Islamic State & the Theatre of Cruelty

Home , Theatre of Cruelty

TILBURG ISLAMIC STATE & THE UNIVERSITY THEATRE OF CRUELTY

Parallels between the Islamic State & Artaudian Theatre

Thesis Algemene Cultuurwetenschappen BA | LPW Driessen The Islamic State and the Theatre of Cruelty

Parallels between the Islamic State & Artaudian Theatre

by Lennart Driessen

S577263

Bachelorthesis ACW

Tilburg University - School of humanities

Under the supervision of: Jan Jaap de Ruiter

"If the attacks on the Twin Towers used the iconography of the Hollywood action blockbuster, the beheadings in the desert evoke drama far more ancient – Old Testament strife, Hellenic legend. [..]It may sound unlikely, but ISIS is carrying out in extremis the program of the “theatre of cruelty” of the influential French dramaturge- demiurge Antonin Artaud."

- Joji Sakurai for Yale Global

"Artaud, a sickly child twisted further by the shock of World War I, wanted his actors to “assault the senses” of the audience, shocking parts of the psyche that other theatrical methods had failed to reach. Well, IS has read the book. It’s been obvious since September 11 that we’re living in an age of vicious political theater. That’s what “terrorism” is: the manipulation of large populations by shock and awe and “liberating unconscious emotions”"

-Hugh Prysor-Jones for Chronicles Magazine

Index

Introduction...... p.5

Chapter 1 - Hypothesis and methodology...... p.7

Chapter 2 - Islamic State Media...... p.8

Chapter 2.1 - A vision on media...... p.8 Chapter 2.2 - al-Furqān - Reaching the Masses...... p.10 Chapter 2.3 - Although the Disbelievers Dislike it...... p.13

Chapter 3 - The Theatre of Cruelty...... p.15

Chapter 3.1 - Artaud and his Doubles...... p.15 Chapter 3.2 - Central ideas of the Artaudian Theatre...... p.16 Chapter 3.3 - Audience in Artaudian Theatre...... p.18 Chapter 3.4 - The Theatre of Cruelty...... p.20

Chapter 4 - The Artaudian Theatre and Islamic State media compared...... p.21

Chapter 4.1 - Central Ideas...... p.21 Chapter 4.2 - Audience - Performance relationship...... p.24 Chapter 4.3 - The practical Performance...... p.27

Chapter 5 - Conclusion...... p.35

Bibliography...... p.37

Introduction

Amidst the summer of 2014, the geopolitical stage was staggered by the gruesome videos of the Islamic State. Starting a series of terrifying communiqués with an online published video of the beheading of journalist James Foley in A message to America, the Islamic State quickly set a new standard for extremists use of media as a propaganda tool. As the extreme display of violence has become the hallmark of the Islamic State, journalists in various media1 have suggested a link between these brutal videos and avant-garde dramaturge Antonin Artaud and his 'Theatre of Cruelty'. The Islamic States' media and Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty are initially connected by the superficial characterization of both being predominantly cruel. I have taken this suggestion as my cue to research in this thesis whether Islamic States' media does or doesn't compare to Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty. Why? one should ask. It is my firm belief that the Islamic State is an incredibly complex issue. There is not one simple answer to solving the threat that IS poses. Therefore, many facets and aspects concerning the Islamic State deserve equal parts of attention through research and debate. Through this thesis, I will make an attempt at adding a perspective to the discussion on Islamic State's media through the framework of modernist theatrical theory. The research done is comparative in nature, by examining comparing and contrasting elements between the principal ideas, the audience/performance relation and the performance itself, I hope to reach a detailed and nuanced understanding on how the Islamic State and Artaudian theatre relate to each other through the perspective of a theatrical performance. This thesis, is not by any means an attempt to either explain the entirety of the Islamic State's propaganda machine, nor is it an attempt to capture the full extent of Artaud's theoretical writings, as both subjects surpass in complexity and vastness the necessary content required for answering my hypothesis. For a deeper understanding on either subject, I would advise the reader to indulge into the various articles and works I have consulted during my research. Finally, I would like to add that this thesis is written under the assumption that the Islamic State's media can be interpreted as a performance, thus making a comparison within a theatrical theory feasible.

1 Joji Sakurai for Yale Global & Hugh Prysor-Jones for Chronicles Magazine 5

This thesis is written under the supervision of Jan Jaap de Ruiter, during the fall semester of 2015-2016 at Tilburg University, faculty of humanities, in order to fulfill the requirements for the Bachelors degree Algemene Cultuurwetenschappen.

Chapter 1. Hypothesis and methodology

This thesis is dedicated to answering the question whether Islamic State's media outlets share significant resemblance with the theatrical theory and practical performance of Antonin Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty, as described in his work The Theater and its Doubles (1938). Therefore I use the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis: The Islamic State's media productions are carrying out Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty.

To test this hypothesis, I concentrate on three different elements: The central ideas behind the performance, the audience/performance relationship and the performance itself. They result in the following research questions:

RQ1: Do the ideas behind the Islamic State media compare to Artaud's ideas on theatre?

RQ2: Does the audience/performance relation in Islamic State media compare to Artaud's?

RQ3: Does the performance of Islamic State media compare to the Artaudian performance?

The methodology used is straightforward: By comparing crucial elements of both subjects, a decision will be made based on whether the similarities outweigh the differences, or vice versa. The hypothesis will then be accepted or rejected on basis of the accumulative outcome of the research questions as proposed.

Chapter 2. Islamic State Media

In this chapter, I discuss the video Although the Disbelievers Dislike It. In the first section, I will explain the vision of IS on media through the influential work The Management of Savagery by Abu Bakr Naji. In the second section I will discuss the al- Furqan media division and the IS media/audience relation. Finally, I will digress on the video Although the Disbelievers Dislike It, providing material for a case study into the Artaudian theatre.

2.1 A vision on media

The creation of the Islamic State has been a process that can be traced back to over a decade ago (Hashim, 2014). Starting as an al-Qaeda affiliate, many of their ideas on the creation of the ideal Muslim state, the Umma, have been adopted by the Islamic State. One work in particular has become influential in their strategy: The Management of Savagery, by alleged al-Qaeda strategist Abu Bakr al-Naji (2004). (Saltman & Winter, 2014, p.29) To understand the important role of media in the IS, it is paramount to look at the writings of Naji in relation to media. The Management of Savagery, in short, attempts to improve on Jihadi operations by pointing out the mismanagement of resources, recruits and violence in former Jihad movements. The work contains an elaborate plan of multiple stages necessary to incorporate various regions into the 'Umma' or 'Ummah'. (Helfstein, 2009) On the subject of media, Naji describes an established 'deceptive media halo' that has dissipated the self-awareness of the masses. On this behalf, powers that would be able to govern the state, for the sake of rejecting iniquities and honoring the mass consensus on justice, would be hindered by this 'media halo'. This media halo is maintained by two superpowers (America & Russia), portraying their political power as non-coercive and world-encompassing. (p.14 -17)

"According to the media deception, it is an all-encompassing, overwhelming power and people are subservient to it not only through fear, but also through love because it spreads freedom, justice, equality among humanity, and various other slogans." (p.18)

Naji sets as goals in the Jihadi movement concerning media strategy: to reveal the deceptive media to be a powerless force in order to destroy the respect for America and push it to abandon its psychological media war in order to provoke a direct

