • Ancient Qin Music • The Art of Zheng Series 參 Ethnic Minority Nationality Music • The Literature Series The New Tide • Chinese Contemporary Orchestra Played on Traditional Chinese Instruments • Chinese Contemporary Orchestral Played on Western Instruments The New Acoustic Series Pop，Classical Crossover and Easy Listening Yellow Crane Pavilion The Cinema Series: Film and Animation Soundtrack The Russian Balalaika Music Series The Red Box: Music of Politics, Nationalism and Revolution HUGO'S KIDS: Children Music, Stories and Spoken Word Audiophile Recordings Seasonal Celebrations KUGO 27 Contemporary and World Beat Titles Light Series World Beat Compilations MUSIC LIBRARY 88 DREAM 3 Total 409 Table 3.3 The Summary and Statistic of HUGO CD Catalogue 2004 (web version)
In this Catalogue, the label of HUGO has been re-organized into some new categories. Obviously, the new category ‘Traditional，Folk & ‘Root，Music-the
Musical Heritage of Chinese Culture' gives the sense that all music under this
36 Chapter Three
category is reflecting the sense of 'traditional', ‘folk，and 'root' of China. Like all
Chinese instrumental music, including wind, bowed-strings, plucked-strings and
percussion music are put into a new sub-category, ‘Traditional Instrumental Music'.
From the titles of this sub-category, it is not difficult to find the repertoires
composed in post-1949 in the mainland China along with the growth of modem
Chinese orchestras. Indeed, the music under this sub-category is somewhat with
the sense of ‘modem，. Another new sub-category, 'Regional Ensemble and
Chamber Music', instead of 'Guangdong Music', the 'Nanyin Series' includes more
folk music as Jiangnan sizhu music, Chouzhou music, Shanxi drum music etc.
However, the sub-categories, 'Ancient Qin Music' and the Art of Zheng Series, still
remain as independent categories. The concept of ‘traditional，is looked upon
much more favorably in both the Chinese and Western worlds. A comparatively
successful change is the new sub-category, 'Chinese Contemporary Orchestra
Played on Traditional Chinese Instruments', instead of the previous 'Traditional
Chinese Orchestral and Favourite Pieces' since the new title indicates the music of
modem Chinese orchestras.
In this Catalogue, a substantial number of new categories and sub-categories
are created to more accurately summarize and picture the music of China. Two
categories are re-named as 'Yellow Crane Pavillion' and the ‘Red Box: Music of
Politics, Nationalism and Revolution'. Although the names of these categories make better sense in Chinese, this does not mean that Aik publishes some new titles of recordings of Chinese music. However, both category names provide a new understanding of HUGO'S products, and the author suggests that the new catalogue offers a room for re-imagining them as well as Chinese music by the listeners themselves.
37 Chapter Three
An Aural Map~Soundscape of China
A map is a geographic diagram of an area. Borrowing the concept of map for
music, scholars employ a term, soundscape, to describe the acoustic environment of
a particular place constituted by both man-made and natural sounds (Schafer 1980).
It is different from the term "landscape", as the sounds of music cannot be
physically observed but listen. In the following, the author is going to list
classifications in three major Chinese music reference books, namely Minzu Yinyue
Gailun 民族音樂概論[Introduction to Chinese Music] (hereafter Introduction)
(Zhongguo YinyueYanjiusuo 1964, 1980)，Zhongguo Yinyue Cidian 中國音樂詞典
[Dictionary of Chinese Music] (hereafter Dictionary )(Zhongguo Yinyue Yanjiusuo
1984) and Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu Yinyue Wudaojuan 中國大百科全書 音
樂舞蹈卷[Encyclopedia of China (Volume of Music and Dance)] (hereafter
Encyclopedia) (Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu Committee 1989). All three reference
books are commonly used in academic research and institutions. By comparison, table 3.4 summarizes their contents and reveals the picture of Chinese music which they describe. Although the reference books cannot actually show the picture of
Chinese music, it is a hint to understand how Chinese musicologists classify Chinese music through the way they sorted and edited material of Chinese music. It is suggested regarding the table as an aural map of Chinese music. As mentioned above, sounds of music cannot be physically observed unless the notes are written on paper. By further comparing with the table with the HUGO CD Catalogue, an aural map can be drawn.
38 Chapter Three HUGO CD Catalogue 2001-2002 Three Common Reference Books of Chinese Music The Label of HUGO 1. Introduction 2. Dictionary 3. Encyclopedia - Folk Songs, Opera and other Vocal Pieces Folk Song and Ancient Song Study of Temperament and Chinese Ancient Music Ancient Music Dance Music Folk Song; Folk Music and Dance Vocal and Singing Arts - Nanyin Series Narrative Music Narrative Music - Folk Songs, Opera and other Vocal Pieces Operatic Music Operatic Music - Traditional Chinese Orchestral Music and Favourite Pieces Instrumental Music Instrumental Music Instrumental Music and -Guangdong Music, Performing Arts - Chinese Wind Instrumental Music - Chinese Bowed-strings Music - Chinese Plucked-strings Music - Chinese Percussion Music - The Art of Zheng Music - Ancient Qin Music Qin Music - Chinese Orchestral Music and Favourite Pieces Contemporary music Chinese Contemporary Music - Master Chinese Composition Series -Chinese Ethnic Music Chinese Minority Music - Western Classical and Favourite Pieces Western Music Asian and Africa Music [Chinese] Musicology Music Theory Form of Music - Literature Series; Russian Balalaika; The Treasury of Historical Recordings; HUGO Best Collection Table 3.4 The Comparison of Chinese Music Classifications between HUGO CD Catalogue and Three Common Reference Books of Chinese Music
39 Chapter Three
Introduction (1964) is an influential work that classifies Chinese music into
five categories, including folk song and ancient song, dance music, narrative music,
operatic music and instrumental music. However, in the category of folk song and
ancient song, the former is classified according to musical genre, while ancient song
is with reference to the time the song written. Both of them are put into the same
category, which problemized the standard of classification.
