The Influence of Dimensions of Organisational Culture on The

con d E om n ic a s s Mugunzva, Bus Eco J 2016, 7:2 J

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i Business and Economics

s DOI: 10.4172/2151-6219.1000215

l B ISSN: 2151-6219 Journal

Research Article Open Access The Influence of Dimensions of Organisational Culture on the Management of Heritage Sites as Tourism Products in Zimbabwe Mugunzva E* The School of Business and Economics Atlantic International University Honolulu, Hawaii, USA

Abstract This study focused on the influence of culture on the management of heritage sites in Zimbabwe. The research was motivated by the fact that there was ineffective alignment and integration of heritage and cultural resources into mainstream tourism. The value and impact of heritage tourism has not been fully realised, particularly the economic potential of heritage and cultural tourism products. Therefore, using a qualitative research methodology this study sought to explore the extent to which culture affects performance in NMMZ’s effort to transform heritage sites into vibrant tourism products. The objectives of the research were to examine Zimbabwe’s heritage, its meaning and relevance in tourism and to explore the potential of heritage sites in Zimbabwe as ‘world class’ tourist destinations. The other objectives were to examine the influence of ownership and profit orientation on services provided at heritage sites in Zimbabwe and to assess the influence of profit orientation on marketing of heritage sites as tourism products. The study also sought to review the management of heritage sites in other countries and draw lessons for Zimbabwe, to examine the gaps in the management of heritage sites in Zimbabwe and to propose strategies for packaging heritage sites in Zimbabwe as tourism products. This study showed that NMMZ is facing challenges in the marketing of heritage sites. There is also the issue of financial inadequacy as the SOE is failing to provide the required services at the sites. The research recommended that there is need to change the organisational culture, the NMMZ should embrace the diversity and corporate governance to improve the services. The paper also recommended the need to improve marketing strategies; the NMMZ should establish a marketing department. Private Public Partnerships and strategic alliances are crucial and these are the financing mechanisms that can be adopted to address problems of inadequate resources.

Keywords: Heritage resources culture; Zimbabwe; Tourism The Problem and Its Context List of Acronyms: AFRICOM: Africa Council of Museums; AIDS: Introduction Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome; BBC: British Broadcasting In Africa, and probably the world over, cultural and natural Corporation; BOT: Build, Operate and Transfer; CI: Cultural heritage resources have primarily been conserved and packaged as a Imagination; CNN: Cable News Network; DFBOT: Design, Finance, tourist product for their tangible values, those values that could easily Build, Operate And Transfer; DFO: Design, Finance and Operate; DT: be captured on camera and described on the tourism market. Often, Design and Transfer; GDP: Gross Domestic Product; GPOBA: Global this is done without consideration for the intangible values attached to Partnership for Output Based Aid; GZ: Great Zimbabwe; HIV: Human such resources by the native communities that have lived side by side Immuno Virus; ICCROM: International Centre for the Study of the with them and have preserved them for many centuries [1]. However, Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property; ICTs: Information the performance of heritage sites as tourism products is dependent Communication Technology; KHICC: Korea Heavy Industries and on effective management by the responsible state owned enterprises Construction Corporation; KT&G: Korea Tobacco and Ginseng (SOEs). The National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe Corporation; KT: Korea Telecom; MRDC: Masvingo Rural District (NMMZ) is the SOE that is responsible for the management of heritage Council; MRDPPCH: Ministry of Rural Development, Preservation sites in Zimbabwe. and Promotion of Cultural Heritage; NGOs: Non Governmental The NMMZ is Zimbabwe’s premier heritage organization Organizations; NMMZ: National Museums and Monuments of established under an Act of Parliament; The National Museums and Zimbabwe; OB: Organisational Behaviour; POSCO: Pohang Iron and Monuments Act [Chapter 25:11]. NMMZ is a parastatal funded through Steel Corporation; PPPs: Private Public Partnerships; PSIP: Public grant by the central government and falling under the Ministry of Sector Investment Programme; RBM: Results Based Management; RBZ: Rural Development, Preservation and Promotion of Cultural Heritage. Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe; SA: South Africa; SADC: Southern Africa The NMMZ intends to fulfil its national and international roles by Development Corporation; SAPs: Structural Adjustment Programmes; SOEs: State Owned Enterprises; SWOT: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats; TQM: Total Quality Management; TTLs: *Corresponding author: Mugunzva E, The School of Business and Economics, Atlantic International University, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, Tel: 18009930066; E-mail: Tribal Trust Lands; U.S: United States; UN: United Nations; UNDP: [email protected] United Nations Development Programme; UNSCO: United Nations Received March 24, 2016; Accepted June 03, 2016; Published June 13, 2016 Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation; UNWTO: United Citation: Mugunzva E (2016) The Influence of Dimensions of Organisational Nations World Trade Organisation; WTO: World Trade Organisation; Culture on the Management of Heritage Sites as Tourism Products in Zimbabwe. ZIM-ASSET: Zimbabwe Agenda for Socio-economic Transformation; Bus Eco J 7: 215. doi:10.4172/2151-6219.1000215 ZIMSTATS: Zimbabwe Statistical Agency; ZITF: Zimbabwe Copyright: © 2016 Mugunzva E. This is an open-access article distributed under International Trade Fare; ZNA: Zimbabwe National Army; ZTA: the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and Zimbabwe Tourism Authority source are credited.

Bus Eco J ISSN: 2151-6219 BEJ, an open access journal Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000215 Citation: Mugunzva E (2016) The Influence of Dimensions of Organisational Culture on the Management of Heritage Sites as Tourism Products in Zimbabwe. Bus Eco J 7: 215. doi:10.4172/2151-6219.1000215

Page 2 of 45 working in partnership with public, private and non-governmental Woetzel [6] and Schlettwein [7] seem to show that despite the injection sectors. These partnerships strengthen the organization and ensure of financial resources in SOEs, the institutions were not efficient and more efficient and effective delivery of services. effective as indicated by low output growth and low contributions to government revenue. The funding of the NMMZ is principally in the form of Recurrent and Capital Public Sector Investment Programme (PSIP). The Burman and Evans believe that the lack of effectiveness in organisation generates its own resources principally from the entrance performance in the SOEs is rooted in the ‘culture’ in these government fees to sites and Museums. Further resources are generated through owned and controlled organisations. Islam and Michael [8] support this the sale of publications, consultancy fees, filming, accommodation and view and argue that SOEs have been regarded as organisations which auditorium hire and investments. Donors also fund special projects, belong to nobody, with no defined structures and responsibilities and which make contribute significantly towards the achievement of the which did not recognize the importance of effective performance. national objectives. The donors include The Government of France, Ms Schein [9] defines organisational culture as a pattern of shared Zimbabwe, The Belt Trust, New Zealand Aid and the Government of basic assumptions, values and beliefs that help individuals understand Germany, NMMZ is open to strategic alliances. organisational functioning and thus provide them with norms for However, it seems as if Zimbabwe has limitations in terms of behaviours in the organisation. Ravasi and Schultz [10] also state that packaging heritage sites as tourism products and one could put the organizational culture is a set of shared mental assumptions that guide blame on the institution that is responsible for managing the sites. interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate Additionally, effective performance has been a thorn in the flesh for behaviour for various situations. many countries around the world and organisational culture seems to This study focused on NMMZ, a SOE believed to be be derailing sound performance and customer satisfaction in the SOEs underperforming, with inadequacies in performance and a heavy [2]. Burman and Evans believed that lack of effectiveness in the SOEs dependence on the fiscus. Along similar lines, Nyoni [5] described the could be inherent in their organisational culture. This study aims to SOEs as the missing link in the country’s economic turnaround as they explore the extent to which organisational cultural factors like time have become perennial loss makers. Many parastatals have continued orientation, profit orientation, and ownership orientation influences to impose a significant burden on the fiscus, a position which has performance of NMMZ, whose theme is to “built heritage promoting undermined the quick turnaround of the economy [11]. According cultural tourism in its diversity”. to RBZ [11], organisational culture could be blamed for poor supply This chapter presents the background to the problem, statement of chain performance in SOEs. The Zimbabwe Independent reported that the problem, research objectives, and research questions. Focus is also delays (time orientation) within the public procurement system are on significance of the study, delimitation of the study, theoretical and slowing down various public entity projects. Additionally, Mafumbe conceptual frameworks, research limitations, research methodology [12] pointed out that four SOEs made a combined loss of $40.9 million and definition of key terms. during the first six months to June 2010. This is substantial especially for a country with an annual GDP averaging $10 billion. It would appear Background to the problem that SOEs have and continue to put up a disappointing performance According to McKercher and Du Cross [3], the term heritage in terms of efficiency, and profitability to support and facilitate the tourism is subject to much confusion and varied interpretation. expansion of economic growth. Heritage tourism is often viewed as being synonymous with cultural In light of the preceding background, this study examined the tourism, historical tourism, arts tourism, nature tourism or attractions- influence of organisational cultural dimensions on the performance related tourism. A review of the literature on heritage tourism suggests of heritage sites in Zimbabwe as tourism products. Zimbabwe has that a large proportion of the studies focus on tangible or built heritage, five world heritage sites, among the many heritage sites, which are for example historic sites, public arts, monuments, museums, natural important. The effective management of the sites could boost tourism attractions, and archaeological sites [1,3,4]. In Zimbabwe, a SOE revenue inflows. (NMMZ) is responsible for heritage tourism sites in Zimbabwe. SOEs are organisations, which are wholly owned by the government. They are Statement of the problem the economic enablers which delivers the requisite economic and social The culture in most of the heritage sites was that they receive infrastructure and services by that drives the country’s socio-economic budgets from government for the conservation of the sites. This has development which ultimately results in the improved general welfare become unsustainable as governments no longer have funds to look of all citizens [5]. The SOEs have a potential to contribute about 40% of after these monuments and management is now forced to thick the Zimbabwe’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) hence the importance outside the box on ways to survive. Tourism has become the seemingly in the maximisation of their performance [5]. easy option for them but there is a lot to be done to make these sites attractive to tourists. There is need to transform them from the In most developing countries, the government through SOEs existing culture of dependency to a business orientation of innovation plays an active role in the provision of goods and services. However, and marketability. It seems as if there is ineffective alignment and Rondinelli points out that, in many countries, there are doubts about integration of heritage and cultural resources into mainstream tourism the ability of SOEs to contribute to development. There is evidence that and a recurring challenge is that heritage and cultural tourism products many public enterprises are not enhancing SC performance and they are underrepresented in marketing as tourist destinations. The value are loss-makers rather than revenue generators. For instance, In China, and impact of heritage tourism has not been fully realised, particularly the government committed $11 billion to SOEs during the 1990s but the economic potential of heritage and cultural tourism products. output grew by less than 3% [6]. Schlettwein [7] highlighted that, in Therefore, using a qualitative research methodology this study sought Namibia, SOEs contribute 0.7% to government revenue against an to explore the extent to which culture affects performance in NMMZ’s injection equal to 9% of total government expenditure. Findings by effort to transform heritage sites into vibrant tourism products.