8 confrontation. (p.23) Naji is extremely critical on the envisioned power that is exercised through the media, calling it a deceitful pillar in the political machine of the superpowers. However, Naji does emphasize that the use of media in the Jihadi movements strategy is imperative in achieving success in Jihadi operations: At the point of savagery (When a regime or other political power, opposing the ideals of the Jihadist movement has lost its power, and the controlled territory will destabilize.), there is the urge to create a media strategy focusing on two classes - civil and military, in order to: Create an appeal to the masses to join the jihad and create a negative attitude towards those who do not join the ranks, and to convince enemy troops to abandon service or join the ranks through a monetary incentive or physical threat. This media strategy should be especially, but not exclusively, targeted at recruiting the youth, through news of the Jihadi 'transparency and truthfulness', using rational and Sharia justification to empower their message and uncover the enemies' lies. (p.51) There is a clear dichotomy in Naji's vision on media. On one hand, he criticizes the abusive media used by the superpowers, stating they are deceptive and obfuscating the masses. On the other hand, he admits the necessity for a media strategy in creating the Umma, using rational and Sharia justification to win over the hearts and minds of the masses. The crucial difference here being that the Jihadi movements media uses rational, and Sharia as an religious mandate. Thus the message is, opposed to other media, considered righteous.

"Therefore, the important point should not be ignored, especially since we want to communicate our sharia, military, and political positions to the people clearly and justify them rationally and through the sharia and (show that) they are in the (best)interest of the Umma." (p.91)

When looking at the Islamic States media strategy, the similarities between Naji's vision on media and IS's implementation of propaganda become strikingly clear. The IS propaganda constitutes of broadly two different purposes: The first purpose is recruitment, focusing on the utopian appeal of the caliphate. The second purpose is to serve as means of intimidation and the dissemination of threats amongst opponents. (Saltman & Winter, 2014, p.38) This equals the mid-savagery plan on media strategy that Naji proposes.

2.2 al-Furqān - Reaching the Masses

al-Furqān

"One cannot make just any propaganda any place for anybody." - Jacques Ellul

The Islamic State has an elaborate media apparatus, consisting of multiple divisions operating within the primary organizations territory and several affiliated media divisions operating under allied groups. Next to the officially published media, there is also a vast amount of material online that is created by unofficial supporters of the group, including videos, posters, essays and the broadcasting of news. Through this conglomerate of media producers, the size of the IS propaganda is unprecedented. (Winter, 2015, p.14) As one of the core media divisions, the al-Furqān Foundation - known as Mu'assasat al-Furqān - is responsible for the creation of various fear mongering productions. Examples of these videos are: A message to America, displaying the beheading of James Foley, The Clanging of the Swords, On the Methodology of the Prophet and Although the Disbelievers Dislike It. (Saltman & Winter, 2014, p.39) These productions are graphical and brutal, using footage of various executions and relying primarily on the narratives of brutality and war. (Winter, 2015, p.22 - p.31) For example: in The Clanging of the Swords (pt.4), there is a segment showing a Sahwa commander digging his own grave, warning his allies that similar fates await them, if they do not halt their operations. The video, with the length of over an hour, continues showing brutal executions and assaults on IS's local opponents. The video is narrated in Arabic, while being subtitled in English, making its content accessible for various audiences. Although detailed information on the al-Furqān division is unavailable, the specific task of this unit becomes clear through their filmography: These videos serve the purpose of provocation, instilling fear and spreading threats. Saltman & Winter remark here that these strategies are "reminiscent of bygone al-Qaeda strategies". (p.39)

Reaching the Masses

Naji emphasizes in The Management of Savagery on the power of the masses, and the need to harness this power in order to create the Umma (p.14&15). The Islamic State endorses this idea, by planning their propaganda strategies as such that it will reach as large of an (westernized) audience as possible. To reach their audience, IS focuses heavily on using the internet and social media as a means of communication. Although the use of social media isn't new for jihadist groups, IS is noted to set 'the gold standard for propaganda in terms of its quality and quantity'. (Saltman & Winter, 2014, p.38) The use of the internet and social media is to a certain degree, proof of a modernized jihad. However, it is also very fitting in the ideas encapsulated by Abu Bakr Naji. His ideas on media strategy emphasize partially on targeting the youth, who are, perhaps more than any other age specific group, strongly present on the internet and social media. On his ideas of using media to demoralize the enemy (or the enemies military strength) (p.50,51), the Islamic State finds a benevolent partner in the Western media. Propaganda aimed at menacing and intimidating governments and populations invariably finds itself spread amongst various Western media outlets, both online as offline. Winter attributes this to the nature of commercialized news institutes: "After all, fear sells." (2015, p.32) It is important to notice the interactive aspect of the modern jihad propaganda through the channels of online distribution. With a shift from jihadi messaging through password-protected fora during the 1990's-2000, the current IS media communication is fully public, creating an online arena that is the modern jihadists 'radical mosque' through which much of the recruitment occurs. The audience, and those amongst them who are supportive or just curious of IS, can have instant access to the entirety of the IS communication and engage anonymously in extremists meetings without the hazards of being arrested or monitored by intelligence agencies. (Winter, 2015, p.43) The efficiency of the IS presence on social media is also a new phenomenon in jihad campaigning: Using hashtags to identify their product as IS's, it also allows them to hijack trending topics. Exemplary for this practice was the incorporation of the "#Brazil_2014" tag on twitter during the 2014 soccer world cup. In order to magnify their reach even further, IS developed an app called 'Dawn of Glad Tidings', available on the Google Play Store, that allowed individual users to serve as a propaganda node

11 for a centralized media campaign. The app automatically posted twitter messages without the user having to interact. During the IS march on Mosul, the app was responsible for posting 40.000 tweets in a single day, spreading news like wildfire. (Saltman & Winter, 2014, p.40)

2.3 Although the Disbelievers Dislike It

For this section, I will summarize a detailed analysis by Winter (2014), for an introduction of the video Although the Disbelievers Dislike It.

The video Although The Disbelievers Dislike It, was originally published between the 13th and 16th of November 2014, shortly preceded by an audio message under the same title from Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. The title of the video is an excerpt from the Quran, chapter 9, verse 32: (p.3)

"They want to extinguish the light of Allah with their mouths, but Allah refuses except to perfect His light, although the disbelievers dislike it."

The video, with a runtime of 15m53 (variations may occur, depending on the source2), consists of five different segments (p.2): The first is a depiction of a map moving in time, displaying claimed territory and regions with official IS affiliates, followed by countries where IS suggests to expand. The second segment is a document-style narrative, summarizing the rise of IS over the past 11 years. The third segment shows IS fighters, parading 22 Syrian prisoners through an olive grove past a box of knives, ending with their simultaneous execution. The fourth segment returns to the map, highlighting countries in which jihadist groups pledged allegiance to al- Baghdadi. The fifth and final segment shows a clip of the alledged 'Jihadi John' with the severed head of American aid worker Peter Kassig, followed by a short allocution of JJ addressing president Obama. Winter remarks on the video: "In [...] Although the Disbelievers Dislike It, IS attempts to provide a graphic cinema-quality experience to its viewers, something which, at first sight, it succeeds in achieving." (p.2) This experience is achieved through the implementation of several dramatic elements. These elements are, in order of appearance: Animation, dramatic sound effects, the use of nasheeds3, the use of documentary(p.4) style narrative accompanied with graphic - 'Hollywood Style' - war imagery, symbolism of the flag, slow motion effects, dramatic facial shots, orchestrated 'acting', immersion through multiple camera angles(p.8) and the display of mortal violence.