Dictionary (1984) is probably influenced by the classification of Introduction.
There are totally seven categories including study of temperament and ancient music,
folk song and folk dance music, narrative music, operatic music, instrumental music,
qin music and contemporary music. The categories of folk song and folk dance
music are merged into one category. A new category, the study of temperament
and ancient music is created to reflect the importance of studying ancient music and
its music theory. Interestingly, qin music is separated from instrumental music，
which is also the case in Aik's classification. In Aik's classification, qin music is the earliest recordings of HUGO'S products, while Aik personally loves qin music
and put into a separate category from the category of plucked-strings music. Later,
Chinese musicologist Wang Yao-hua 王耀華 put qin music under a new category wenren yinyue^^ 文人音樂(intellectual's music).
Encyclopedia (1989) includes a broader scope of music which not only discusses Chinese music, but also includes Western, Asian and African music.
Music theory and the study of musical form are also included. Folk song, narrative music and operatic music are merged into a new category, vocal and singing arts.
21 According to classical Chinese literature, intellectuals played the qin as part of their study in ancient time, so that the qin became an icon as the intellectual's instrument.
40 Chapter Three
Musicologist, Yu Siu-wah comments that 'encyclopedia... is based on the concept of
Western [music]22 (Yu 2002:11)，
To further elaborate the map of Chinese music from both the Introduction and
Catalogue 2001-2002, the proportions of Chinese music to other music is compared by two pie charts, namely "The balances among the various large categories in the
'Introduction' (fig.3.1)，，and "The balances among the various large categories in the
'Catalogue 2001-2002' (fig.3.2)" as follows (fig. 3.1 and 3.2):
Categories Page no. Folk songs and ancient songs 68 Dance music 44 Narrative music 53 Operatic music 70 Instrumental music 48 Total 283
Table 3.5 Ratios among Categories of Introduction by Page Numbers
Figure 3.1 The Balance among the Various Large Categories in the "Introduction"
• 17% 口 24%
24% 16% • 19% 口 Folk songs and ancient songs • Dance music • Narrative music • Operatic music • Instrumental music
22 Original Chinese text:《中國大百科全書〔音樂舞蹈〕》…整個構思則明顯以西方〔音樂〕觀 念為出發點。
41 Chapter Three
Categories No. of CDs Folk songs. Opera and other vocal pieces 19 Narrative music 5 Instrumental music 93 Total 117
Table 3.6 Ratios among Categories of the HUGO CDs Catalogue 2001-2002 by Number of CDs
Figure 3.2 The Balance among the Various Large Categories in the Catalogue 2001-2002 rP 16% • 4%
• 80%
• Folk songs. Opera and other vocal pieces • Narrative music • Instrumental music
In the Introduction, all five categories share roughly equal proportions. However, in Catalogue 2001 -2002, folk songs, operatic music and narrative music account for
20% while instrumental music accounts for approximately 80%. Under this analogy of a map, the large proportion of instrumental music in HUGO CDs can be explained by of the instrumental player background of Aik Yeh-goh. In addition, his work experience in the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra and the Music Office allow him to have a higher concern on instrumental music than others.
Concluding Remarks
Similarities can be seen by comparing these classifications with Aik's. Under
Aik's notion, he admits that 'it is natural to have classifications similar to those in reference books (2004). ’ Actually, the HUGO CD catalogue may not be the actual picture of Chinese music, but it can reflect his scope of Chinese music to certain
42 Chapter Three extent.
To conclude, the author would propose that classifying music is a dynamic process. The standards of classification can be changed with new discoveries and new understandings of scholars, as in the case of Encyclopedia where Chinese minority music is added but not in Introduction and Dictionary. This category reflects the contradictions and issues caused by over-focusing on the musical culture of the Han Chinese ？莫族 rather than those of the minorities in the academic world.
Moreover, most studies of Chinese music focus on the middle and northern part of the mainland China, leading to the marginalization of musical cultures of other parts of the mainland China.
43 Chapter Three
Chapter Four
Whose Music?
The Role of the HUGO CD Catalogue in Chinese Cultural Memory
Introduction
As we know, sound recording~that is, any of its forms such as records, cassettes,
CDs, MPS一is a mass medium like radio broadcasting, newspaper, film and television
broadcasting. Music is part of our daily life. It can be heard everywhere: on the radio,
in restaurants, boutiques, bars, supermarkets and shopping malls. In the twenty-first
century, sound recording has changed into digital forms so that people can download
music from the internet and listen to it on their own computers.
Discussing sound recording, Denis McQuail, a communication theorist, admits that "relatively little attention has been given to music as a mass medium in the theory and research, perhaps because the implications for society have never been clear, nor have there been sharp discontinuities in the possibilities offered by successive technologies of recording and reproduction/transmission (2000:26)." Pekka Gronow, an ethnomusicologist, states that "standard textbooks on mass communication make us doubt our common sense. Records are seldom mentioned at all, and certainly not considered as a medium comparable to film or radio." He further points out that the problem is "in the message. The message of records is usually music, and communications research does not know how to deal with music." However,
"musicologists have been equally blind to music as mass communication, and, as a consequence, the relatively few studies on the record industry which are available usually fail to consider this aspect (1983:53)." These statements point out the problem that both communication theorists and musicologists are unable to
44 Chapter Three satisfactorily address the issue of recorded music as mass medium. In other words, there is still room for researchers to explore the issues underlying music and recorded music in between the disciplines of communication studies and music.