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Research objectives that attempts to explain any influence of one construct over the other. Hence, this study attempted to explore the influence of dimensions The main objective of the study was to explore the influence of organisational culture on supply chain performance in NMMZ. In of dimensions of organisational culture like ownership and profit doing so, it is envisaged that there would be contribution to the theory orientation on the performance of heritage sites as tourism products in as well as practice. Zimbabwe. The specific objectives were: Delimitation of the study • To examine Zimbabwe’s heritage, its meaning and relevance in tourism; This study focused on the influence of dimensions of organisational culture like profit orientation, time orientation and ownership • To explore the potential of heritage sites in Zimbabwe as ‘world orientation on the performance of NMMZ. The researcher collected class’ tourist destinations; information from the management and employees, and clients (visitors • To examine the influence of ownership and profit orientation to heritage sites) of NMMZ. The researcher used purposive sampling on services provided at heritage sites in Zimbabwe; to select participants believed to be good prospects for required data. • To assess the influence of profit orientation on marketing of Theoretical and conceptual frameworks heritage sites as tourism products; Theoretical frameworks: A theoretical framework is a researcher’s • To review the management of heritage sites in other countries plan or map. When one wants to travel to a destination he or she is not and draw lessons for Zimbabwe; familiar with, there is a need to seek as much knowledge is possible about the area and bets travel option. There is the use of ‘previous • To examine the gaps in the management of heritage sites in travellers’ experiences and documented accounts of their journeys. Zimbabwe; and Through interacting with seasoned and previous travellers, one also • To propose strategies for packaging heritage sites in Zimbabwe obtains the tips on how to survive in the unfamiliar territory. Just as tourism products. like a traveller, a researcher would be on a journey to discover new knowledge. However, the area of study would have been subjected to Research questions research before and the gurus would have documented their findings • What is Zimbabwe’s heritage, its meaning and relevance in in the form of theories. A new researcher must examine these theories tourism? so that he or she gains adequate knowledge about the subject area. Consideration of the relevant theories helps one to address simple • What is the potential of heritage sites in Zimbabwe as ‘world research questions and indentify the knowledge gap that needs class’ tourist destinations? exploration [13]. • To what extent does ownership orientation have an impact on A theory is a statement expressing the relationship between two services provided at heritage sites in Zimbabwe? or more variables and that statement is held to be universally true. • What is the influence of profit orientation on marketing of In addition, a theory aims to explain phenomena thereby enhancing heritage sites as tourism products? people’s understanding of issues under observation [14]. • How are other countries managing to derive maximum benefits Cultural theory: A theory that seems to offer the most precise from their heritage sites? explanation of the role and dynamics of culture in organisations is the cultural theory. In the context of organisations, the variants of culture • What challenges are faced in the management of heritage sites theory are corporate culture and organizational culture theories. It is as tourism products in Zimbabwe? important to note that corporate and organisational cultures theories • What are the possible strategies for packaging heritage sites in are basically ‘off-shoots’ of the cultural theory which hails from the Zimbabwe as tourism products? discipline of anthropology. The point of departure in arguing for a theory of culture, organizational culture or corporate culture is to Significance of the study realize that the organisational culture is developed from the forces In Zimbabwe, there seems to be little research on organizational around the organisational environment. Every organisation considers culture and its influence on supply chain performance in SOEs, the internal and external environmental issues associated with its especially the NMMZ. This study aimed to examine the influence cultural processes. However, employees are the immediate source of ownership and profit orientation on the management of heritage sites outside influence on organisational culture. This is because of their as tourism products by the NMMZ. It seems as if the influence of various influences based on family, community, nation, church or an organisational culture on supply chain performance in the NMMZ has educational system that moulds their behaviour and attitudes. Upon never been explored. Accordingly, this research sought to contribute joining the organisation, they bring in these influences, which will then to the body of knowledge by analysing whether organisational culture be difficult to separate from the organisational culture [15]. influences the performance of supply chain in SOEs in Zimbabwe. According to Quy [15], when individuals join organisations they More so, while studies relating to organisational culture has being do not leave behind their norms and values but rather carry them going on for about sixty years, supply chain management is relatively as personal baggage to the new organisations. It does not matter new as a discipline and studies that relate to both organisational what level the employees are at in the organisation, their work ethics culture and supply chain management are limited to the impact of will always be a function of family or societal values that they grew organisational on supply chain integration. Some dimensions of up in. Unfortunately, these values may not always be in consonance organisational culture seem to resonate with some metrics of supply with those of the organisation. Sometimes they actually clash which chain performance. However, there seems to be a gap in the theory results in the organisation not getting as much value of service from

Page 4 of 45 the worker as would have been the situation if both the individual distinctive but interlocking elements present in all organizations to and corporate goals were in synchrony [16]. Meglino et al, pointed which attention needed to be paid if organizational performance was out that cultural theory presumes that positive outcomes result when contemplated. Of the elements identified, four elements – skills, style, peoples' values are congruent with those of others in the organisation. staff and shared values i.e. culture, applied directly to the human side of Above all, the significance of the corporate culture theory lies in that the enterprise, while the rest, structure, superodinate goals and strategy it ‘compels’ people to assess the extent to which the norms and values were dependant on human expertise for their creation, sustenance in an organisation are reinforcing each other to achieve organisational and maintenance. The hypothesis is that it is necessary to concentrate goals. More importantly, with reference to SOEs there are varieties on getting the human conditions right as a prerequisite for effective either of cultures to consider which have potential to impact positively strategy, direction and operations. The authors identified shared values or negatively on the performance of SOEs. Some of the many or culture as the key component to an organisation’s success. cultural layers worthy of consideration are individual culture, family Peters and Waterman [17] further observed that excellent culture, professional culture, church culture, generation culture and companies are among the most financially sound and the value others. Depending on how compatible each of these sub-cultures are set integrate the notions of economic health. They also noted that compatible with organizational culture; these may make or unmake an companies whose goals were purely financial performed dismally organization [8]. benchmarked against those companies that had broader sets of values. The ‘7 S’ Framework: Peters and Waterman [17] recognise the They quoted Andrew Pettigrew’s, a renowned British professor of commitment and excellence of staff as a key element to the success or strategy, intimations on the process of shaping culture as the prime failure of an organization. They summarized the main characteristics of management role. Thy argued that “The leader not only creates the excellent organisations as follows: rational and tangible aspects of organizations, such as structure and technology, but also is the creator of symbols, ideologies, language, • Bias for Action: Do it, Fix it, Try it; beliefs, rituals and myths” [17]. Finally, they advocated for Schein’s • Closeness to the Customer: Listen intently and regularly to thinking on the components of culture and Trompenaars’ layers of customer needs and provide quality, service and reliability in culture. However, an organization can only achieve profitability and response; the resultant return on shareholders’ investment by implementing an appropriate culture from an array of cultures which are not exhaustive: • Autonomy and Entrepreneurship: Innovation and risk taking as an expected way of doing things, than conformity and • Value Based Culture; conservatism.; • Competitive Culture; • Productivity through People: Employees are seen as the source • Competitive Culture; of quality and productivity; • Productive Culture; and • Hands on – Value Driven: The basic philosophy of the organization is well defined and articulated; • Learning Culture; • Stick to the Knitting: Stay close to what the organisation can Conner examines linkages between culture, strategy and do well; performance then considers the present state of certain aspects of organizational change theory. He further states that culture is not • Simple Form, Lean Staff: Structural arrangements and systems just a theoretical issue. If a company wants to maximize its ability are simple with small directorial staff; and to attain its strategic objectives, it must understand if the prevailing • Simultaneous loose-tight Properties: Centralised control of culture supports and drives the actions necessary to achieve its strategic values, but operational decentralization and autonomy. goals. Culture may be about ‘soft’ subjects like emotion, organizational history and collective beliefs, which inevitably shape behaviour in The depiction of excellence was birthed by Pascale and Athos in the real world. Inevitably, behaviours are open to interpretation and their book ‘The Art of Japanese Management’ and later coined by misinterpretation. Culture therefore brings about an understanding Peters and Waterman as the Excellence View, culminated in the 7-S of how behaviour is created, embedded, developed, manipulated, model. The 7-S model is shown in Figure 1. The model identified seven managed and changed. Schein [9] warned that if organizations do not become conscious of the cultures in which they are embedded, “those cultures will manage them”. Conceptual framework: Organisational culture seems to influence performance of an organisation and the extent of customer satisfaction [8,15,18]. Dimensions of organisational culture include profit and ownership orientation, flexibility, quality, cost, and decision-making. Delivery can be measured in terms of lead and cycle time. Flexibility can be measured in ability to respond to different needs of clients. Quality may be assessed in terms of functionality, conformance, and reliability. Finally, decision-making can be measured in terms of the