2 For example, the Independent Strategy and Intelligence Study Group rendered a 19m44 version on their website. Differentiating by having an extra Quran verse and Islamic hymn at the start. 3 Hymn - Islamic State's 'most recognizable' soundtrack: Ummati Qad Laha Fajrat 13

Why would Islamic State put such effort in the production of an execution video? First off, the video produced serves as propaganda, hence production value adds credibility of the source towards any conveyed message. Secondly, by using mixed techniques of 'pseudo-documentary'-style filmmaking, Islamic State is allowed to create a more suitable version of historic events in order to strengthen their narrative. (p.4) Exemplary for this retelling of history is the video's claim of the early 2000's Iraqi Jihad movements' intention to move operations towards Dabiq in western Syria. This claim, as Winter states, is incorrect. Considering the theological importance of Dabiq in Islamic scripture however, it becomes clear that this particular retelling of history empowers a sense of destiny within the jihadi movement. Winter, in his analysis of the video, deters from an hermeneutical discussion. There are however important elements to be considered. Strong symbolic imagery is used that resembles western iconography and popular culture. The "son of Islam" (4m10 ) who is striding forth, carrying the Islamic State flag over the Syrian landscape, is an image strikingly similar to the iconic photograph of American soldiers raising the flag over Iwo Jima. The footage of warfare in close action and first person perspective (4m17) looks reminiscent of videogames such as Call of Duty. This imagery tells the IS narrative in local context, but is at the same time highly recognizable for foreign audiences. There is also included in the video numerous displays of symbolism referring to Islamic scripture. For example: After the mass execution of the twenty-two SAA officers, their heads are displayed on top of their downward lying bodies (10m38). This 'display' of severed heads can be traced back to Quran verses 9:14-15 (Ibrahim, 2014). "Fight them; Allah will punish them by your hands and will disgrace them and give you victory over them and satisfy the breasts of a believing people and remove the fury in the believers' hearts." According to Ibrahim, the display of the severed heads of their enemies, allows the believer to rest their inflamed hearts full of zeal for Islam. These examples merely illustrate the complexity of thought, next to production value, that has been put into the creation of this video.

Chapter 3. The Theatre of Cruelty

In this chapter, I will introduce my theoretical framework, discussing Artauds Theatre of Cruelty through the work Artaud and his Doubles, by Kimberly Jannarone. In the first section, I will discuss the book Artaud and his Doubles. In the second chapter, I will describe Artaud's central ideas on theatre. In the third section, I will explain the role of the audience within the Theatre of Cruelty. Finally, in the fourth section, I will discuss the practical performance that Artaud intended through his ideas on theatre.

Chapter 3.1 Artaud and His Doubles

The life and (theatrical) writings of French avant-gardist, dramaturg and theorist Antonin Artaud have sparked the imagination of many artists and critics alike. His ideas were theorized by authors like Susan Sontag, Jacques Derrida and Gilles Deleuze, by whom, amongst others, was set a dominant tenor in understanding Artaud in the backdrop of a '60s leftish and experimental period of theatre. However, as Jannarone rightfully argues, the sentiment of the masses and the political settings of this post world war ii era was vastly different from the period in which Artaud wrote down his ideas, making the conceptions on Artaud "inadequate, if not inappropriate". (2012, p.1-2) This prompted Jannarone to re-examine the writings and ideas of Artaud, situating and interpreting them in a historically correct context. She opts not to look at the character Artaud, as many before incorporated his manic life into their conception of Artaudian theatre. Instead, Jannarone has restricted herself to examining his plays and writings. Her research resulted in the book Artaud and his Doubles, offering a radical redirection for the interpretation and scholarship on the work of Artaud.

Chapter 3.2 Central ideas of the Artaudian theatre

"Beneath such a scourge, all social forms disintegrate. Order collapses. He observes every infringement of morality, every psychological disaster; he hears his body fluids murmuring within him; torn, failing in a dizzying collapse of tissue, his organs grow heavy and gradually turn to carbon. But is it too late to avert the scourge? Even destroyed, even annihilated, organically pulverized and consumed to his very marrow, he knows we do not die in our dreams, that our will operates even in absurdity, even in the negation of possibility, even in the transmutation of the lies from which truth can be remade." - Antonin Artaud (1938)

Antonin Artaud (1896-1948), articulated his central ideas on theatre in his work The Theater and Its Double, a collection of essays and manifestos written in the period of 1931-35, resulting in his famous conceptual 'Theatre of Cruelty'. (1938) In reaction towards the traumatic destruction caused by world war I, irrationalist and vitalist thought, originating at the turning of the twentieth century, found fierce and "climactic articulation" as optimistic and progressive liberal views on the human nature had been discredited. Although the avant-garde movement sought out the destruction of existing systems, their intentions were predominantly utopian. However, Artaud rejects the idea of utopia, longing for an ideal of "true culture", as he believed that traditions, art, and received ideas only represent the stagnation of "true culture". He longs, as to say, for a primordial form of culture, an encounter with forces akin to the brutal Dionysos in Euripides's Bacchae. Characteristic for the Artaudian thought, is the inversion of the aspirations of Western civilization, and the eulogization of their negations. Artaud uses the plague as a central metaphor in his ideal theatre, implying that the theatrical event should have the force equal of a plague pestering upon the city, a physical, cruel cataclysmic event with the power to overthrow man-made systems and return him to a state of nature and mysticism. The metaphor of the plague, essentially serves as an instrument for the destruction of corruption. However, "the plague used as a model for theatre, does not cure in any recognizable sense: it only unleashes." The theatre Artaud envisions is, as Jannarone suggests, is an unacknowledged repetition of the horrors of world war I, climaxing into not a victory, but rather a perversion of victory. In Artaud's theatre, there is truly no such place as utopia. (p.31-50) In conclusion: Traumatized by the horrors and deglorifying outcome of the first

16 world war, Artaud, in his work, proposed a theatre aimed at destroying man-made systems in search for a "true culture", void of corruptions. He demands a physical, cruel action to happen to force man back in a state of "savage impulses", "bestial essences" where he follows "the secret forces of the universe", rather than individual intellect and the pursuit of civilization. (p.33) Finally, the Artaudian theatre is strictly non-utopian, as such ideals are, in his visions, mere curtains to obfuscate man's nature.