This thesis aims to study records as a mass medium. In order to know more about this medium, a number of questions can be raised, for instance, what kind of music does the company record? Who will buy the records? How many records are sold annually? What is the duration of the records? What is the feedback of the audience? How do the record companies react to audience feedback? Many of these questions are difficult to answer briefly, and substantial sociological and statistical research should be done. However, it is known that most findings are usually estimations that do not reflect the actual opinions of the audience. The author is interested in the recorded messages~the content of the recordings. What kind of music is selected in the recordings by the record company and how is the music organized within the catalogue? By combining the findings mentioned in chapters two and three, the author shall attempt to problemize the fact that HUGO CDs play a role in shaping Chinese cultural memory. The author is particularly interested in how and why HUGO can change the soundscape of China through its recordings.
The following is an explanation on how communication theories are applied to musical study. In particular, Lasswell's 5-W formula will be applied as the basis to illustrate recording activity as a system. Lewin's gatekeeping theory will be used to explain the role of HUGO, particularly the director Aik Yeh-goh, in publishing recordings.
45 Chapter Three
Communication Theory in Studying the Recording Industry
LasswelFs 5-W Formula as a System
An American political scientist Harold D. Lasswell published an article，entitled
“The Structure and Function of Communication in Society," in 1948 in which he
coined the most famous single phrase in communication research to describe an
activity of communication by answering the following questions—Who says What in
Which channel to Whom with What effect?—the 5-W formula.
The 5-W formula generates a series of concerns for communication theory and
research. The 5-W formula can be summarized into four different levels of concern:
it firstly addresses the persons who are the communicator and receiver. Secondly, it
addresses the kinds of content, references and information that will be transmitted in
communication. Thirdly, communication theorists are concerned with transmission
through media, such as channels, methods, and languages as well as codes. Finally,
the intended or unintended outcomes of communication and the action and the
feedback from the receiver will be included in the agenda of study.
Lasswell's formula shows a typical trait of early communication models where the communicator undoubtedly has the intention of influencing the receiver and, hence, that communication should be treated mainly as a persuasive process. In addition, the model indicates a one-way process and it is assumed that messages always have effects. Noting the constraints of the model, R. Braddock (1958) found that more considerations should be taken into account to within Lasswell's model.
In Braddock's version, he adds two more facets of the communicative act, which are:
1) the circumstances under which a message is sent, and 2) for what purpose the communicator says something.
46 Chapter Three
In the history of mass communication research, there was one more influential
model developed by the mathematician Claude Shannon and his co-worker Warren
Weaver (1949) in the late 1940s. They considered the process of communication to
begin with the information source, producing a message or a chain of messages to be
communicated. Then, the message is formed into signals by a transmitter and
adapted to the channel leading to the receiver. The function of the receiver is to
reconstruct the message from the signal and then pass the received message to reach
the destination. The most significance aspect of the model is that the signal may be
disturbed by noise. For instance, many signals in the same channel at the same time
will cause the occurrence of interference and result in a difference between
transmitted and received signals.
In the late 1960s, Shannon and Weaver's model was supplemented in an
important way, and their model had been criticized for its linearity and lack of
feedback. Communication theorists tried to tackle the problem of 'hetero-morphism'
between the transmitted and received signals. Melvin Lawrence DeFleur (1966)
further modified the Shannon and Weaver model in a discussion about the
correspondence between the meaning of the produced and received message. He
added another set of components, the feedback mechanism, to the original Shannon
and Weaver model to show how the source receives its feedback. The new
component gave the source a possibility of adapting its way of communicating to the destination more effectively, which increased the possibility of achieving correspondence between the meanings (isomorphism).
Focusing on the concerns of studying a record company, the author summarizes
47 Chapter Three
the models as mentioned above to derive a theory~system theory一for exploring the
record company on a macro scale that relates it to overall processes of manufacturing
music and, for the purpose of discussion, assuming the model to be a linear, one-way
process. System theory is a useful tool for understanding the way a record company
functions.
In system theory (figure 4.1), the model is divided into three levels. In the first
level, there are five components: source, channel, destination, feedback and
environment. Understanding a record company in this way, the source includes
musicians, music, performances, producers, recording engineers, studio and
technology. The channel will be a record company and the processes of recording, mastering, manufacturing, and marketing as well as the producta CD. The
destination means the listeners who purchase and listen to the CD. The feedback process is a mechanism to reflect the opinions from consumers. The environment contains the social, cultural, legal, political as well as economic forces that exist outside the record company.
In addition, three significant parties are included in the system: transmitter, gatekeeper and receiver. The transmitter is the one who acts in a specific role of
music transmission such as a musician or participant who takes part in music activities (ritual or secular). The main role of the recording industry/company is
gatekeeper. This role would be taken by a person such as the producer or recording engineer, who can manage the recording technology, decide what kind of music
should be published and re-package the music for the market. Consumers will play the role of receiver who may purchase the music and listen to and interpret it.
48 Chapter Three
Environment with social, cultural, legal, political, economic forces
Feedback ,, �����i / ^ Channel ； Source (Transmitter) ^ (Gatekeeper) ^ Destination (Receiver) -F Hn^ 7 、、、 -、__ _一-'/ 、、、 乂
Meaning ^ Message ^ Information ^ Recorded ^ Final message meaning
f ^ C \ f \ f "N 广 N Philosophy Music by CDs, any Recorded New
’ history, ^ musicians ^ audio-visual ^ music _^ interpretation
legends, and products by of meaning
stories participants record by listeners J V J \ / V V ^ company J
Figure 4.1 The Flow Chart of Message Transmission: System Theory
The second level of the model is to elaborate the meanings. Two more sub-components appear under the components of ‘source，： 'meaning' and ‘message,.
Meanwhile, the sub-component 'information' is added in 'channel' and 'destination' is divided into two sub-components: ‘recorded message' and 'final meaning'.