time taken to make decisions and influence of decisions on supply chain performance. This study explored the relationship between dimensions of organisational culture and supply chain performance metrics of NMMZ. Organisational cultural variables are the independent variables Figure 1: The7-S Model. Source: Peters and Waterman [17]. Figure 1: The7-S Model. Source: Peters and Waterman [17]. while supply chain performance metrics and client satisfaction are

Page 5 of 45 the dependent variables. There are also intervening variables like the researcher intends to investigate. The population for this study was marketing, site maintenance, procurement, logistics management, made up of management, employees and clients in the NMMZ and and coordination and collaboration with stakeholders. In addition, academics. organisational culture can influence service delivery, flexibility of Sampling design: A sampling design is a definite plan for obtaining process, and may lead to reduction costs [8]. Figure 2 illustrates the a representation from a given population [23]. It is a procedure used by conceptual framework. the researcher to select items for the sample and it shows the number of Research methodology items to be included in the sample. However, the researcher can choose a sample design from a wider range of techniques. Kothari [24] stated Research philosophy: Research philosophy refers to the structure that the researcher needs to select and prepare a sample design that is of an enquiry undertaken to ensure that the evidence collected reliable and appropriate for the study. In order to select the appropriate enables the researcher to answer study questions or test hypotheses as sampling design for the study, the researcher needs to understand the unambiguously as possible. According to Saunders et al, [19], research different sampling strategies available. There are a number of sampling methodology is based on three main approaches, which are positivism, methods but they are categorised into two groups; probability sampling interpretive approach, and critical social science. Positivism is an and non-probability sampling [24]. In probability sampling, the epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods elements in the population have some known chance or probability of natural sciences to the study of social reality. Interpretivism shares of being selected as sample subjects. The sampling techniques under the view that the subject matter of business and social sciences are probability sampling include simple random sampling, stratified fundamentally different form the natural sciences, requiring a different random sampling and cluster sampling. Probability sampling designs logic of research procedure reflecting the distinctiveness of humans are used when the representativeness of the sample is of importance in as against natural order [19]. The researcher sought to understand the interest of a wider generalisability and when time or other factors the influence of organizational culture variables on the performance rather than generalisability become critical, non-probability sampling of heritage sites as tourism products in Zimbabwe and generate new is generally preferred [25]. In addition, there is selection of units to knowledge. This is in line with the positivist philosophy that the search reflect particular features of the group within the population. As a for knowledge is continuous [13]. In addition, people have subjective matter of fact, the sample may not be mathematically proportional views on organizational cultural variables and their perceptions of because chances of selection for each element will be unknown. The customer satisfaction may differ and this is in line with interpretive researcher uses the characteristics of the population as a basis for (qualitative) approach. Therefore, this study was guided by both the selection [25] and shall use a combination of sampling strategies. positivist and interpretive thinking, through there is bias towards Judgmental sampling was used to select participants and heritage sites. qualitative research. The researcher visited National Heroes Acre, Ngomakurira Mountains, Research design: This study was a case of NMMZ and how it is Domboshawa Caves, Great Zimbabwe and Naletale Ruins. Tourists attempting to package heritage sites as tourism products. A case study who visit heritage site were also interviewed. Table 1 shows the sample allowed for a detailed investigation to be conducted. A case study is size. an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon Research instruments: Research instruments are means for within its real-life context [20]. Rawnsley [21] define a case study as collecting data from participants. The researcher used interviews and a comprehensive research strategy that ties together several data observation research instruments. Preece refers to personal interviews gathering measures. It may concentrate on individuals, group or a as in-depth interviews where the interviewer interacts with an community and at the same time employing other data collection interviewee and encourages him/her to freely express his/her thoughts methods such as participant observation, secondary data or in-depth on the subject in question. The rationale of using interviews was based interviews. A case study also aims to understand social phenomena on the premise that respondents were able to provide detailed answers. within a single or small number of naturally occurring settings. The Interviews were held with the executive director, regional directors and purpose may be to provide description through a detailed example or staff at heritage sites. The interviewer also observed non-verbal signals to generate or test particular theories. In general, case studies are the like body movements that interviewees could use to emphasize their preferred strategy when ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control over the events, and when focus is on a responses. Observations of the infrastructure at the heritage sites were contemporary phenomenon within some real experience [20]. also made. Target population: Population is the exhaustive list of all the Data analysis and presentation procedure: Analysis of data is elements or items or objects under study or investigation. Sekaran [22] vital in any research because it helps one to make conclusions. Data defined a population as a group of people, or things of interest that analysis was conducted through use of content analysis. According to

INDEPENDENTVARIABLES INTERVENINGVARIABLES (organisationalculturalvariables(profit,ti (marketing,sitemaintenance,procureme DEPENDENTVARIABLES meandownershiporientation) nt,logisticsmanagement,andcollaborati (flexibility,responsivenesstothen

onwithstakeholders) eedsofcustomers,profitability,co nvenience)

Figure 2: CoFigurence 2:p tConceptualual fra frameme work. work.

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Category of Participants Sample Size Employees at Five Heritage Sites 5 NMMZ Officials at Head and Regional Offices (Harare, Masvingo, Gweru and Bulawayo) 8 Tourists at Four World Heritage Sites 25 Total 38 Table 1: Sample Size.

Ritchie and Lewis [25], content analysis condenses data into categories World heritage sites: A world heritage site is an area of great value or themes. to human kind. Definition of key terms Chapter summary Heritage tourism: It is a broad field of specialty travel, based on This chapter presented the problem and its setting. Focus was on nostalgia for the past and the desire to experience diverse cultural the background to the problem, statement of the problem, research landscapes and forms. It includes travel to festivals and other cultural objectives, and research questions. Focus was also on significance events, visit to sites and monuments, travel to study nature, folklore of the study, delimitation of the study, theoretical and conceptual or art or pilgrimages. The word ‘heritage’ in its broader meaning is frameworks, research limitations, research methodology and definition generally associated with the word ‘inheritance’, that is, something of key terms. The next chapter presents a review of literature on the transferred from one generation to another. Owing to its role as a concept of organisational culture and importance of cultural change carrier of historical values from the past, heritage is viewed as part in the SOEs. of the cultural tradition of a society. The concept of ‘tourism’, on the other hand, is really a form of modern consciousness. In this study, The Concept of Organizational Culture both heritage and cultural tourism are used in combination and/or Introduction interchangeably. This chapter reviews literature on the concept of organisational Monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture culture and its influence on performance of organisations. The chapter and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, also reviews empirical literature on the importance of cultural change inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are in SOEs, with examples being drawn from Asian and African countries. of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; The Definition and Discussion on organisational culture National heritage site: A national heritage site has a value that Schein defines organisational culture as a pattern of shared basic has been registered by a governmental agency as being of national assumptions, values and beliefs that help individuals understand importance to the cultural heritage or history of that country. Usually organisational functioning and thus provide them with norms for such sites are listed in a heritage register that is open to the public, behaviours in the organisation. A number of definitions have been and many are actively advertised by national visitor bureaus as tourist drawn to describe culture. Meek stated that the various theories attractions. fall into one of two groups. In one, culture is seen as something an organization possesses, ‘human relations theorists regard culture as Organisational culture: Schein defines organizational culture something which an organization has and which can be manipulated as a pattern of shared basic assumptions, values and beliefs that help to serve the ends of management’. In the other, culture is embedded individuals understand organizational functioning and thus provide in the organisation’s history and structural relationships, ‘culture is them with norms for behaviours in the organization. Zhang [18] view something an organization is’. organizational culture as the collective behaviour of humans that are part of an organization, it is also formed by the organization values, Zhang [18] view organisational culture as the collective behaviour visions, norms, working language, systems, and symbols, it includes of humans that are part of an organisation, it is also formed by the beliefs and habits. It is also the pattern of such collective behaviours organisation values, visions, norms, working language, systems, and and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as symbols, it includes beliefs and habits. Organisational culture is also a way of perceiving, and even thinking and feeling. Organizational the pattern of such collective behaviours and assumptions that are culture affects the way people and groups interact with each other, with taught to new organisational members as a way of perceiving, and even clients, and with stakeholders. Ravasi and Schultz [26] also state that thinking and feeling. Organisational culture affects the way people and organizational culture is a set of shared mental assumptions that guide groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders. interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate Ravasi and Schultz [10] also state that organisational culture is a set behaviour for various situations. of shared mental assumptions that guide interpretation and action in organisations by defining appropriate behaviour for various situations. Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and Along similar lines, Handy stated that the success and downfalls of areas including archaeological sites that are of outstanding universal business organisations were mainly based on how they manage the value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological four types of cultures namely, power, role task and the person. Handy point of view. discussed how organisations need to select, develop and reward their people, structure and design their work, resolve political conflicts, lay State owned enterprises: State Owned Enterprises are down guidelines for their managers and to plan for the future. organisations which are wholly owned by the government. SOEs were established to deliver the requisite economic and social infrastructure Cartwright and Cooper [28] have suggested that culture is to a and services [27]. company what personality is to a person, which should be an indication