3.3 Audience in Artaudian Theatre

During the 19th century, the audiences' role in the theatre had become one of a domesticated, hidden bystander. In theatrical theory, this phenomenon has become known as the "crisis of bourgeois theatre"; technological and social developments led to a "stable hierarchy in the performance, enforced physical behavior and immersion" within the theatre. This resulted in one single rule: "The audience will behave". Reactionary, the avant-garde movement adopted ideas opposing these controlling factors while agitating and activating the audience. (p.75-77) Artaud's writings, on the subject of the audience, incorporates ideas of both pre-war 19th century and avant-garde movements: while ushering a rhetoric of revolt and agitation found in the avant-garde movement, and dismissing the strict rules of separation between the audience and the performance as perverse, he also incorporated several innovations from the bourgeois theatre. Artaud used in his theatre both technological innovations to add to an immersive experience and the tradition of hierarchy in relation to the performance. His manifestos advocate an "organized anarchy" which, as Jannarone mentions, "points to the unique dynamic at the heart of the Theatre of Cruelty's ideal audience/performer relationship."(p.85) Pure anarchy is considered to be decadent, operating "outside and irrespective of higher laws". (p.86) In respect to the controlling forces of nature, Artaud aims at both agitation and control in his Theatre of Cruelty: an orchestrated breakdown of feelings and boundaries within a "predetermined structure". (p.86) A special position in Artaudian theatre, and inter bellum-thinking in general, is reserved for the psychology of crowds: As world war I had undermined the faith in God, democracy and humanistic ideals, people succumbed in what is known as the 'modern condition': a crisis of anonymity and the loss of the individual in an age of mechanization. (p.119) Crowd-theory suggests that participants in crowds find a promise of reversal and liberation of that what is deemed repressed. "Crowds fulfill the desire to be uninhibited, to run free while belonging, to break taboos en masse and therefore without the fear of repercussions." (p.120) Artaud in his theatre, incorporated these ideas on crowd-behavior, sheering away from the bourgeois' separation of public and performance. The crowd in his theatre would serve to obtain a feeling of freedom and liberation. Crowds act, rather than the individuals logic, on emotion instead. They fall into contagious irrationality, a group trance. A theatre capable of tapping into

18 these dynamics would be "irresistible". (p.121) In conclusion, the audience in relation to the Theatre of Cruelty has a unique position in between major theatrical movements, containing both elements of the bourgeois theatre's innovations and the post war avant-garde movement. These elements center into an audience/performance relation called 'organized anarchy'; through which the audience is thrown into savagery by means of an orchestrated structured. In conjunction, Artaud relies on crowd theory, to attain an irresistible theatre.

Chapter 3.4 The Theatre of Cruelty

The practical performance Artaud had in mind combined his ideas on both society and the individuals psychology, aiming at dislodging his audience from society's clasp and directing them into a state of nature by means of a cruel liberator. These ideas gave birth to Artaud famous concept of his ideal theatre: 'the Theatre of Cruelty. He, unfortunately, would only materialize his radical theories during the period he ran the Jarry Theatre (1926-1928) and in his adaptation of The Cenci (1935), which turned out to be a failure and, as a result, casted him into the solitude of theoretical writing. (p.136) Examining Artaud's period as a stage director gives us insight in the practical performance, derived from his ideas. The performance of the Theatre of Cruelty is a "one directional event, a system of control and coercion. " (p.159) An instrument that imposes the creators worldview on its audience as an experience. The director, as the artistic authority, has absolute control over the performance, abandoning other sources of authority such as the playwright. His inspiration works "outside of existing laws and is uniquely capable of negotiating between the material world and the invisible one." (p.144) This resulted in a shift from the use of playwrights towards production plans, limiting the influence of a given text. The production plan would function as a pretext for performance, rather than a completed work. It is therefore the artists objective to represent to 'spirit' of a text, rather than a literal representation. Practical elements in the mise-en-scène of the Theatre of Cruelty, as written down by Artaud, should consist of "abrupt changes of tone and rythms; mysterious doubles of characters; echoes and amplifications of sound; slow-motion; alternately blinding, mysterious, and shadowy lightning effects; and skewed set pieces."(p.146) The stage in the Jarry Theatre was decorated with fear invoking props, Jannarone describes the general atmosphere created on stage as "de Chirico-eerie(ness)" (p.150).

Chapter 4. The Artaudian Theatre and Islamic State media compared

In this chapter, I will make a detailed comparison between the Islamic State's media and the ideas of Antonin Artaud. In the first section, I will compare the central ideas behind IS media and Artaud's theatre. The second section consists of a comparison between the IS media/audience relation and the Artaudian audience/performance relation. Finally, in the third section, I will compare the practical performance of IS against the Theatre of Cruelty.

Chapter 4.1 Central ideas

One of the main objectives in Islamic State propaganda, and IS operations in general is- as Abu Bakr Naji's work suggests, achieving a state of savagery in (un)friendly territory. In unbalancing the powers that are, lies the opportunity of incorporating such territory in the Umma. Instrumental in this plan is the use of media to uncover the enemies 'deceptive media halo', by means of rational thought and Sharia law. Naji in this sense proposes a counter-mechanism acting against established beliefs. There are three aspects to be considered in his proposed use of media: Idealism of the rational and the Sharia law; a liberating action against opposing forces who abide by other ideals; and the utopian goal of founding the Umma. In comparison to Artaudian ideas, there are both similar as contrasting elements to be found. Traumatized by world war I, his ideas were strictly anti establishment, describing his concerns on civilization in The Theater and its Double as following: "Never before, when it is life itself that is in question, has there been so much talk of civilization and culture. And there is a curious parallel between this generalized collapse of life at the root of our present demoralization and our concern for a culture which has never been coincident with life, which in fact has been devised to tyrannize over life." (1938, p.7) Artaud denounces civilization and culture as a tyrannizing force upon the nature of life. Instead he opts for a rather primordial ideal where man is in alignment with his nature and in contact with the mysterious forces surrounding him. Artaud, thus, subscribes to universal principles on life, opposed by man's attempts at a civilized world. Naji, negates in similar fashion the existing powers, and points towards a "universal law, which is also Sharia law". (p.184) There is a striking

similarity in the notion that both Islamic State ideology and Artaudian thought refer to a system of laws which stem from divine command. However, Artaud makes a strong distinction between 'modern' monotheism and ancient naturalistic religions: "The Conquest of Mexico poses the question of colonization. It revives in a brutal and implacable way the ever active fatuousness of Europe. It permits her idea of her own superiority to be deflated. It contrasts Christianity with much older religions. It corrects the false conceptions the Occident has somehow formed concerning paganism and certain natural religions, and it underlines with burning emotion the splendor and forever immediate poetry of the old metaphysical sources on which these religions are built." (p.126) Although Artaud refers here to Christianity, paganism, especially in Islamic State ideology4, is considered sinful. Exemplary for this statement is the denunciation of the current Baghdad situation, on which al-Baghdadi comments in the form of a speech (4m18), claiming apostasy through signs of paganism and idolatry. Whereas Artaud underlines elements of 'immediate poetry' through 'metaphysical sources', such liberties of religious interpretation cannot be attributed to Islamic State ideology. We should however, in regard to this conclusion, be aware of complex differentiations within the Islamic belief such as the Sunni and Shia interpretation of the Quran and Islamic mysticism. What both Artaud and IS however try to accomplish, is to impose a state of purity of man which is reminiscent of either metaphysical source or holy scripture of bygone day. Artaud's invocation of the Plague (1938, p.15) serves as a metaphor for a necessary destructive force which should radiate throughout the theatre to liberate it's audiences from their societal clasp. A similarity can be found in al-Naji's proposed media strategy's, suggesting fear as an instrument to destabilize regions into a state of savagery (source). The end goal for such tactics in al-Naji's work is to incorporate said regions into the Umma, the utopian ideal of an all encompassing Islamic world. This leads to the important point that, although Artaudian thought rejects the idea of utopia, both ideas incorporate (the fear of) destruction as a liberating force upon dealing with societal structure. The ideas of Antonin Artaud were, in their original conception, nihilistic; as Jannarone describes the ferociousness of his ideas and writings as a "fight for

