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Green Grabbing and the Contested Nature of Belonging in Laikipia, Kenya: a Genealogy Green grabbing and the contested nature of belonging in Laikipia, Kenya: A genealogy by Brock Bersaglio A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy Department of Geography University of Toronto © Copyright by Brock Bersaglio 2017 ii Green grabbing and the contested nature of belonging in Laikipia, Kenya: A genealogy Brock Bersaglio Doctor of Philosophy Department of Geography University of Toronto 2017 Abstract Global demand to protect endangered wildlife at any cost has corresponded to increasingly more Large-Scale Land Acquisitions being carried out for conservation purposes. This dissertation focuses on how and why different rural groups have such diverse experiences with, and reactions to, this phenomenon (i.e. green grabbing). Recent studies emphasize the need to depart from stereotypes of rural groups as either passive victims or unified resistors of green grabbing. Such studies show that green grabs have differentiated impacts and are met by variegated political reactions from below – including resistance, acquiescence, and incorporation. While making important contributions to the literature, these insights lead to additional questions. For example, how do the political reactions of certain rural groups align or depart from those of others and why? In responding to such questions, this dissertation makes green grabbing a subject of ethnographic and historical analysis in Laikipia, Kenya. Through a genealogical approach to studying green grabbing, this dissertation brings literature on ethnicity and belonging in Laikipia into dialogue with recent green grabbing literature. The findings suggest that in settler societies, certain aspects of green grabbing may be understood as iii acts of white belonging. Likewise, green grabbing presents other rural groups with opportunities – however marginal – to re-assert different notions of belonging in the landscape through resistance, acquiescence, or incorporation. Based on these findings, this dissertation argues that green grabbing is central to longstanding contestations over belonging in Laikipia. The phenomenon has been made possible by, but has also re- produced, ethno-spatial divisions rooted in colonial expansion. By tracing the shifting contours of these divisions in time, this dissertation contextualizes how and why different rural groups experience and react to green grabbing. In doing so, it builds a case for ethnographic and historical analyses of green grabs in other places, spaces, and times. iv Acknowledgements This dissertation is the product of personal relationships and life encounters that stretch well beyond my time at the University of Toronto between 2012 and 2017. In the following paragraphs, I acknowledge the depth and breadth of support I received while researching and writing this dissertation. Although I am only able to mention a few individuals by name, countless others helped shape this project over the course of many years. I must begin by acknowledging those who gifted their energy, insights, and time to me as I carried out the research, allowing me to pry into their lives, observe their day-to-day routines, and occupy space in the places they labour, live, and/or relax. Many strangers graciously endured my questioning, sometimes agreeing to interviews on extremely short notice without knowing all that much about me or why I seemed so interested in talking with them. Unfortunately, this list of names is far too long to include here. I am happy to say, however, that some of these strangers became friends. The story this dissertation tells is undoubtedly the richer for contributions made by friends and strangers alike, as is my personal story. Thank you. I am now obliged to get more specific. I am indebted to the following individuals for their expertise, kindness, and generosity – for persevering long days spent traversing difficult terrain or for opening their homes to me, among other forms of generosity. The following names immediately come to mind: Alfred, David, Deborah, Erastus, Esther, Marcus, Murray, Ramson, Sophie, and Timothy. David, this project simply would not have been possible without you. This is no exaggeration. Erastus, you have been such a reliable friend (and source of information) over the years; you contributed to this project in more ways than you know. Others, such as Alex, Bryan, Charles, Henry, Janice, and Suzan, helped coordinate key logistics in support of the research. I need to acknowledge Alex, specifically, for facilitating my affiliation with the East African Institute at Aga Khan University, as well as Charles for linking me to valuable resources, networks, and professional relationships early in the research. At this juncture, I want to acknowledge the financial support I received for this dissertation from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Social Sciences and v Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), and University of Toronto. Without financial support from these organizations, my approach to the research would not have been feasible. I would also like to recognize that Kenya’s National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation did not have to approve this research. I am extremely grateful that approval was granted. Next, I wish to thank the countless number of individuals who have challenged, nurtured, and stretched me intellectually over the years. Yet again, the names of such individuals are far too numerous to list, stretching back to my days as a secondary school student and beyond. Members of the Environmental Politics Working Group at the University of Toronto require special recognition, as do the individuals on my supervisorial committee. Jim and Sharlene, I owe you enormous thanks for your time and feedback. Your critical insights helped improve this dissertation and have given me much to consider moving forward. Thank you, Ken, for setting hours of your time aside to talk methodology and theory with me. Your enthusiasm and understanding of ethnography not only wore off on me, it was a tangible source of guidance in the field. Scott, your moral support necessarily challenged and stretched me intellectually. More importantly, however, it was a vital source of motivation for me throughout my PhD experience. Lastly, Thembela, I could not have asked for a better supervisor. You went out of your way to provide me with invaluable experiences and opportunities. You also helped keep me driven, focused, and (somehow) relatively relaxed throughout the process – thank you. Your research and writing, along with your enthusiasm for teaching, will continue to inspire me. Since there is no such thing as an individual achievement, I would like to close by acknowledging the care, kindness, and support that I received from family and friends while devoting myself to this dissertation. Some of you in Canada (British Columbia and Ontario), Kenya, and Zambia quite literally opened their doors to me on numerous occasions. Moreover, you were all excellent sources of distraction, peace, and/or reprieve over the past 4 years – this deserves special thanks. Lastly, Oliver, although you will never read this, you remain my true comrade. Charis, an endless rendition of clichés would capture neither the admiration I have for you nor the gratitude I feel towards you. You are my anchor and sail. vi Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... x List of Appendices ................................................................................................................. xii Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 1 Research purpose, context, and contribution .................................................................. 3 1.1 Research goal and purpose ........................................................................................... 3 1.2 Research context and contribution................................................................................ 5 2 Dissertation outline ............................................................................................................ 13 3 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 18 Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................ 21 Green grabbing and political reactions from below .................................................... 21 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 21 2 Green grabbing and the green economy of conservation ........................................... 25 3 The global machine of green grabbing ........................................................................... 29 4 Selling the wild: Market-Driven Conservation ................................................................ 32 5 MDC and
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