Page 7 of 45 of how difficult it is to change. However, Cartwright and Cooper seem find an organisation made up of related individuals in Zimbabwe and to disregard the fact that personalities are not static but versatile and some work related issues can be discussed during family gathering and adaptable. Hofstede [29] perspective asserts the deeply held values of important decisions can be made there [33]. The situation seems to be organization members are the very centre of the organisation’s culture. different from European countries where there are no strong extended Like Cartwright and Cooper, this presupposes that values will be family ties and kinship identities. Here, formal organisational systems difficult to change and even that, for some organization members, these largely influence the way in which institutions operate [31]. values will be so deeply held they will not be possible to change at all, It is worth noting that the culture of an organisation may not be ever. Contrary to Hofstede’s [29] perspective, Anthony [30] states that separated form from the social environment. This is because of the fact cultures change and that a persistent culture must demonstrate adaptive that the culture of an organisation is borrowed from and bound up capabilities to significant changes in the environment. He asserts that with larger cultural processes associated with the organisation’s macro cultures are both binding and integrative as far as their inhabitants are environment. Every organisation expresses aspects of the national, concerned and open and adaptive to their surroundings. regional, industrial, occupational, and professional cultures in and Anthony [30] asserts that his theoretical analysis of organizational through which it operates. Each organisation is formed, in part, through culture concept was developed and grew out of the company’s history cultural processes established by a variety of environmental actors establishing a pattern of ‘the way we do things around here’, which [32]. However, according to Quy [15], the most immediate source of required a necessary conformity on the part of the new recruits. outside influence on the organisational culture is found within the Distinctive organizational cultures grow and are established by organisation, its employees. Before joining an organisation, employees similarities of required outlook and behavior over time. That is why have already been influenced by multiple cultural institutions such as Smircich (1985) observes that organizations do not possess culture, family, community, nation, state, church, educational systems, and they are cultures - the cultural characteristics and the organization are other work organisations, and these associations shape their attitudes, embedded in each other rather than existing as parallel and separate behaviour, and identity. Employees bring these influences with them entities. The way we do things around here’ involve multifaceted sets when they join an organisation. Because of this, it is difficult to separate of understandings bound in organizational language, myths and rituals an organisational culture from the larger cultural processes defining that are understood by the organization members. Outsiders, when and shaping the behaviour of individuals in an organisation. exposed to these myths and rituals become aware that the words and Additionally, when individuals join organisations they do not meanings are not easily understood. ‘Stories’, about the founder or leave behind their norms and values but rather carry them as personal founders, are used to explain to new and existing members how and baggage to the new organisations. It does not matter what level the why things are done the way that they are. ‘Myths’ start from a position employees are at in the organisation, their work ethics will always be of untruth but serve the same purpose as stories. The unconscious a function of family or societal values that they grew up experiencing. aspect of culture offers another approach to understanding the concept Unfortunately, these values may not always be in consonance with of organizational culture. Schein [9] proposes as a pattern of shared those of their organisation. Sometimes they actually clash which results basic assumptions invented, discovered or developed by a given group in the organisation not getting as much value of service from the worker as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal as would have been the situation if both the individual and corporate integration. The assumptions could have worked well enough to be goals were in synchrony [15]. Hofstede [31] pointed out that that considered valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the national culture has a major impact on the attitudes and values related correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. to employees or workers. Cultural dimensions like time orientation Schein [9] added that these basic assumptions, beliefs, values and differ in developing and developed countries. In developing countries meanings are shared unconsciously in a laissez faire fashion that makes like Zimbabwe for example, employees believe in the ‘8am to 5pm’ or them difficult to discern, even for those that hold them. 8 hour working day, and a 40 hour working week. The situation tends Quy [15] discussed how culture plays a role in organisational and to be different when comparing to a country like China, where people management theory from the perspective of cognitive linguistics since believe in working for the good of the country. This could be the main employees of different national cultures pose a challenge for the way reason why Zimbabwean employees complain of being treated unfairly organisational leadership is carried out. Islam and Michael [8] stressed by their Chinese employers. The problem here could be that of cultural the point that management of today not only has to take into account differences as regards the issue of time [33]. different external preconditions such as different markets, company or In addition, organisational culture seems to influence performance stakeholder cultures to lead an organisation. However, management of an organisation and the extent of customer satisfaction [31]. Cultural also needs to consider different cultures of language as a major dimensions like time orientation, profit orientation, and ownership challenge [31]. orientation influence delivery, flexibility, quality, cost, and decision- A healthy and robust organisational culture may provide various making. Delivery can be measured in terms of lead and cycle time. benefits, including having a competitive edge derived from innovation Flexibility can be measured in ability to respond to different needs of and customer service, consistent, efficient employee performance, clients. Quality may be assessed in terms of functionality, conformance, team cohesiveness, high employee morale, and strong company and reliability. Finally, decision-making can be measured in terms of alignment towards goal achievement [32]. In addition, culture tends the time taken to make decisions and their influence on organisational to vary between organisations in developed and developing countries. performance [15]. The tendency in developing countries seems to be One cultural aspect that varies is the extent to which informal processes that of being slow and rigid, with emphasis on the welfare of employees. influences organisations. Organisations in African countries, for While on the other hand, in Developed countries emphasis seem to instance are mainly influenced by informal organisational systems. be now on efficiency and organisations seem to have rejuvenated the scientific management prescriptions. There are strong extended family and kinship ties and these seem to greatly influence decisions in organisations. It is not surprising to Moreover, in developing countries, the State plays an important

Page 8 of 45 role in service provision and most big organisations are SOEs. In developed countries, SOEs are an endangered species as governments have rolled back their frontiers. The point here is that the ‘ownership’ culture differs between SOEs (that are predominant in developing countries) and private organisations (predominant in developed countries). SOEs are believed to be inefficient and Burman and Evans argued that the ineffectiveness in SOEs is rooted in the ‘culture’ in these organisations. Islam and Michael [8] support this view and argue that SOEs have been characterized as a ‘no-owner company’ culture, shaped by frequently rotated leadership, conflicting objectives, lack of individual accountability, lack of emphasis on service delivery, and weak organisational values and norms. The lack of profit- orientation culture prevents SOEs from identifying ways to improve efficiency. Because low revenues can be compensated by government subsidies, efforts to enhance performance fall to second place and poor accountability systems prevent the development of an ownership Figure 3: Dimensions of Culture. Source: Trompenaars and Hampden- structure that triggers efficient behaviour from senior management FigurTurnere 3: D i[35].mensions of Culture. Source: Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner [35]. [34]. The situation is different from developed countries where large corporations are profit oriented. always be followed, the particularist reasoning is that friendship has special obligations and hence may come first. Less attention Organisational cultural dimensions is given to the abstract societal codes. It therefore attempts There are a number of organisational cultural dimensions. Hofstede to answer the question, how may what is good and right be [31] in trying to illuminate the meaning of the term organizational determined? Is this best done through identifying abstract rules culture wrote of the ‘collective programming of the mind which or is there always a set of absolutes that will apply? distinguishes the members of one human group from another’. • Individualism versus communitarianism: Focuses on “Me” Hofstede’s examination of work used a large sample size of 116,000 or “Them”: The individualist society will oftentimes use a employees who worked for a multinational corporation and discovered democratic approach to get all people to sing from the same four areas of work-related value differences:- hymn book. The only drawback is that people renege to their • Power distance – the extent to which inequality between original behaviour. The collectivist society prefers the buy- hierarchy at work, between bosses and subordinates, is seen to in approach where consensus is reached after deliberation. be an irreducible fact of life which is accepted or not. They will not risk to be seen to be voting against the majority decision. • Uncertainty avoidance – This dimension looks at the degree to which people are comfortable with ambiguous situations, the • Neutral versus emotional: This relates to the show of degree of tolerance for rule breaking and the extent to which emotion in terms of peoples’ relationships with each other members feel threatened by behaviours which embrace (or in the organization. How are emotions expressed in work reject) formal rules. relationships? • Individualism versus collectivism – This is about the degree • Specific versus diffuse relationships: This relates to the degree to which people think in terms of “I” versus “We” and which of superficial or deep involvement in work relationships. It entity is to predominate in the organization; individual or explores how far people are comfortable in sharing intimate group? levels of their own personality with their work mates? • Masculinity versus Femininity – This dimension asserts that • Achievement versus ascription: This concerns how power and cultures that are high on masculinity rate achievement and status are legitimated within the organization. An individual success more than they do caring for others and the quality is judged on recent accomplishments, who you are and what of life i.e., which goal is more important at work; pay and you do. assertiveness or friendliness and good relations with the boss? • Inner-directed versus outer-directed: This denotes that all Hofstede [31] also added a fifth dimension, Confucian dynamism, cultures take some notice and are influenced by the micro which assesses the extent to which different cultures have a long and macro environment. Failure to do so would lead to inner- or short-term orientation. Hofstede’s [31] comments himself that directed cultures into a headlong rush to disaster, while outer- you cannot value values. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner [35] directed cultures would try to please everyone and dissipate produced seven dimensions of culture. These are depicted in the Figure 3. their energies by over-compliance. • The seven dimensions of culture are explained in detail. The Sequential time versus synchronic time: Different cultures have different views and perceptions about time. In certain succeeding paragraphs shows the elaboration. cultures, like the American, time is perceived as passing in a • Universalism versus particularism: The Universalist approach straight line, a sequence of disparate events. Other cultures is roughly: ‘What is good and right can be defined and always view time as undepreciable and eternal, for instance the phrase applies. In particularist cultures far greater attention is given coined about Africa “There is no hurry in Africa”. This makes to the obligations of relationships and unique circumstances. considerable differences to planning, strategy formulation and For example, instead of assuming that the one good way must implementation.