Applying this model to the record company, the third level is constructed to explain the details behind the second level. 'Meaning' refers to the matter underlying the music, such as philosophy, history, legends, stories etc. 'Message' will be the music that is performed and interpreted by musicians. Information can be regarded as the process of recording and editing music prior to its publication in any form of
49 Chapter Three
audio-visual product. The recorded message is the music after recording and editing
by the record company. The final meaning will be the meaning interpreted by
listeners after listening to the music on the CD. The black lines indicate the
communication direction and the dotted lines show the direction of the feedback
mechanism
Lewin，s Gatekeeping Theory
Communication theorists noted that a successful communication must result in a
correspondence between the two 'meanings'. 'Meaning' is transformed into
‘message，，and then the transmitter transforms the 'message' into 'information', which then passes through a channel (for example a mass medium). The receiver decodes the ‘information’ as a ‘message，，which in turn reaches the destination as
'meaning' (McQuail and Windahl 1993:17). Although DeFleur tried to tackle the problem through the feedback system in his model, this correspondence is seldom perfect in that the sources (transmitters) get only limited or indirect feedback from the audience (McQuail and Windahl 1993:18). This will be further elaborated in the following paragraphs.
It is understood that music from recordings is not the same as music in live performance. The recording engineer can refine the noise of music or add some effects inside the recording using technology. It is a common phenomenon in the process of making recordings that the two 'meanings' are different. Hence, concerning ourselves with how the recorded message is being transformed will be significant in studying the recording industry. To explain the difference, the concept of gatekeeping has been frequently applied in studies of the of mass communication process, especially with reference to any action within a media organization which
50 Chapter Three
involves the process of choosing or rejecting some potential item for publication.
The concept of gatekeeping was originated by Kert Lewin (1947) dealing with
decision-making for household food purchases. He noted that information always
flows along some channels which contain ‘gate areas'. Decisions are made either
according to impartial rules or personally by a 'gatekeeper'. The rules or gatekeeper
will control what kind of information or goods can be entered into or rejected by the
channel.
Message ^ ^ Receiver
Figure 4.2 Simple Diagram of the Gatekeeping Concept.
In the 1950s, communication theorist David Manning White (1950) first applied
the idea of gatekeeping in mass communication. He employed it in a study of the
telegraph wire editor of an American non-metropolitan paper, whose decision to
accept and discard many items was seen as a significant gatekeeping activity
(Shoemaker 1991:10-11; White 1950).
Gatekeeping theory is applicable to many more areas of communication research
outside of its original domain of news editing, where the editor chooses or rejects
news which passes through his or her hands. Aik, a record producer, does much more than a newspaper editor. In this thesis, based on his interview (2004) the
author summarizes several ways in which Aik Yeh-goh acts as a gatekeeper in the process of recording music. Firstly, the musical background of Aik allows him to
51 Chapter Three
adopt two standards: 'having feeling'有感覺 and 'having life'有生命力 to select
musicians and music for his recordings. He cannot accept musicians playing music
without feeling. He also likes ‘lively，music that can attract listeners in his
recordings. Hence, Aik actively seeks out artists, commissions the recordings and
chooses the repertoire. Secondly, Aik is enthusiastic in editing music. In the label
KIIGO, he co-operates with some composers and musicians to re-compose and
re-arrange the original music into a new style that he calls 'new music'. Applying
the theory to the study of a record company as a mass medium, gatekeeping is useful
to explain the different 'meanings' in the recording industry. Thirdly, he will edit or
hire some scholars to write the bilingual (Chinese and English) CD booklets. The
author has noticed that the English part of the CD booklets provides additional
knowledge of Chinese music for people in Western society. Lastly, Aik claims
himself as a ‘subjective recording engineer'. When he was recording the music, he
would also like to be a conductor who can have the power to control and direct the
performance. Sometimes, he likes to give his opinion and suggest corrections in the
process of recording. He explains that this is his responsibility as a recording engineer. There is no doubt that Aik acts in various roles in recording music from selecting artists to marketing his product. As mentioned above, the author would like to address the fact that Aik actively affects and shapes Chinese music according to his ideas and further transmits it to consumers who receive the music passively.
In other words, Aik and HUGO CDs create a new context and content of Chinese music for his consumers.
The Role of HUGO CDs: Imagination of Chinese Music outside of Mainland
China
Situating mass communication as a social process, Denis McQuail ([1983]
52 Chapter Four
2000:64) was concerned with “the production and distribution of knowledge in the
widest sense of word. Such knowledge enables us to make some sense of our
experience of the social world, even if the 'taking of meaning' occurs in relatively
autonomous and diversified ways." He further elucidates that "the information,
images and ideas made available by the media may, for most people, be the main
source of an awareness of a shared past time (history) and of a present social location.
They are also a store of memories and a map of where we are and who we are
(identity) and may also provide the materials for orientation to the future." To a
large extent, the media "serve to constitute out perceptions and definitions of social
reality and normality for purposes of a public, share social life, and are a key source
of standard, models and norms.”
The main point Aik Yeh-goh stresses is the degree to which HUGO CDs are
interposed between listeners and the experience of the world beyond their personal
environment. HUGO CDs can provide a continuous line of contact with the musical
world of the society in which people live. Moreover, HUGO CDs play the role of
constructing ‘a fictitious world of Chinese culture' (Yu 2004) that tends to create
room for the imagination of Chinese music as projected by Aik who is from overseas.