4 Many videos IS published contain exclamations of the word 'Takfir', an accusation of apostasy against the Sunni interpretation of Islam. 22 impossible absolutes"(p.1): An ideal of a life wherein all hypocrisy that supposedly comes through the act of civilization is brutally discarded in favor of a deeper, divine nature. It is with great similarity that the Islamic State adheres to the creation of a world encompassing Islamic State that negates any form of civilization other than the historical version of the Caliphate, a jihadist state that is governed by the purest form of Islam. (Saltman & Winter, 2014, p.31-32) In conclusion: Naji proposes three objectives for a media apparatus to achieve. Although the first goal - imposing the idealism of the rational and the Sharia law - is in accordance with a resembling Artaudian ideal - longing for a divine source of authority, it must be stressed that Artaud envisions this source far more primordial, naturalistic and chaotic. The second objective shows striking similarities with Artaudian ideas: The act of liberation through fear and cruelty; a necessity in the deconstruction of faulty or hostile order. The third objective, the foundation of the Umma, is in appearance contradictorily to Artaud's ideas, as any form of civilization or culture is herein considered a tyrannizing force upon life. However, it should be noted that the implementation of IS's version of utopia is, similarly to Artaud's ideals, an 'impossible absolute'.

4.2 Performance - Audience relationship

The audience in Artaudian theatre has a unique position in theatre history. Plying both traditions of the avant-garde and bourgeois movements, Artaud set out to project an awakening experience onto his audiences. The main characteristic of the relation between public and performance in his works is the hierarchical structure of the play - the use of a 'domesticated' audience - (p.82), as became theatrical tradition on behalf of the manifestation of the bourgeois social class, and an agitating rhetoric set to break the barriers between a passively spectating audience and the play at hand. The rhetoric action, inspired by predecessor Jarry, was oft working against the integrity of Artaud's performance. He thus chose to use the oxymoronic concept of 'organized anarchy' (p.85) to achieve his ideal relationship with his audience, in turn inspired by 20th century crowd theory. When considering the audience to performance relationship in Islamic State's media outlet, a few notions can be made that should be analyzed with the background of Artaudian and avant-garde theatre in mind. Firstly, the specific imagery used by the al-Furqan media division relies heavily on the war-narrative, depicting combat, brutality and victories achieved by the Islamic State. It is reminiscent of the rhetoric used in Artaudian fashion - either in light of the performance as a threat and provocation towards a supposed hostile audience, or as a liberator to those who are oppressed by societal structures, the audience that is motivated to sympathize with Islamic state or is recruited through its media outlets. As Jannarone mentions, Artaud uses (in his rhetoric) the trope of shock in his works as an instrument of punishment, rather than provocation. (p.87) In contradiction with the avant-gardes, and for example Brechtian theatre, it is not the aim to challenge the audience into political and intellectual engagement. The aim within the theatre of cruelty is "the exploration of our nervous sensibility." It is here that a schism seems to appear between Artaudian theatre and the Islamic State's media productions. Although a very similar rhetoric and shock effect is apparent within the video's of the al-Furqan media division, the video's contain as well elements that propagate activist engagement from a jihadist's perspective. It should be noted that IS video's are watched by a number of audiences (Winter, p.40), and depending on hostility or sympathy towards the Islamic State, the perceived rhetoric ushered in these productions can vary per viewer.

On the relative distance of the audience in relation to the performance, a similarity can be seen in the behavior of contemporary audience and the avant-garde audience. As the permanent installment of the bourgeois social class occurred, the theatre transmuted from a common people's institute to a commodity of refinement (Jannarone, 2012, p.77), and thus the public became a 'domesticated' observant rather than an involved audience. The avant-garde movement reacted to this phenomenon and fought audience conventions by either shock or reason (p.82). They opted to 'engage' (E.g. the Brechtian political theatre) their audience. A strong similarity can be remarked when comparing contemporary pre and post-social media audiences of the 21st century and their ability to interact with a performance. As Winter remarks (p.43) that the Internet is the modern Jihad's radical mosque, it is now possible for audiences anywhere to interact with members and proponents of the Islamic State. The Artaudian approach however embellishes ideas of bourgeois theatre in that sense that it propagates hierarchy within the audience-performance relation in order to "assert the performance's authority over the spectators" (p.84). It is in here that lies the subtle differentiation between Artaud and other avant-garde dramaturges, as Artaud does not specifically asks his audience to engage, he rather seeks to achieve "an orchestration of the feeling of breaking boundaries within a predetermined structure."(p.86) It becomes apparent that, although Artaud also seeks to break the barrier between a bourgeois audience and the play, he utilized the audience to performance relationship in a one directional, non-dialogic way. Even though Islamic State media is set out to actively stimulate engagement and deliberation, the rhetoric of the Islamic State itself can be considered to be non-dialogic as well, using Islamic scripture as a foundation for IS actions. For example, in Although The Disbelievers Dislike It, Al-Baghdadi cites Imam Malik after claiming rise of 'Rafida' (rejecters) in Baghdad: "One must not remain in a land in which Abu Bakr and 'Umar are insulted." (05:08) Through this citation, he urges the devout to relocate to lands where Abu Bakr and 'Umar are not insulted with the mandate of religious authority. Finally, we ought to discuss the subject of IS audience behavior and crowd theory. The Artaudian theatre sought to agitate, and even excite its public while their "individual intellect or will is immobilized under the overwhelming coercion of other forces." (p.116) It is in line with the inter bellum conception of crowds as described by authors as Gustave Le Bon. The basic premise of crowd theory is that individuals will act differently in a group than when alone. Crowds are "violent, contagious, and

25 extraordinarily powerful; they operate by emotions rather than reason; they respond to images and archetypes rather than arguments; they will gladly surrender themselves to higher powers and forceful figures." (p.117) The crowd strives on suggestion, rather than discussion. Canetti (1905) described the image of a crowd as a fire, being simultaneously dangerous, contagious and attractive. Parallels can be seen when applying principals of crowd theory onto the Islamic State's audiences. Looking at the lower tier distribution of Islamic State propaganda, Winter (p.17) describes a vast amount of fan boy material supportive of Islamic State. It is exemplary for the ability of IS to persuade its audience to believe in their narrative and to echo to a degree their suggestive reality. In conclusion: The audience to performance relation shows parallels on the subject of rhetoric, although the Islamic State media is as well actively looking for engagement of their audience, unlike Artaud, there is a similar trope of shock used in IS media. Furthermore, the hierarchical structure in the theatre that Artaud used to assure dominance over his audience, can be witnessed within IS media as well through manifestation of a non-dialogical rhetoric. This becomes most evident through the (many) citations of Islamic scripture used in their media outlets. Finally, there is a parallel to be seen concerning the anticipation of crowd behavior. Artaud on the one hand sought to 'immobilize' the individual intellect whilst the Islamic State in similar fashion spreads their message through social media like 'wildfire'.