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Hofstede and Trompenaars deal in common understandings, any business [36]. Consistent with the marketing concept, customers with each dispelling the idea that there is only one globally accepted have traditionally been considered to be the primary focus of a market way to manage a business and the extent of the sharedness between orientated culture. A broader perspective on the market orientation organization members. Each country is unique and has its own preferred culture (flexible culture) includes exogenous factors that influence set of patterns and practices. Indeed, the enabling environments that customer needs, such as competitors and even government regulation. are synonymous with developed countries do not exist in third world Market orientation is an aspect of organisational culture that is believed countries like Zimbabwe. to have far-reaching effects on the firm and it puts the customer at the centre of the firm’s thinking about strategy and operations. In addition, Another cultural dimension is time orientation. Time is an marketing orientation places customer satisfaction at the centre of all important resource, which when wasted, is never recovered. The notion organisational planning and decision-making. A truly marketing- that ‘time is money’ is often cited as part of the organisational culture oriented organisation is the one that places the customer and their in the world of business and in the offices of commercial companies. needs at the centre of everything the company does. Not only marketers People’s perceptions and understanding of what time is, how it should be and the marketing function must accept this central importance of prioritised, and how it should be spent differs widely. These differences customers and hence the need to develop plans and activities to satisfy in people’s perception of time and temporal processes are attributed them, but every department, even every individual, in the marketing largely to their underlying value systems. Temporal orientation of oriented organisation must be attuned to the importance of satisfying people, seen in a cultural context, has been found to be best defined as a customer needs. continuum of perceptions ranging from monochronic to polychromic. According to Zhang [18], people from the monochronic, low context Adebisi pointed out that an organisation needs to have a market- extreme of these continuums are characterised by regularity of orientated culture, which is not a set of processes and activities, but is behaviour according to clock time, execution of work units according to a fundamental part of the organisation’s culture. Each employee must a strict sequence and one at a time, and a tendency to be very structured understand and accept that the whole purpose of the organisation is to in their approach. On the other extreme, polychronic, high context create superior value for customers. Effective management is required people’s behaviour is prioritised and influenced by their relationships, if an institution is to become market oriented. It is argued that senior work is executed because of doing different units at the same time and managers shape the direction of the organisation and must be willing they prefer flexibility above rigid structure [15]. to take risks in order to satisfy the needs of customers [36]. Besides an emphasis on a learning orientation and a willingness to accept Based on the relationships between people’s cultural environment risk, senior managers need to adopt a style of leadership that further and their orientation to time, it was argued that people’s cultural traits promotes the concept of a learning orientation. Grant argued that a influence the way they perceive time and their preferences with respect complex environment calls for a complex style of leadership and a to time use [18]. Research has shown that people of different cultures transformational or facilitative leader, that is, leaders who communicate organize their time and behaviour in different ways. For example, effectively, share information, and generally keep the workforce up to North-American, Northern and Central European nationals are said date with important information. to have a monochronic perception of time, whereas Mediterranean, South-American, African and Asian nationals are seen as polychronic There are four stages for ensuring that an organisation’s culture individuals [36]. The need for monochronicity is somewhat backed is market oriented. Each of the four stages involved in this process by common phrases such as ‘now is not the time for that’ or ‘do one allows the business to evaluate the needs of its customers both in the thing at a time’ [18]. Furthermore, Chin [36] found out that Japanese present and in the future. According to Chin [31], the following stages students were significantly more monochronic than their American highlight the various methods of market research and the many ways counterparts. In many Latin American cultures that show polychronic to distribute the information to customers: tendencies, people conduct many business meetings at once, extending i. Stage One: Initiation: The initiation phase includes the the time that each may take. This is an example of how culture works identification of the problem that the business faces. For to influence the individual’s orientation towards monochronic or example, this may include competition from outside polychronic behaviour. companies, major losses in revenue or structural inefficiencies. Hofstede discusses about long and short time orientation. Long- After the upper management of the business determines what term time orientation is focused on the future. An organisation with the problem is, the business will then prepare a plan to institute long time orientation is willing to delay immediate gratification in the necessary changes. This plan will generally include the order to guarantee the future or the sustainability of the institution. values and goals of the company and methods to achieve the Therefore, long-term time orientation is about sustainability and long- goals; term success. In contrast, short-time orientation is about the immediate gratification than long-term fulfilment. There is emphasis on fulfilment ii. Stage Two: Reconstitution: The reconstitution phase of the of social obligations rather than sustainability. One can argue that market-orientation process is the presentation of the plan SOEs tend to be short-term orientated, that is why some of them are defined and developed in the first stage of this process. This always making losses because they focus on the immediate results. requires presenting and explaining the plan and its new values Some SOEs were established specifically to meet social obligations and to the entire company, usually at the same time. After this profit is secondary. presentation, the organisation needs to follow up and ensure Flexibility and delivery are other cultural dimensions. Flexibility that everyone within the organisation is on board and ready to and delivery are about responding to the needs of customers. implement the new plan. Sometimes, when employees cannot Proponents of the marketing concept argued that creating a satisfied accept the new values and plan, the business will need to customer, through being responsive to their needs and delivering replace these employees with newer employees who will work required products and services, should be the primary objective of toward the shared goal;

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iii. Stage Three: Institutionalization: The institutionalization from public enterprises. Where SOEs were too strongly controlled by phase puts into practice everything developed in stage one and the State, they often became inflexible bureaucracies. presented in stage two. Institutionalization involves aligning various areas of the business to implement the plan effectively. Human behaviour as an important aspect of organisational This step commonly involves orienting training, creating an culture employee-rewards system, and realigning the structure of According to Dessler, human beings, being the most important power within the organisation to foster the new values and, resources in organisations are unique, complex, rare and finicky ultimately, meet the customers’ needs within the market. and they tend to differ in their aptitudes, perceptions, emotions and Institutionalization essentially represents the transformation attitudes. This, being rooted in some theories, has made the study of phase of market orientation; and organisational behaviour pertinent. Management henceforth has iv. Stage Four: Maintenance: The final stage, maintenance, to invest much time in trying to breakdown and understand these involves maintaining the changes that a company previously individual complexities so that individual and group dynamisms implemented. Because market orientation involves altering would inform them in carrying out their planning, organising, company culture, at least to some extent, it is necessary to leading and controlling functions. The researcher concurs with the make sure that the new culture remains in effect to continue contention that most problems in organisations are associated with meeting the needs of the market and the customers. This management of human behaviour and that managers at all levels need includes everything from new hiring practices, to making sure to invest time and effort in understanding organisational behaviour. prospective employees can work within the confines of the new However, an acknowledgement of other non-human related sources of company culture, to keeping the new values front and centre organisational problems shall be exposed as the discussion shall unfold. for older employees. Most organisational problems are rooted in how the individuals interact, relate, react, communicate and corporate within and outside Market orientation is a strategy employed by a business to better the organisation. position itself to meet customers’ needs. Satisfaction of customers is important in achieving sustainable competitive advantage. Consequently, when looking at behaviours Bundy and Hukins [38] said terms such as ‘paternalistic’, ‘collaborative’, ‘hierarchical’, Furthermore, ownership structure influences the extent to which ‘conservative’, and ‘entrepreneurial’ are often used. These may management is committed towards realising profits. SOEs, by virtue accurately describe a group characteristic, but the underlying of being owned by government, have been characterised by the questions could be on what people actually do in a ’consensus’ culture ‘no ownership’ culture, thereby limiting drive towards profits [33]. or a ‘hierarchical’ culture, what behaviours would be observed in a According to Omoyefa, loss making in the SOEs provided the need for ‘consensus’ culture, and how would they differ from the behaviours privatisation, which was a marked feature of the structural adjustment observed in a ‘command-and-control’ culture. Presumably, in a programmes (SAPs). Privatisation of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) consensus culture, people meet frequently, share opinions with has become a key component of the structural reform process and one another, have a tendency for broad inclusion and seek to gain globalization strategy in many economies. Several developing and agreement across stakeholders. In a command-and-control culture, transition economies have embarked on extensive privatization these behaviours likely are replaced with tightly controlled decision programmes in the last one and a half decades or so, as a means of making and top-down communication, where discussion is focused on fostering economic growth, attaining macroeconomic stability, delivering directives and following up on execution. and reducing public sector borrowing requirements arising from corruption, subsidies and subventions to unprofitable SOEs [37]. By The influence of humans on organisational behaviour:Human the end of 1996, all but five countries in Africa had divested some behaviour is the root of organisational culture and has got implications public enterprises within the framework of macroeconomic reform for human performance, morale, productivity, creativity, turnover, and liberalization [18]. absenteeism among others. Individual’s thoughts and beliefs can be transferred and do influence others leading to the development of The inability of public enterprises to contribute to development organisational behaviour and a corporate culture. According to Bates arose not only from their inefficiencies due to their monopoly or and Dean, the humans shape the behaviour of organisations and protected status but also because of lax governance and oversight organisational behaviour (OB) seeks to understand the complexity [37]. The checks-and-balances that come with private ownership within the organisations, identifying problems, determining the best are essential. The pressures that shareholders and external directors way to solve them and establishing whether changes would bring in can exert on managers help to improve efficiency. More so, capital positive differences. Bundy and Hukins [38] presented examples of markets can exert pressure on companies to allocate scarce resources behaviours as in Table 2. economically and to operate within ‘hard budget’ constraints, and that managers who are responsible to shareholders and outside directors Bundy and Hukins [38] agitated that these behaviour patterns can exert on workers to improve productivity, are all usually missing describe how people operate at work. Thinking of it this way, an