Furthermore, McQuail's notion of the media shows similarity to Aik's (or HUGO)'s
view that music plays a role in shaping a "large part of... 'symbolic environment'
(the 'picture in our heads') ([1983] 2000:64) ” Finally, the process of recording
echoes the concerns of ethnomusicologist Timothy Rice in his three-level model
(1987): historical construction (as tradition), social maintenance (as the way music is being sustained, maintained and altered) and individual creativity (as personal experience in history and society). HUGO CDs can be further explained with Rice's model. Aik Yeh-goh accumulated his Chinese music knowledge through radio in his
. 53 Chapter Three
teenage years. The music broadcast on the radio was the soundscape constructed by
zhongguo changpian} (China Record Company) in mainland China. This was also
true for those living in Hong Kong in this period. Hence, the production of HUGO
includes the historical and cultural contexts of such mainland Chinese recordings
which were significant in shaping the aural memory of the generation of Aik who
aspired to Chinese music culture while living outside of mainland China. To extend
his beliefs about music learning, he established his own record company to publish
recordings so that Chinese music could be preserved and spread in society. Under
the label of KIIGO, he re-created a new style of Chinese music in collaboration with
musicians and composers. We can conclude that the contribution of Aik is that HUGO
CDs play the role of a 'cultural institution' in Chinese aural memory.
Concluding Remarks
This study does not come to an end, but instead a beginning. Firstly, employing
theories from communication studies increases the possibilities for theoretical models
in the discipline of ethnomusicology. In addition, these models magnify the vision
for studying Chinese music. Secondly, recordings and their catalogues are not static
and will be increased and changed in the future. Under Hull's notion, the recording
industry is best described as “[an] open system because of its dependence on popular
tastes and culture for its market... If a business does not receive new energy from its
environment and inputs it will cease to exist (1998:12-13)." Thirdly, the line
between traditional Chinese music (folk music, ceremony music) and modem Chinese
music (music of the modem Chinese orchestra, music by Chinese instrumental
soloists with conservatory training) has become gradually blurred so that it is not easy
1 The China Record Company was established in 1982. The former zhongguo changpian zhe 中國 唱片社 was established in 1959. Details can be referred to the volume two of zhongguo yinyue cidian 中國音樂詞典（The Dictionary of Chinese Music) (1992:258).
54 Chapter Three to differentiate the two. Finally, to further extend the scope of studying the recording industry and Chinese music, another record company, zhongguo changpian
(The China Record Company) (1982) in the mainland China should not be ignored.
It is related to the history of twentieth century China, and its recordings are implanted in the memories of both mainland and overseas Chinese. Hence, if the aim of this thesis is to study the soundscape from an "out-of-mainland China" perspective, a further study should be conducted to understand it from a mainland Chinese perspective.
55 Appendix B