4.3 The practical performance

In this section, I will make a thorough analysis of Although the Disbelievers Dislike it, and discuss whether or not the various elements are in conjunction within the Artaudian Theatre. For practical reasons, timestamps will be used to refer to specific frames or scenes within the video. I must mention beforehand that I will try to analyze the video from an included personal perspective; e.g.: someone who is not familiar with Islamic chants or who is but a layman in Islamic scripture. The motivation for this additional commentary is to recreate the reception of IS media through western eyes. For example: religious chanting for one unfamiliar with the language, can quickly become a dark and ominous chorus in the background of a disgruntling theatrical performance. As the suggestion of parallels between Artaud and Islamic State media have both been made through western media, it seems appropriate to approach the video as such.

The introduction of Although The Disbelievers Dislike It (00:00-00:50), consists of the depiction of a blue world map centered on Iraq and Syria. A bright light can be seen spreading across the globe; a metaphor for the political influence of Islamic State. The black standard, carrying the Islamic States' statement (Shahada) spreads it's light of revelation across the globe. It can be argued that the color of the world map - blue - is metaphorical for the divine, to empower the idea of a world created by a deity with the intention of an earthly paradise for its followers. The camera hovers subsequently over Rome, China and the United States. Although the implication of this scene is twofold - both a display of ambition and a call for action - the suggestion stands that Islamic State will eventually reach across the planet. This animation is hereafter repeated in text, as the Quran is cited: "Indeed, Allah Gathered the Earth for me, and thus I saw its eastern and western extents, and indeed the reign of my Ummah will reach what was gathered for me from the Earth." The male voice that can be heard in the background of the clip sings a religious chant. It is sung a cappella in tradition of Islamic artistic confinement. This segment, containing a narrative of the spreading of the Ummah, can be interpreted in terms of Artaudian theatre. Artaud, while performing in the Jarry Theatre created a sphere of 'eeriness', of mystery and the 'irréel', in order to have his audience experience a gap between the material world and a 'frightening invisible one'. His decor consisted of objects 'violently real', signifying an immaterial world at work. (Jannarone, 2012, p.150) In this sense, a decor of a world map, conquered by a prophetic force, accompanied by

Arabic chanting and religious text, is both fearful and reminiscent of higher forces at work, whilst still functioning as a depiction of the material world. The first segment thus acts as a mediating object - a piece of scenery - in between a material and invisible world.

The second scene of Although The Disbelievers Dislike It (00:51-07:35) starts with the Islamic States most iconic piece of music: Dawlat al-Islam Qamat, which translates to "My Ummah, dawn has appeared". Winter (p.4) describes this scene as a 'pseudo-documentary' which (re)tells the historical frame in which the Islamic State has been founded. The documentary is framed within a blue cadre, reminiscent of western news reports, suggesting both divinity, and objective value. The blue cadre, in theatrical tradition, is called the proscenium (Jannarone, p.90), a tool for directing the audience's attention towards an immersive experience. During this segment, the narrator gives a historical overview of the becoming of the Islamic State in the past decade -added with arguably subjective elements. Rhetorical elements can be discerned, such as the use (and repetition) of the term 'crusaders' (00:57), creating religious context for the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the term 'sons of Islam' and a reference to 'Dabiq' where they will 'struck the armies of the cross' (01:15-01:17), suggestive of conviction and cause. This scene serves multiple purposes within the narrative of the Islamic State (Winter, p.29): It offers a sense of historical relevance, victimhood and legitimization of their cause. It also serves as a pretext for the legitimacy of the leader of Islamic State, the Caliph Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. At 04:06, an iconic image (fig 2.) is used of an armed militant carrying the banner of IS, walking along the scenery of Syria and Iraq. The image, showing the en profil militant, bearded and dressed in black attire portrays an idyllic version of the caliphate warrior. The scene is visually reminiscent of the famous picture of American soldiers raising the flag on the island of Iwo Jima during WWII (fig. 3). It should be noticed that during this interlude, the proscenium used in the first half of the scene now disappears. It is as if there is a strong distinction between the past and present, to underline the factuality of that what has passed, and to emphasize the reality that the Islamic State indeed has come upon us. The scene continues with a speech of al-Baghdadi. He ushers a strong rhetoric (04:18), exclaiming apostasy over the region of Baghdad. His speech explains through Islamic reference (05:11) as to why one should not stay in a land where "Abu Bakr and 'Umar are insulted." This can refer to either the start of the Caliphate in Syria, or the justification of armed conflict, even if Muslims are involved. There is strong evidence for the latter suggestion, as the imagery following al-Baghdadi's speech shows heavy combat. The narrator

28 continues to commentate on the images, now displayed (05:16) without the use of a proscenium. This serves however, rather than an attempt at describing history, more as a threat, as he ominously says the words: "It was not befitting for the grandsons of Abu Bakr and 'Umar [..]to take the stance of a subservient and humiliated person. So they sharpened every blade, to make the rafidah taste all sorts of killing and torment." Up until 07:34, the video shows imagery of war, and more specifically the victorious moments achieved by Islamic State. This segment is ended with the narrator forecasting war "until Allah is worshipped alone." The second scene has certain elements that fit the Artaudian tradition, and some that contradict his ideas: The use of IS's rythmic, iconic hymn Dawlat al-Islam Qamat instills a sense of unsettlement on an unfamiliar audience. The narrator then, in his depiction of Islamic State's history, takes direction over its audience by feeding them a (alternate) reality. It can be argued however that the use of a fixed text, the use of playwright, is not within the strict concept of the Artaudian directors role, this element is therefore Artaudian in goal, but not as an instrument of the play. The use of a proscenium in conjunction with a 'borderless' total experience in the latter half of the scene is parallel with Artaud's use of both bourgeois theatre techniques for immersion and the avant gardistic ideal of the 'total theatre'. (Jannarone, 2012, p.122) The introduction of al-Baghdadi, especially considering his position as leader of the Islamic State, installs a strong religious directive force, akin to the Artaudian structure of hierarchy : "His director emerges as a ruthless holy man who commands the audience in the name of a "secret" goal, using the theatre as a means to a revelation that operates beyond the bounds of the theatre. (p.151) Finally, the theme of invasion, mentioned in both the reference to the war in Iraq and subsequently the rise of the Islamic State, is parallel with the works of the Jarry Theatre, where Artaud would practice his early conceptions of theatrical revelation, a state of total understanding, through the vision of 'dark forces, invasion, and catastrophe. (p.151) However, the final interpretation of the theme of invasion in Islamic State ideology, is contrary to Artaudian thought, one that is presented as a revelation itself for the true believer, rather than the ominous carnal event that Artaud found necessary to find the truth.