Lean and mean Paternalistic Consensus building Competitive Cutthroat Entrepreneurial Collaborative Sales driven Conservative Quality driven Empowered Family friendly Risk-taking Fun Innovative Cost driven Sense of urgency Hierarchical Process driven

Source: Bundy and Hukins (2008). Table 2: Examples of Behaviours.

Page 11 of 45 organisation’s culture can be seen in the aggregation of those and managers should be able to harmonise individual goals with individual behaviours that make up how work gets done. Put another organisational goals. Personality refers to some qualities, characteristics, way, if different business results are required, and then the behavioural skills and competences of individuals along with certain other traits like patterns that make up the current culture must change. According grooming and attitude. Most organisational behaviour strategies are to Armstrong and Stephens, OB shows the linkages among human eventually meant to optimally utilise the capabilities of individuals and behaviour in organisational settings, the individual-organisation groups towards achievement of organisational objectives. However, it interface, the organisation, and the environment surrounding the is important that staff is adequately motivated to fulfil those objectives. organisation. Each individual brings to an organisation a unique set Therefore, when studying organisational cultural variables, it is of personal characteristics, experiences from other organisations, important to understand the behaviour of people in the institutions. and personal background. Therefore, organisational behaviour must It is also essential to note that the most successful organisations look at the unique perspective that each individual brings to the work make the best use of their employees’ talents and energies. All setting. For example, suppose that an organisation hires a consultant organisations seek to achieve their goals and objectives through various to investigate employee turnover. As a starting point, the consultant resources, that is, individuals and in order to understand and manage might analyze the types of people the firm usually hires. Are they from behaviour, management should understand what motivates or what a competitive labour market? What special talents do they possess? makes the individuals tick [39]. Once a manager is able to understand How much is offered for their services by other potential employers?. the traits of personality of an individual worker, he or she can use The goal of this analysis would be to learn as much as possible about the different methods of motivation. Hence, managers require both the nature of the company’s workforce from the standpoint of the technical and interpersonal skills. The study of individual behaviour individual, their expectations, their personal goals, and so forth. helps managers understand how perceptions, attitudes and personality However, individuals do not work in isolation, they come in contact could influence work behaviour, motivation and other important with other people and with the organisation in a variety of ways. Points work outcomes such as satisfaction, commitment and learning. In this of contact include managers, co-workers, the formal policies and light, one can see the importance of understanding human as well as procedures of the organisation, and various changes implemented by organisational behaviour. the organisation. Over time, the individual changes as a function of both personal experiences and maturity and of work experiences with Organisational behaviour draws support from the fields of individual the organisation. psychology, social psychology, industrial psychology, political science, anthropology and economics, that is, incentives and transactions. The organisation, in turn, is affected by the presence and eventual Organisational Theory is directly related to OB and draws concepts absence of the individual. Clearly, then, the study of organisational and research from anthropology, sociology and theories of complex behaviour must consider the ways in which the individual and the organisations. Studying organisational behaviour helps explain how organisation interact. Thus, the consultant who examines turnover at organisations, structure work and power relationships, how they use an organisation might choose to look at the orientation procedures for systems for decision making and control how an organisation’s culture newcomers to the organisation. In addition, many organizations, said affects behaviour, how organisations learn and adapt to changing to possess a high level of cultural integration, have a strong dominant competitive economical, social, and political conditions. culture that cuts across the entire business units and regions in an organization. However, this is not the case in some organizations, there In addition, OB is concerned with behaviour that occurs under the is not one single culture, but a collection of subcultures. Subcultures conditions posed by an organisational situation. Block defines OB as an may share certain characteristics, norms, values and beliefs or be totally interdisciplinary field dedicated to better understanding and managing different. These subcultures, which can differ in a number of ways, can people at work. It is both research and application oriented and it either function co-operatively or be in conflict with each other. comes in three levels, which are individual, group and organisational. Anyone who plans to make a living in a large or small, public or private An organisation, of course, exists before a particular person organisation needs to study and understand organisational behaviour joins it and continues to exist long after he or she has left. Therefore, because individual differences make the manager’s job endlessly the organisation itself represents a crucial perspective from which challenging. Thus, OB investigates the impact that individual, group to view organisational behaviour. For instance, the consultant and structures have on behaviour within organisations for applying who studies turnover would also need to study the structure and such knowledge towards improving an organisation’s effectiveness. culture of an organisation. An understanding of factors such as the The competitive pressures on firms continue to mount, and their skilful performance evaluation and reward systems, the decision-making and managements seek to strengthen their firms’ operational effectiveness communication patterns, and the design of the firm itself can provide additional insight into why some people decide to stay while others and competitive advantage. elect to leave. Clearly, the field of organisational behaviour can be both The effectiveness of management’s deployment of their firms’ exciting and complex. Myriad variables and concepts influence the technological resources and their strategic initiatives always depends interactions described, and together these factors can greatly complicate on the quality and motivation of their workforces. Workforce diversity a manager’s ability to understand, appreciate, and manage others in an has important implications for management practice, adds that, organisation. However, they can also provide unique opportunities to managers have to shift their philosophies from treating everyone alike enhance personal and organisational effectiveness. to recognising differences and responding to those differences in ways Organisational behaviour seeks to emphasise the understanding of that ensure employee retention and greater productivity. If diversity behaviour in organisations to develop competences in foreseeing how is positively managed, it can increase creativity and innovation in people are likely to behave. This knowledge may help in controlling organisations and decision making by providing different perspectives behaviour that is not befitting the objectives of the organisation. on problems but, if not managed, there is potential for higher turnover, Individuals are viewed as the key resources in an organisation more difficult communication and more interpersonal conflicts [15].