Name List of Record Companies in Hong Kong before the 1990，s (RTHK 1998b) A Diamond 鑽石 j ACM DM0 Jen Fu 金音符 A1 Air喜韻 Al Songs E K Angel 天使 EMG K. C. Cheung 錦昌 Antelope 鹿標 EM 百代 Kinn’s Music Art Tune 藝聲 Epic Kinstar 皇聲 Euphonic Kong Ming 光明 B Kongco's Bang Bang F Kun Lun 崑斋 Bearing 指南 Fidelity 發達 KwokWah 國華 Best 拔萃 Flying Eagle 飛鷹 Black and White 黑白 Form Private Ltd.風格 L Forte豐藝 Lion雄獅 C Foxwood Leung Fat 龍發 Capital Artists 華星 Full Sing 富聲 Life 麗風 Caro歌樂 Fung Hang風行 LopKi立基 CBS新力 Lucky幸運 Chan Dik Hong G Production Co. Go Fung 高峰 丛 Cheung Shing 長城 Golden Star 金星 M.K. China 中國 Good Fortune 幸福 Majestic 大華 Chuan Hing 泉興 Good Luck 鴻運 Man Chi 文志 Chuan Tat 泉達 Great Union 大聯 Master Production 匠心 Cinema Friend影友 GUO基奧 製作 Cinepoly 新藝寶 Mee Shing 美聲 CKL Records五洲景龍 旦 Melody樂韻 Conic Gold 康力金 Hai Shan 海山 Million 美輪 Contec Sound康藝成音 Hai Yin海燕 Modem時代 Continental 五洲 Happiness 雙喜 Moonrise 月昇 Crane Brand 仙鶴 Hong Tai long 香泰統 Musical 歌藝 Crown娛樂 一 Current 現代 House 好市 ^^ Nam Sing 南聲 D I Nan Guo 南國 Dawn Records 信昌 IC Records New Wave 新風 Denon天育|
56 Appendix B
O Standard 標準 Wing Lung 永隆 Odeon高亭 Star群星 WingTak永德 Stereo 天然 Wo Shing 和聲 P Studio A World 世界/世紀 Pak Lock 百樂 Sui Sing 瑞成 Pathe 百代 Sun Hing 新興 Y Peter Mui Production Sun Sing 新聲 YauYeung 悠揚 Philips 飛利浦 Super Delight Yin Ping 燕萍 Po Sing 保聲 Super Sound 權聲 Yin Sang 燕聲 Polydor寶麗多 Swan天鶴 Yip's葉紹德 Polygram寶麗金 Power權威 T President 總統 Tak Sing 德聲 Prinstar 天星 Technical Holdings 廸豪 Production House 好市 Teresa Carpio Purple Label Tien Shing 天聲 Tin Ma天馬 R Tin Wo天和 Reco麗高 TNA大中華 Regal 麗歌 TongAik 統一 Rock In Paradox 樂意 Top Top Rocky樂奇 Roxy樂聲 li RFC 永高 Union Pansonic 威寶 RTHK香港電台 Union友聯 Ruby 寶石 United Arts 聯美
s Y Sancity 藝視 Victory 凯旋 Shun Sin Mei 真善美 Silver Planet 銀星 丑 Sing Tao Pansonic 星島 Wah Sing 華星 全音 Wan Sing韻聲 Small Music小音樂 WEA華納 Solo Productions Wensland Audio Visual Sound Sound永聲 震剛影音 South East Asia 東南亞 Wing Cheung 永祥 St. Phone 聖峰 Wing Hang 永恆
57 Appendix B
The Catalogue of the HUGO CDs (HUGO 2001 :Cover, 49-55) Wm um
Cover
58 Appendix B
雨果CDH
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59 Appendix B
— 雨果 CDM^JW/
HRP 768-2 打起漁处丨尔 7 f| HRP 769-2 ft'nfejri 2) HRP 770-21 HRP 770G 投样处併帥 21 随 HRP 771-2 曲化花（陕北K欢） 11 由 HRP 772-2 路没没 7 累 HRP 773-2 太PW 來出、作（『丨ill iWlAi耿少<丨;介丨叫明） 1-2 31 HRP 774-2 / HRP 774G 鼓符• '!!'： H;拉绅 |11| 7 HRP 775-2 / HRP 775G 染祝•说河 21 HRP 776-2/HRP776G 卢/ 之 27 HRP 777-21HRP 777G U 多仆小捉够 lA 谷 |11| 27 HRP 778-21HRP 778G 丨相_ 發垃碟� 0/兩 JJi 金碟（二） 36 HRP 779-2 火,fij 27 HRP 780.21 HRP 780G 4；^斯枓近郊的晚卜. ‘ 18 HRP781-2 川RP781G ‘！^ "f AclSf At ffi'i^/Slillll HRP 782-21 HRP 782G W JfJ fi：义？Nil 26 HRP783-2 lt!liti'it!|5 M_WLvl故合"T丨） 11 HRP 784-2/HRP 784G 饭 ft 我的歌 27 HRP 785-2 K 城随想 14 HRP 786-2 ni^iiVi 7 HRP 787-21 HRP 787G "f JciWAt^lil'li 26 HRP 788-2 络包（山两 W敗） 11 HRP 789-2imp 789G I:.I"l幻想llH 2(5 HRP 790-2 if 花 Wi 娘 6 HRP 791-2 jriiior- 6 HRP 792-2 符i/jll之沉狄（iSi小湖作/"I•粘逃） 23 HRP 793-21 HRP 793G 光塊焖• K 稱倫 2(5 HRP 794-21 HRP 794G 会 1:位花問 IX HRP 795-2 陳水^l^'r?弦衆作品 HRP796-2 博聰池•招tiKli叫（m招丨丨丨丨及練>f|i|lll (OT) 26 HRP 798-2 池作 lllrikS(架怍品 HRP 799-2 ("V池怍1丨丨丨来rh玄紫作品 HRP 7100-2 ^Ulijfe 13 HRP 7101-21 HRP 7101G .l.!i i|(大之猫 21 HRP 7102-2 15 HRP 7103-2 JtMhfW 金太 ftjL 1.1 HRP 7104-2 (规水师作liiiSS) 23 HRP 7105-2 T；^ 德 tUlE义押 llll 23 HRP 7106-2 my^^ HRP7107-2 拟始狩撒l«l (踐兆^^民架作品） 0 HRP 7108-2/HRP 71Q8G 我的JUW (陳坊仙交押作品） HRP 7109-2 ll^iV^K -及^^-丨叫鋼故lit) HRP7110-2 仇欣竹{ -) 9 HRP 7111-2 欣 ft ( .：) 9 HRP 7112-2/HRP 7112G 彼比與狼() HRP 7113-2 A!i 刀鄉（fl£辦斯辦 iHl) 18 HRP 711-1-2 愛 故 ll^ (流fi金 llll) HRP 7115-2 .秒幻 llll •兆小•丨"i_) HRP 7116-2 染 W (•I'W^'.llll) 18 HRP 7117-2/HRP 7117G 的河大 11 HRP 7118-21 HRP 7118G H:!•來發燃® ( VH) /\M (i'M) HRP 7119-2 25 HRP 7120-2 边秋W I'J —
60 Appendix B
_^果CDM 綠^^ ______—