The third segment depicts the execution of 22 Syrian army captives. This scene is arguably the most theatrical element of the entire video Although The Disbelievers Dislike It. Starting at 07.39, it shows 22 Nusayri officers and pilots escorted by IS soldiers in the scenery of an olive grove. They walk in a singular line, one soldier escorting one prisoner, bowed

29 down with his head, as in submission to the sons of Islam. At 07:47, the camera angle switches, showing the barefooted prisoners walking besides the soldiers. This shot emphasizes a relation of power between the prisoner and his escort (- soon to be executioner). In front of the line, the infamous 'Jihadi John' walks in full black attire. His outfit is more in line with stereotypical imagery of militant Islamists5, whilst his fellow soldiers wear conventional military outfits. During frames 07:50-08:00, there are several different camera angles used, either focusing on the surroundings of the olive grove, or focusing on the faces of the young IS soldiers. It should be noted that only, up until this point, the face of 'Jihadi John' is covered. There is a certain consistency to be discovered in his appearance, attaining the reputational strength of an icon in the IS narrative (Collins, 2015). At 08:02, the line of soldiers walk past a crate filled with army style combat knives. The action slows down dramatically while the executioners pick up their weapon, the sound of sharpening knives is added to add intensity to the scene. The faces of the IS soldiers are, apart from Jihadi John's, extremely visible. There is no sense of anonymity, nor does the gaze of the camera seem to be intruding in the soldiers' privacy. They are fully aware of their role as actors and act accordingly. At 08.28, the group lines up at an open spot where the execution will commence. at 08.34, 'Jihadi John' commences to address president Obama, just as he would during his first appearance in A Message to America. This scene is carefully orchestrated, as we see a close up on the line of prisoners and executioners, depicting only Jihadi John in the center with two soldiers by his side. At their feet are three prisoners, kneeled down obediently. 'Jihadi John' ushers a rhetoric that insinuates a religious war: "By Allah's permission, we will break this final crusade." (08:46). The scene, showing three kneeled prisoners at the feet of their executioners reminds us of a holy trinity, underscoring through symbolism the narrative of an interreligious war. Listening closely during this segment shows some inconsistencies in the spoken sound quality and the audible need for a new recording that is later added to the original audio track. If anything, this means that the message spoken by Jihadi John was scripted in advance. At the 09:00 minute mark, there is a dramatic focus on the Nusayri prisoner at the feet of Jihadi John, followed by a close up of an executioner warming up his hands and knife. For 45 seconds, there is a buildup of dramatic tension, alternating shots of Nusayri officers, IS soldiers and knife play. There is little audible sound, drawing in the focus on the images at hand. At 09:45, Jihadi John gives his group the command to execute the prisoners. For then

5 A picture of Al-Zarqawi, linked to several terrorist organizations. http://www.globalresearch.ca/who-is-abu- musab-al-zarqawi/201 30 seconds, there is an audible heartbeat, heavy breathing, shots alternated with a momentary black screen. These are effective techniques to empower the dramatic tension towards the horrible act about to happen. From 09:55 until 10:24, the gruesome execution of the 22 Nusayri officers is displayed. There are different camera shots, showing either the desperation and the pain on the prisoners faces during the decapitation or a stream of blood, flowing on the ground. The execution lasts until 10:24. After the execution has conceded, the atmosphere of the scene alters dramatically. Showing the calm hands of the executioners and their bloodied knives at 10:27, with only the sound of gushing winds in the background. The camera then lowers towards the corpses of the 22 Syrian men, decapitated, with their heads on their chest facing the camera. At 10.38, the camera switches angle and focuses on the faces of the Islamic States' soldiers. There seems to be neither joy, nor resentment in the grime of their faces. All that appears, is the look of determination. The IS soldiers appear to be all of different nationalities, this is as Winter remarks, not by coincidence: " the novice executioners are deliberately given a central role, almost as if this footage featured a jihadist “homecoming”, made primarily to focus on IS’ most favored foreign fighters." (p.7) This segment of the video is concluded with the following final words: "Know that we have armies in Iraq and an army in Sham of hungry lions, whose drink is blood and play is carnage." This segment is considerably Artaudian, as it is not merely theatrical, it is also staged as an event led by an authoritative figure, using a rhetoric akin to that of the words that hallowed through the Jarry Theatre. Looking closer at the scene, starting at 07:39, we see the twenty two prisoners walking bowed down next to their executioners in an orchard. With the camera focusing on the Islamic State soldiers, there can be witnessed a duality of those who are to be dead, and those who are to be alive - conquerors and the conquered. It is reminiscent of the Artaudian disposition of the actor and the inanimate representation of the figure often found in his theatre, signifying, or even more so, mediating between the visible and invisible world that Artaud sought to uncover. In the Artaudian theatre, there is concentration of power towards the director of the stage, this is remarkably similar to the position of Jihadi John during both the progression through the orchard and the execution itself. Upon passing the block of knives, there are alterations in time, slowing and speeding up and by doing so, capturing the audience's attention in similar fashion as Artaud would use to immerse his audience in the play. (Jannarone, 2012, p.146) The execution itself, starting at 09:45, is of utmost importance within a comparison with the Theatre of Cruelty. As critical as Artaud perceived cruelty as an instrument of the 'dissolution' of hierarchy (p.123), the use of cruelty

31 itself became the hallmark of the Artaudian theatre. During the execution, the audience is no longer addressed, there is no longer the call for action or engagement. The execution serves as a punishment (p.87) rather than being provocative; the audience, no matter what alignment, is in shock, and has paid a price far greater than the effort of applause or intellectual engagement. It is a shock throughout the body, throughout the organs. The heads of the executed prisoners are placed on top of their mutilated bodies, enacting again the vision of mediation between worlds. A small stream of blood is visible at 11:18, accentuating the visceral currency in which Artaud would offer his revelation.

The fourth segment of the video (11:18) starts with a similar titular screen as the opening of Although The Disbelievers Dislike It. However, rather than an articulated message, this segment contains primarily the vocal pledges of jihadist groups swearing allegiance to the Islamic State: "To the Khalifah Ibrahim Ibn 'Awwad Ibn Ibrahim al-Qurashi al Husayni, pledging to selflessly hear and obey, in times of hardship and ease, and in times of delight and dislike. We pledge not to dispute the matter of those in Authority." The Islamic State flag hovers over the regions from which jihadist groups swear allegiance, such as local militants active in Yemen, Libya and Algeria. (12:17) The pledge of allegiance (Bah'ay) is then accepted in a second voice recording of al-Baghdadi, in which he announces the expansion of the Caliphate through these regions. (12:35) It should be noted that the different jihadist groups messages seamlessly mix within one and another, giving feed to the suggestion that the 'Bah'ay' comes in the form of a pretext, contradicting the ideas of Artaud. Although the (audible) appearance of al-Baghdadi again underlines the ominous presence of a strong religious figure within the play, the content of this segment is rather practical in nature and does not show significant parallels to be mentioned.

The fifth and final segment (13:55) displays 'Jihadi John' with the severed head of Peter Kassig, addressing Obama directly and challenging him over his geopolitical policies concerning Iraq. This segment is stylistically severely different from the proceeding segments of the video and earlier releases starring the executioner. As winter Remarks: "The fifth and final section [...] is remarkably inconsistent with the rest of the video and, indeed, all previous IS executions of Western hostages." He mentions a qualitative difference in production, making the segment seem 'disjointed' and "tacked on as an afterthought." (p.25) Even the