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Importance of cultural change: Empirical literature review economic challenges (due to 1998 economic crisis) left Korean government with no other choice but to sell off its stakes in SOEs. The In this section, the researcher analyses cases studies on the government initially proposed to drastically reduce the number of importance of organisational culture. Examples are drawn from Asian SOEs from a total of 108 firms in 1998 down to 13 major SOEs and 8 countries (China, South Korea, and Vietnam) and Africa (Namibia and subsidiaries at the end of 2002. By 2002, major SOEs including Korea Nigeria). The case studies were expected to draw lessons for the SOEs Telecom (KT), Pohang Iron and Steel Corporation (POSCO), Korea in Zimbabwe. The countries were selected because their economic Tobacco and Ginseng Corporation (KT&G), and the Korea Heavy environments have similarities to Zimbabwe. Industries and Construction Corporation were fully privatized. SOEs in China: In China, the absence of strong and performance- SOEs in Vietnam: According to Quy [15], SOEs in Vietnam used oriented cultures resulted in the government making a paradigm shift to have a weak culture because they were operating as monopolies. In on how to treat the SOEs. China’s industrial structure has become the areas like electricity, health care, and water supply, the customers complex and differentiated due to moves towards exposing firms both had no choices of suppliers, therefore, the managers in the SOEs were to markets and to private ownership. Government policy is to retain just ‘sleeping’. The SOEs usually disregarded customers’ needs and SOEs in key industries, which are strategic in nature and/or where they treated customers as if they were supplicants rather than buyers. considerable economies of scale are anticipated, while others are to However, in 2005, Vietnam joined the World Trade Organisation have their ownership restructured or to be sold outright [40]. The (WTO) and there was ‘opening of borders’ and privatisation of some government has also encouraged SOEs to merge into business groups, of the SOEs. The deregulation process resulted in the SOEs being able ostensibly to achieve scale economies, but often in reality to bail out to recognise the importance of customer loyalty as the Vietnamese weaker enterprises and avoid the social costs of closure. A significant government allowed private companies to enter the former development in the 1990s has been the conversion of SOEs to joint monopolized markets. Thus, the SOEs had to change their internal stock companies, of which there were 13,103 by the end of 1997 [41]. environment to adapt to the new situation [15]. Analysis of 40,238 SOEs surveyed in 1998 by the State Statistical SOEs in Namibia: Schlettwein [43] believed that culture was Bureau indicated that 17% of them had completed restructuring [41]. largely to blame for SCM challenges in SOEs in Namibia. Schlettwein Of the restructured SOEs, 55% had become limited liability companies, [43] highlighted that over the period 2000 to 2010, less than 1% of 16% had transformed into employee shareholding cooperatives and 7% Government revenue came from SOE dividends. In 2008/9 accounting had become private enterprises. Restructured enterprises generally had year, the State received N$173.4 million in dividends, amounting to a significant private stake, though conversely some of the newly formed 0.7% of Government revenue. This was against an investment of 9% of private enterprises still had a majority of their shares held by the state. the total expenditure that was spent by the State on SOE subsidies for The SOEs that had converted into fully private firms were generally that year, which was N$1.9 billion. In light of the non-performance of small and in most the top manager was the main owner and likely to SOEs in Namibia, it decided to change the culture in SOEs. Schlettwein hold tight control. [43] stated that the Namibian government resolved that all heads of Woetzel [40] argues that the Chinese government privatized and SOEs, from chief executives to the chairpersons of boards, were required commercialized most SOEs and the Directors of SOEs were held to enter into five-year performance agreements with Government. more accountable for their successes and failures. In short, SOEs in To ensure good performance, it was resolved that board members be China underwent a cultural change process. In addition, Ralston et appointed on the basis of demonstrated skills, in a recruitment process al, [42] studied SOEs in China and concluded that there has been a where vacancies are duly advertised, ensuring more transparency in the transformation in the culture of these institutions and that organisational selection. The Namibian Government saw the importance of improving culture has been the indicator of change in SOEs. In addition, due to the organisational culture and performance of SOEs. By encouraging a cultural change, there has been a marked improvement in SCM in commercial culture managers and employees will pay more attention SOEs in China. In fact, Corporations outside China are increasingly to cost-containment, service quality, and asset management than in an seeing the country’s open state-owned enterprises as partners in SOE driven by short-term political considerations [43]. global markets. SOEs in China have been accepted as peers capable of SOEs in Nigeria: The ‘no-owner company’ culture of SOEs or adding value to joint ventures around the world [40]. Ralston et al, [42] the principle ‘what belongs to the state belongs to nobody’ attitude concluded that the China’s SOEs have substantially been transformed accounted for challenges in the Nigerian SOEs. Jerome pointed out to approximate a configuration desired by the Chinese government that the expansion of SOEs was viewed as an important strategy for when it began the SOE transformation a couple of decades ago to fostering rapid economic growth and development. However, most make them globally competitive. The SOEs in China have developed of the enterprises were poorly conceived and economically inefficient. a new culture, which values better individual accountability and inter- They accumulated huge financial losses and worsened the debt organisational communication and coordination, an increased team crisis in African countries. In Nigeria, by l985, SOEs had become spirit, and an emphasis on human resources and their development [40]. an unsustainable burden on the budget. It has been estimated that SOEs in South Korea: Since the 1980s, the performance of total investment in the SOEs exceeded US$35 billion, comprising of state-owned-enterprises (SOEs) has been disappointing while the US$12.5 billion in equity, US$10.2 billion in government loans, and privatization of SOEs has been treated with doubts. Policy makers US$11.5 billion in unspecified and largely unrecorded subventions around the world were left with few SOE policy options at a time to various enterprises. However, the investments yielded low returns, when their performance caused not only administrative headaches about US$1.5 billion in dividends and loan repayments from 1980 to but also political nightmare. The situation in Korea is similar where 1987. The reasons for the poor performance are well documented and a sizeable SOE sector has under-performed and the government has not surprisingly bear a uniform pattern in many African countries. been hard pressed to find solutions to enhance their performances. The These include among others, the lack of residual claimant to profits, underperformance of SOEs resulted in privatisation, the unprecedented the presence of multiple and conflicting objectives determined by

Page 13 of 45 politicians, and the prevalence of incomplete contracts and government opportunities for public access to, education about, and the experience subsidies that protect internal inefficiencies and perpetrate soft of, such important sites. budget constraints. In short, interventionism compromised financial This increased exposure and popularity with tourists, can discipline in government, and according to Mhone, cited in Omoyefa, generate significant economic benefits for heritage sites and their many governments that claimed to be socialist were spending too much wider geographical locations. At the same time it is important that money on public services. This expenditure pattern was not sustainable such increased touristic activity is effectively managed to ensure the and there was a need for cultural change in the SOEs. sustainability of the site and its surrounding communities. Increasingly, Chapter summary the World Heritage Centre, established in 1972 as the UNESCO coordinating body for World Heritage matters, is involved with This chapter presented a review of literature on the concept of management and training issues relating to the touristic dimension organisational culture. Case studies on the influence of organisational of sites, including supporting the elaboration of management plans to culture and the performance of SOEs in Asia (China, South Korea and handle the pressures that tourists can create. Vietnam), and Africa (Namibia and Nigeria) were also presented. The case studies are expected to draw lessons for the NMMZ. Also, the Although the notion of ‘cultural heritage’ was originally conceived light of the findings in this chapter, the non-performance of heritage within the industrialised and developed world and thus reflected sites in Zimbabwe and that of the NMMZ could be blamed on the the works and values inherent in such societies, the idea has been organisational culture. Therefore, the succeeding chapters contain a widened to cover heritages in the lesser developed world where there detailed investigation on the influence of organisational culture on the is less emphasis upon grand and permanent structures and recorded performance of heritage sites in Zimbabwe as tourism products. narratives. The recognition of intangible and ‘movable’ cultural heritage in the Convention for the Safeguarding for the Intangible The Concept of Heritage and Its Meaning to Zimbabwe Heritage significantly recognised other forms of heritage that has meaning beyond material manifestations, is transmitted through the Introduction generations and which is also central in shaping identity. This chapter unpacks the concept of heritage and its meaning to Tourists do not only encounter cultural heritage as just ‘the past’, Zimbabwe. Since 1972, a series of consecutive UNESCO conventions but rather the past of a particular people or community in a living and declarations have aimed to set an international framework for the context. Tourists engage with the cultural heritage of a destination protection of diverse forms of heritage. While initially focusing on not only through monumental forms but in more intangible ways works of art, built environments and natural spaces, later UNESCO as the past enshrined in contemporary behaviours and practices. conventions and declarations have included other forms of cultural Increasingly various forms of intangible heritage are being mobilised heritage, notably the notion of intangible heritage [44]. Since 1992, for tourism purposes and experiencing living heritage is a particularly World Heritage Sites also include ‘cultural landscapes’ in recognition of enriching experience for both tourists and the community. Festivals the intimate relationships between culture and nature. From a touristic which highlight cultural rituals and artistic performances are often a perspective it is easy to see the value of historic buildings, heritage sites key element in tourist itineraries. While tourist demand to see cultural and objects d’art. Much of international tourism is centred around these displays and rituals can produce conflict with local communities over material expressions of culture whether it is the Taj Mahal in India, changing times of performance and content to suit the timings of the the contents of the Louvre in Paris, France, or a city such as Venice tour operator and the curiosity of the visitors, it can also provide a in Italy. The 1972 UNESCO convention focused on the protection rationale to showcase and effectively preserve enacted traditions which of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, with an emphasis both would otherwise be lost. on built environments and natural spaces, which are of ‘outstanding universal value’ from various aesthetic, scientific, artistic, historic and Meaning of heritage conservationist points of view. In 2005, 812 cultural, natural and mixed world heritage sites inscribed. Of these, 611 are cultural sites, 154 are Definition of Heritage natural sites and there are also 23 mixed sites in some 137 countries. Cultural heritage: Cultural heritage world over is becoming essential engine for sustainable development. There has been a wake The very fact that such sites are recognised and designated for their for many communities living near heritage sites that cultural heritage universal significance can transform them very quickly into tourist can be used to stimulate sustainable development. destinations. Indeed, this is one reason why some countries seek inscription in the first place, along with reasons to do with genuine Monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture protection of sensitive sites, landscapes and species, and the increased and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, international profile and prestige designation brings with it. World inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are Heritage Site status effectively allows greater levels of engagement with of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or the past and its meanings outside of purely national, and sometimes, science; nationalistic contexts. Sites are provided with global exposure which Groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings generates a discourse of both interest and tangible concern; in some which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place cases a concern which will make the difference between a site being in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of abandoned or being preserved for future generations. The designation view of history, art or science of World Heritage Sites is not only a recognition of their significance, it Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and is also a powerful means by which heritage can be liberated to a global areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal audience. Recognising the ‘heritage of the world’ not only signals a value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological wider sense of responsibility towards our common past, but also the point of view