|g HRP 7121-2 人-削梅知府 19 HRP 7122-2 "^i^^iLft 19 铺 HRP 7123.2 I!) 芒 HRP7124-2/HRP 7124G iAil'^l： H 系 HRP 7125-2/HRP 7125G ill uWil 19 PI HRP 7126-2 /.(iWfitfhi HRP 7127-2/HRP 7127G 鄉'欢: 21 HRP 7128-2 Willi 25 HRP 7129-2 叫|1:!^狗（陳1>^林） HRP7130-2 iilKlfTl HRP7131-2 'W'l'^SSj (：：.) HRP7132-2 抑丨I’場的(:> (命们棋）Ktli :tl • HRP7133-2 KH'S^韵("：)f"?成 31 HRP 7134-2 二小收'r•郎 21 HRP7135-2 除水明;叫辨丨丨丨丨�:4丨想浙Oi劝》 23 • HRP 7136-2 ( •) HRP 7137-2 的站纷(：.) HRP 7138-2 兮的站纷(•；) ：考 1 HRP 7139-2 砍陵場的（•) J^^lft 31 HRP 7140-2 砍较琴功（-‘•）成公.yS HRP7141-2 )m'4i)ii ( •) mm ：‘" HRP7142-2 i^SJii^i) (I'M) HRP7143-2 街陆碌的(10刺少沾 训 HRP7144-2 (/、•> 梅11« 30 HRP 7145-2 欣秘琴約（L)林乂f : 加 HRP 7146-2 职么4 疏印 2B HRP7U7-2 liLiHtttW (林架枯 W衆交•？？作品） 23 HRP 7148-2 •舰 HRP 7149-2 潮州人域诚 16 HRP7150-2/HRP7150G 發域碟(H) /|如來金碟(H.) 35 HRP 7151-2 I- <18 HRPri52A 彼德街狼（i�ifil!LSS版） 2B HRP 7153-2 花木l»i « HRP 7154-2 也兹油 « HRP 7155-2 k 败 6 HRP 7156-2 蘇 W 鄉骑 ‘丄 HRP7157A/HRP7157G (m . .名 I III HRP 7158-2 小;M (山 JKUi歌） I' HRP7159-2 ；ft•利化（汀蘇Ui耿） 11 HRP 7160-2 25 HRP7161-2 t想伏扎>_
61 Appendix B
— m^cD^^m/
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62 Appendix B
雨果夕夕/
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ML-C5001 弦如 39 ML-C5002 统金 W 39 MLC5003 姑极谷败 39 ML-_ '秋 n ML-C5005 送 ‘38 ML-C5006 迎 Y；^ 後拟 ：<« ML-C5007 38 ML-J2103 钢兮吧 ML-J2104 扑;i&怕懷 ：… ML-J6001 •艾货 ML-J6002 内班 If-仔 ti'fllll '12 MLJ6003 fl I:衆放金<1-:代（.） A?. ML-J6004 愤 I:榮 ft 金尔代（•-) 12 ML-J6005 保义 ML-J6006 人 Wi 之 S 12 ML.J6007 維也纳<(>!財获 MUJ6008 此 M"n� V 4Z ML-J6009 CSI:钢兮 'II ML-J6010 英 兹 11 ML-J6011 狐少 ML-J6012 价拾-说巴.森巴 11
53 “ ”
63 Appendix B
_ 雨果CD El錄-響
ML-J6013 位 I.舞 41 編 ML-J6014 快少押 41 ML-J6015 >1!.球大‘•liJ^ 41 教 ML-J6016 .11 ML-J6017 他弦怕 40 索 ML-J6018 …位.IH决杰位德 31 ML-J6019 ("VPH -Wl 众 40 ML-J6020 40 ML-J6021 WiV： •比克 -10 ‘ ML-J6022 紀念格偷• _ /|(| ML-J6023 fftVji 40 MUJ6024 紐約;ft 17(1/ 40 ML-J6025 in 迪小汝 llll 39 ML-J6026 •他细 39 ML-J6027 M 吧raw 39 ML-N8001 (IV 脳財件 ：?« ML-N8002 巴叫械说 38 ML-N8003 保加利•：之 38 ML-N8004 flh•&之 38 ML-N8005 .V 他心 llll 37 ML-Nfl006 成 H 流trt 37 ML-N8007 巴躲咖"If.rt; 37 ML-N8008 波/^水,!：|:股彻 37 ML-N8009 拉厂）：1洲之.^；^ 37 ML-N8010 C'HClW'^SS^ ：<7 MUW011 J&A：利小紹 37 ML-N8012 抢 iW 37 ML-W2101 維Hi纳交押栄爛之夜 ML-W2102 m Ik纳 林 iJl 43 ML-W3002 hJtZlW-IV: ''7 ML.W3003 hfi fL W 弦紫 W 丨丨丨I 47 MU-W3008 111 tt:(；住 I ：的咏喷 7 ML-W3010 巴林：小從緣協杉llll 47 ML-W3012 断 I:位姑Iftllll ‘口 ML-W3013 •德淋：•；烟化 ff 架 47 ML-W3019 海袖：符 交？fllll ML-W3024 tl5J3Li|Uli:小少舞 II 丨丨 ML-W3026 « 扎特：小夜 IIIIK.525. ML-W3027 tt扎特：十ii？？nil 46 ML-W3033 n多办：命述及丨丨丨W « I'll '16 ML.W3034 n » 办-：帝'AM^ 協 llll ML-W3035 ii 多 iV:炎机 '16 ML-W3037 以多办：小极环養"illlll《•^f人》 46 ML-W3040 格他與從緣 ML-W3044 计们特：求成交想丨丨1丨 ML-W3047 ： M MiS^li 姑 HG llll '15 ML-W3M9 tfl论兹：f； J •也 Si Willi '15 ML-W3052 15 ML-W3054 箱邦:l!li«!|lll • ltll«Nh 'IS ML.W3064 45 ML-W3069 WOiJff 卯：我的 HIW 45 ML.W3070 拖特.^MtTf ：蔽多 JKinf 45
“ 54 [
64 Appendix B
I-CD m 躲 JW乙
編 ML-W3071 施特穷断:》|1丨谢典 45 ML-W3072 勃位姆断利辟 IIH U M ML-W3074 勃位姆斯：第二鋼琴描拉nil 44 芒 ML-W3077 比才： 44 系 ML-W3079 紫"fJtmf 从：人耽湖 -14 PI ML-W3083 宠nf大斯从法人-利随想丨丨n 44 ML-W3084 德沃九:((fl 新大 44 ML-W3067 i^maa：^ li'icmW 44 ML.W3089 IK姆所战.科躲科大：人-力•皮游 M ML-W3092 .Ui^lrKA^iiafllll 43 ML-W3093 勒刊交 »|11| 43 ML-W3097 immitSTik ：访-鋼说招丨1 丨丨 43 ML-W3101 閣逸年 II 43 ML-W3102 他 拟 43 ML-W3103 ffly川••作人-cJ^Hyil
LT 4009-2 (r,CD) 9
LT4018-2 大个2000 (2CD) 48 LT 4021-2 ft 衆 航大全 48
55
65 Selected Bibliography
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Aik, Yew-goh 易有伍. 2002a Lecture. 27 Feb 2002, MUP 4520 Introduction to Arts Administration, Music Department, at The Chinese University of Hong Kong. 2002b 《雨果唱片的故事》，香港：三聯書店 2004 Interview. 14 May 2004, at 12:30pm, at Office of Aik Yeh-goh, Tai Wai， Hong Kong.