32 plausibility of the scene is a point of discussion, with winter mentioning (p.29) digital alteration of the imagery. A strong focal point in the clip, being mentioned by Jihadi John, and appearing in the upper right corner of the screen as text, is 'Dabiq'. This suggests that the scene takes place in Dabiq itself, creating an image for the audience of the landscape in which the prophesized battle at Dabiq will take place. Jihadi John concludes his speech with the words: "And here we are, burying the first American crusader in Dabiq. Eagerly waiting for the remainder of your armies to arrive." (15:19) The segment is concluded with a final saying by al-Baghdadi in Arabic, whilst the image of the IS soldier, carrying the Islamic State flag is repeated. The final segment, as contradicting to the rest of Although The Disbelievers Dislike It is, is even more contradictory to the Artaudian theatre. Rather than the hierarchical structure of the previously carefully orchestrated scenes, we now succumb into a scene that seems to be a personal challenge or threat, as Jihadi John changes the tone of his words drastically (Winter, 2014, p.25). The moment of cruelty, the beheading of Peter Kassig, is absent and obfuscated by post-editing in the production. There aren't elements of immersion to be considered, and even Jihadi John, whom moments ago had lead a progression into a climax of theatrical tension, has done away with his prowess as an authoritative figure. The powerful image of he who holds secret knowledge has now been transformed into an image of victimhood and suffering; an individual that operates outside the conceptual structures of the Theatre of Cruelty. In conclusion of this analysis, the question remains whether or not the practical performance of Although The Disbelievers Dislike It compares to the Artaudian performance. Looking at the different segments, it is clear that the introductory segment fits the Artaudian tradition. The second segment shows strong resemblance, even though the theme of invasion is presented as a revelation by IS, rather than a catalyst for theatrical revelation. It can be argued that this notion is not per se outside of Artaudian tradition as the actual catalyst for theatrical revelation is presented in segment three, making the theme of invasion rather an element of the Islamic State narrative. The third segment, the centerpiece, is completely befitting of Artaudian tradition, as it shows surprising parallels with the actual Theatre of Cruelty: The actors and their doubles, the biblical scenery of the orchard, an authoritarian leader and an incredibly cruel beheading that acts as a catalyst for theatrical revelation. The forth segment displays no particular elements parallel to the Theatre of Cruelty, but then again, also serves little dramatic purpose. Rather it affirms the narrative of the expanding caliphate. The fifth and final segment is a stylistic break from the previous segments and

33 shows little resemblance to the Theatre of Cruelty. Concentrating on the first three segments, it shows that there are evident and strong parallels between the IS video and the Artaudian theatre. Although the final two segments are in that sense far less comparable to the Threatre of Cruelty, considering their respective importance in the overall narrative of the video, they do not oppose the argument that Although The Disbelievers Dislike It is strongly parallel to Artaud's visions.

Chapter 5. Conclusion

In this thesis, it has been my goal to answer the question: Is Islamic State media carrying out the theatre of Antonin Artaud: the Theatre of Cruelty? To formulate a thoroughly substantiated answer, I have divided my research into three different domains to search for matching and conflicting characteristics: the idea, the audience and the performance behind both 'theatrical' manifestations. In chapter 2, I have made an effort to summarize the most striking characteristics of these respective domains in Islamic State media, using the work of Abu Bakr al-Naji and the research done by the Quilliam Institute. In chapter 3, I used the work of Kimberly Jannarone, who made an extraordinary effort to create a historically accurate interpretation of Artaud's ideas, to describe in detail the Theatre of Cruelty. In chapter 4, I was then able to compare those characteristics in each domain to see whether or not there would be parallels between the theatre of the Islamic State, and the theatre of Antonin Artaud. As such, I have come to the following conclusions: 1. Abu Bakr al-Naji proposes three ideas behind the use of Jihadist media: To spread an idealism of rational and Sharia law, to overcome societal structures through the power of fear and violence and to incorporate destabilized regions into the 'Ummah'. Similarly to al- Naji, Artaud proposes as main ideas behind the Theatre of Cruelty: a search and longing for a divine source of authority, to overthrow the clasp of a 'manmade' culture through the use of shock and violence, and finally, to live in a true state of nature. Although the Ummah is described as the Jihadist utopia, it is as much as an impossible absolute as Artaud's strict visions for humanity's true ideal life. Therefore I must conclude that the ideas behind the Theatre of Cruelty and the Islamic State are indeed comparable. 2. The audience to performance relationship of the Islamic State's media is characterized through the aspects of: a non dialogical rhetoric, mandated by the use of Islamic scripture, which is full of cruel imagery to shock and engage the audience. The Theatre of Cruelty devised similar principals of audience to performance relationships to deliver a punishing, cruel and liberating experience for its spectator. The perception of the audience as a crowd is a fundamental element of the Theatre of Cruelty, and shows great parallel to the Jihadist use of social media, spreading their ideas through an online community as if it were a crowd. A comparison between the audience to performance relation in the Islamic State media and the Theatre of Cruelty is therefore legitimate.

3. The practical performance, as studied through the case of Although The Disbelievers Dislike It, shows strong similarities with practical elements in - and the actual performance of the Theatre of Cruelty.

In accordance to the results of each independent research question proposed in this thesis; observing significant parallels between the conceptual theatre of Antonin Artaud, and the cruel videos of the Islamic State, I conclude that: 4. The Islamic State's media productions are carrying out Artaud's Theatre of Cruelty.

Hugh Prysor-Jones stated in Chronicles Magazine (2014) that the Islamic State has 'read the book' on Artaud, describing the Islamic State productions as being inspired by Artaud's 'assault of the senses.' However, evidence of a causal relation between the two doesn't exist, even though it is evident that IS is carrying out the Theatre of Cruelty. A possible explanation is that we ought not to look at the source material of Artaud as the common denominator, but rather the human instinct in relation to the theatrical presentation of mortal violence. To 'shock' people so deeply that it is felt corporal, a direct threat to the well being of man - and even a threat to the moral righteousness of one's own identity - is a highly effective instrument to break the status quo of civility and culture. It is here that the diligence of the Theatre of Cruelty is unveiled as an unfortunate instrument for a totalitarian ideal.

In this bachelor's thesis, I made an effort to bring a nuanced and in depth analysis on one particularly small subject of an unfortunately growing, ever more complex issue. It is my sincere hope that through this effort I have succeeded in adding a minor insight for all interested in the field of media, culture and the subject of the Islamic State.

Bibliography

Books

Artaud, A. (1938). The Theater and its Doubles. Retrieved from: http://72.52.202.216/~fenderse/theatre.htm

Jannarone, K. (2012). Artaud and his Doubles. Michigan: University of Michigan Press

Naji, A.B. (2004). The Management of Savagery. Harvard: John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies.

Articles

Hashim, A. S. (2014). The Islamic State: From al-Qaeda Affiliate to Caliphate. Middle East Policy, 21: 69–83. doi: 10.1111/mepo.12096

Winter C. (2014). Detailed Analysis of Islamic State Propaganda Video: Although the Disbelievers Dislike It.

Hussain G. & Saltman E.R. (2014). Jihad Trending: A comprehensive Analysis of Online Extremism and How to Counter it.

Winter C. (2015). The virtual 'Caliphate': Understanding Islamic State's Propaganda Strategy

Saltman E.M. & Winter C. (2014). Islamic State: The changing Face of Modern Jihadism

Online Sources:

Prysor-Jones, H. (2014). Islamic State and the Theater of Jihad. Retrieved from: http://www.chroniclesmagazine.org/2014/November/38/11/magazine/article/10825791

Sakurai, J. (2014). New Theater of Cruelty: Beheadings Demand Civilization's Response. Retrieved from: http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/new-theater-cruelty- beheadings-demand-civilization%E2%80%99s-response

Ibrahim, R. (2014). Beheading Infidels: How Allah 'Heals the Hearts of Believers'. Retrieved from: http://www.raymondibrahim.com/islam/beheading-infidels-how- allah-heals-the-hearts-of-believers/

The Islamic State. (2014). Although The Disbelievers Dislike It. Retrieved from: http://www.clarionproject.org/news/gruesome-islamic-state-video- announces-death-peter-kassig