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66 Selected Bibliography
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Denisoff, R. Serge. 1975 Solid Gold: The Popular Record Industry. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books. 1986 Tarnished Gold. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books.
Dong, Wei-song 董維松 1987 「關於中國傳統音樂及其分類問題」，載《中國音樂》第二期，頁 41-42 1988a 「中國傳統音樂學與樂種學問題及分類方法」，載《中國音樂學》 第二期’頁56-67 1988b 「樂種與樂種學舞議」，載《中國音樂》第三期，頁10-11
Dong, Wei-song and Shen Qia 董維松、沈洽 1982 「民族音樂學問題」，載《音樂硏究》第四期，頁33-40 1985 《民族音樂學譯文集》，北京：中國文聯出版公司
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67 Selected Bibliography
El-Shawan Castelo-Branco, Salwa. 1987 "Some Aspects of the Cassette Industry in Egypt," The World of Music 29 (2): 32-47.
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HUGO. 1989-1999 HUGO Express. Volume 1 to 16. 1999 The Catalogue of HUGO CDs 1999 雨果 1999 唱片目錄. 2000 Website of HUGO Production (H.K.) Ltd. Established on 20/8/2000. http://www. hugocd. com/hugo. 2001 The Catalogue of HUGO CDs 2001-2002 雨果 2001 -2002 唱片目錄. Hong Kong: HUGO Production (H.K.) Ltd. 2002 The Catalogue of HUGO CDs 2002-2003 雨果 2002-2003 唱片目錄. Hong Kong: HUGO Production (H.K.) Ltd. 2003 New English Version of the Website ofHUGO Production (H.K.) Ltd. Established in 2003. http://www.hugomedia.com.
Hull, Geoffrey P. 1998 The Recording Industry. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Huxley, Thomas Henry. [1984] 1911. Evolution and Ethics, and Other Essays. New York: Appleton.
Gao, Hou-yong 高厚永 1980 「中國民族音樂學的形成和發展」，載《音樂硏究》第四期，頁8-25 1981 《民族音樂槪論》，江蘇人民出版社 1985 �中國對民族音樂學的硏究」，載《音樂硏究》第一期，頁27-30
Gaisberg, Fred. 1942 The Music Goes Round. New York: Macmillan.
68 Selected Bibliography
Geisler, Herbert George, Jr. 1990 "A Cross-cultural Exploration of Musical Preference among Chinese and Western Adolescents in Hong Kong." PhD. diss.，The University of Michigan, Michigan.
Goldstein, Kenneth. 1966 "The Ballad Scholar and the Long-Playing Phonograph Record," in Folklore and Society, Bruce Jackson, ed. Hatboro, Pa: Folklore Associates, pp. 35-44. 1980 reprint. 1982 "The Impact of Recording Technology on the British Folksong Revival," in Folk Music and Modern Sound, William Ferris and Mary L. Hart, eds. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, pp. 3-13.
Goonasekera, Anura and Ito，Youichi. 1999 Mass Media and Cultural Identity: Ethnic Reporting in Asia. London: Pluto Press.
Gronow, Pekka. 1973 "Popular Music in Finland: A Preliminary Survey," Ethnomusicology 17(1): 52-71. 1975 "Ethnic Music and Soviet Record Industry," Ethnomusicology 19(1): 91-102. 1981 "The Record Industry Comes to the Orient," Ethnomusicology 25 (2): 251-284. 1982 "Ethnic Recordings: An Introduction," in Ethnic Recordings in America: A Neglected Heritage. Washington, D.C.: American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, pp. 1-31. 1983 "The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium," Popular Music 3: 53-76.
Gronow, Pekka and Ilpo Saunio. 1998 An Introduction History of the Recording Industry. Translated by Christopher Moseley. London and New York: Cassell.
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Jones, Andrew F. 2001 Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
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Kartomi, Margret. 1990 On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Keil, Charles. 1984 "Music Mediated and Live in Japan," Ethnomusicology 28 (1): 91 -96.
Kunst, Jaap. 1959 Ethnomusicology. Third edition. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Lai, Hing-ling. 1984 "A Study of the Entrepreneurs in the Acoustics Industry in Hong Kong.’，MB. A. Thesis, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Lam, Joseph S.C. 1995 "Chinese Music Historiography: From Yang Yinliu's A Draft History of Ancient Chinese Music to Confucian Classics." AC MR Report 8(2): 1-43.
Lasswell, H.D. 1948 “The Structure and Function of Communication in Society," In The Communication of Ideas, Bryson, ed. New York: Harper and Brothers.
Levi-Strauss, Claude. 1966 “Do Dual Organizations Exist?，，In Structural Anthropology. New York: Basic Books.
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Yang, Mu 楊沐 2000 「漫談音樂人類學的定義與範疇」，載《音樂研究》第三期，頁81-87 2001 「回顧結構主義」，載《中央音樂學院學報》第一期，頁47-55
Yang, Yin-liu and Cao An-he 楊蔭瀏、曹安和 1982 《蘇南十番鼓》，人民音樂出版社
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Yu Feng余峰 2000 「“2000年民族音樂學論壇”綜述」，載《中國音樂》第四期，頁 24-26
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Yuan，Jing-fang 袁靜芳 1987 《民族器樂》，人民音樂出版社 1988 「樂種學構想」，載《音樂硏究》第四期，頁16-23
77 Selected Bibliography
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Yung，Sai-shing 容世誠. 2001 「清末民初的粤樂唱片業與廣東曲藝（1903 — 1913)」載《中國文 化硏究所學報》第十期’頁511-539 2002 「香港唱片業與粵語通俗文學（1926-1930 )」載李焯然編《漢學縱 橫》，頁131-154，香港：商務印書館
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