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Defining cultural tourism:There is no singular, specific definition and legends which are at the risk of being forgotten by the younger of either cultural or heritage tourism. Some call it cultural tourism, generation may be revitalized when tourists show a keen interest in some heritage tourism, some cultural and heritage tourism or shortly them. Monuments and cultural relics may be preserved by using funds cultural heritage tourism (Cultural and Heritage Tourism Alliance, generated by tourism. In fact, those monuments and relics that have 2002). Culture is a set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual been abandoned suffer decay from lack of visitation. and emotional features of society or a social group. It encompasses, Culture and tourism must be mutually supportive of each other to in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, make the relationship sustainable. The nurturance of this relationship values systems, traditions and beliefs [44]. The World has some 6000 needs the full corporation of public and private sector working together communities and as many distinct languages. The National Trust’s with local communities. Thus, governments need to engage in strategic definition of cultural heritage tourism is traveling to experience the alliances in the management of cultural heritage within their countries. places and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past and present. It includes historic, cultural and natural Natural heritage resources [45]. Natural features: consisting of physical and biological formations In 1985, World Tourism Organization (WTO) provided two or groups of such formations, which are of outstanding universal value definitions of cultural tourism. The narrower definition includes from the aesthetic or scientific point of view. movements of persons for essentially cultural motivations such as Geological and physiographical formations: Precisely delineated study tours, performing arts and cultural tours, travel to festivals and areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and other cultural events, visits to sites and monuments, travel to study plants of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science nature, folklore or art, and pilgrimages. The wider definition includes or conservation; all movements of persons, because they satisfy the human need for diversity, tending to raise the cultural level of the individual and giving Natural sites: Natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas rise to new knowledge, experience and encounters (Canadian Heritage, of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science, 2006). Heritage is a broad concept and includes the natural as well as conservation or natural beauty are another form of natural heritage. the cultural environment. It encompasses landscapes, historic places, Heritage sites are perceived as an economic necessity and a public sites and built environments, as well as biodiversity, collections, past requirement and have symbolic value and their benefits are measurable and continuing cultural practices, knowledge and living experiences. [46]. It records and expresses the long processes of historic development, forming the essence of diverse national, regional, indigenous and There are two categories of natural sites. They can either be natural local identities and is an integral part of modern life. It is a dynamic in terms of nature that is tangible. For example in this category one can reference point and positive instrument for growth and change [45]. point out landforms, rural scenery, flora and fauna as the variables of the natural sites. Natural sites can be in the form of Cultural aspects. Cultural tourism market share development strategy focuses on This is expressed through various festivals, arts/crafts and traditional promotion of the unique cultural aspects of a city or region, in order to practices. The natural sites can be in form of built structures. These draw tourists interested in those particular cultural subjects to the area. structures may either have been built by the ancestors and they have Heritage management, on the other hand is defined as management a cultural value in them. Examples of built structures include historic of regions’ natural, cultural and built environments. As a strategy, this homes, monuments, and industrial sites. focus is gaining widespread acceptance nationwide and internationally among tourism offices and bureau to differentiate their cities, Different Perceptions of the Meaning of the Term Heritage in regions and states as desirable tourist destinations in an increasingly Zimbabwe: There seem to be limited literature about Zimbabwe’s competitive marketplace. heritage. From 1890, when Zimbabwe was colonised, the colonial system tried by all means possible to tread down upon the identity of It is a rule of thumb that a country’s culture is the lifeblood of the indigenous people of Zimbabwe. The intolerance of colonialists to tourism within that country. Most authorities argue that people is African virtues resulted in an end, in some communities, to traditional express their lifestyle through their religion, costumes, arts and crafts, practices and values. The displacement of much of the Zimbabwean architecture, music, dance and literature. All over the world people population due to colonial land policies, like the Land Apportionment travel to different countries for the specific purpose of attending Act of 1930 and the Land Tenure Act of 1969, disrupted some of these religious and non-religious festivals. They visit art and museum practices [47]. Most displaced people went to settle in the Tribal Trust exhibits, and also musical events. People also travel for the specific Lands (TTLs), where they were “aliens” who could not easily fit into the purpose of visiting the great monuments and sites of the world such as new socio-cultural set-ups. the Angkor Wat in Cambodia, the Taj Mahal in India, the Great Wall of China or the Borobudur and the Prambanan in Indonesia. These Despite the limited literature, the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority, activities characterize ‘cultural tourism’. Cultural Tourism is when argues that Zimbabwe’s heritage is made up of its people, wildlife, people travel to various destinations to see different cultures, when vegetation, and heritage sites. However, it is important to ensure people interact with communities exchange ideas as well as experience that this heritage is ‘unpacked’ and there is clarity on what it entails. different lifestyles. Findings revealed that the term heritage is too broad. There are various perspectives in which heritage can be defined. Heritage encompasses According to the WTO estimates 2014, cultural tourism has shown a lot of issues. Different people define heritage from different angles. the highest growth representing one fifth of the Tourism market. The In an interview with an official from the National Museums and European market for cultural tourism has increased by as much as 20% Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ) he revealed that the term heritage in the past decade. Culture and tourism has a symbolic relationship. includes aspects of the way of life that have been borrowed from our There is an intimate relationship between culture and tourism. ancestors. It is the role of the NMMZ to identify aspects that should be It is through cultural tourism that arts and crafts, dances, rituals sustained. When defining heritage it is not only the cultural heritage

Page 15 of 45 that will be considered but the natural heritage as well. On a different countries within the region Zimbabwe has five sites, which are on the note, another respondent indicated that heritage can be viewed world heritage list. from three dimensions. These are physical, cultural and intellectual heritage. Intellectual heritage are the intangible form of heritage. From Defining Heritage as a Tourism Product a touristic perspective the major focus or the critical areas are the Tourism is a worldwide giant industry which has a high increase physical and cultural heritage. Another respondent emphasized that rate such that UNWTO’s Vision forecasts that international arrivals heritage is a broad term. Thus, when defining heritage it is essential are expected to reach over 1.56 billion by the year 2020, which were to define heritage from different angles. The respondent emphasized 842 million in 2006 (World Tourism Organization). Cultural heritage that heritage can be defined from a legal point of view. It can also be tourism is also, increasingly being used as a tool to stimulate regional defined from a local knowledge perspective, it can be defined from an development in rural and urban areas (New Zealand Tourism Research, academic point of view, and heritage can also be defined from a heritage 2007). Cultural tourism is growing faster than most other tourism management perspective. It then depends on the one who is defining segments and at a higher rate than tourism worldwide [48]. Actually the term, it depends on the point of view that the definer might choose spotlighting the arts, culture, history and heritage to attract tourists to adopt. On a more general note, the term heritage can be generally is nothing new, particularly in Europe and because travelers were defined as the legacy that is passed from one generation to other be becoming more and more interested in opportunities to learn about it tangible or intangible. He further argued that generally heritage is places through their art and history, cultural tourism consistently grows. just nhaka (legacy), the cultural and natural sites that we have in our Since tourism is nowadays used to stimulate regional development, country, the values even the intangible heritage. cultural heritage tourism is used for, both preservation of regions as Findings revealed that the key factor that is considered when it well as economic development of the regions. Cultural tourism can be comes to defining the term heritage refers to what aspect of the part or defined as the subset of tourism concerned with a country or region's item that is valued by the community, be it a place or an object. When a culture and its customs. community agrees that the aspect of this object is valuable to them then Cultural tourism generally focuses on communities who have they collectively decide to preserve it for future generations, then one unique customs, unique form of art and different social practices, can define that object as heritage. which distinguishes it from other types/forms of culture. Cultural In another interview with an official from the National Zimbabwe tourism includes tourism in urban areas, particularly historic or large Monuments, the respondent emphasized that heritage is that which cities and their cultural facilities such as museums and theatres. It was inherited from the ancestors and that which authorities and local can also include tourism in rural areas showcasing the traditions of communities have chosen to keep and pass on to the next generations. indigenous cultural communities (i.e. festivals, rituals), and their values Heritage is divided into two main categories natural and cultural. and lifestyles. Preserving cultural heritage appears to be a key factor Natural heritage are those natural phenomenon like trees, mountains, in economic policies supporting tourism development. It is a widely rivers, waterfalls, gorges and forests. Cultural heritage includes that accepted fact that preservation of cultural heritage is important and it which has been derived from the way of life of communities, societies is also used as a tool for tourism product differentiation [49]. Cultural or ethnic groupings in the country. This includes built heritage like tourists as cited by Hughes are seen as typically well educated, affluent ruins, monuments, Caves, graves. There are also tangible elements like and broadly travelled and they generally represent a highly desirable objects, material culture that includes materials like walking sticks, type of upscale visitor. It is generally agreed that cultural tourists spend substantially more than standard tourists do. Cultural tourists cooking utensils, and dressing. are expecting different experiences from their vacations and these There are also the intangible heritages these are mainly things that expectations are becoming more important day by day. During these one cannot touch but they have spiritual bearing on how people live as experiences tourist can interact with three kinds of cultural attributes; Zimbabweans. These involve things like dances things which we have the physical (built heritage), the general (the daily life of the host spiritual attachments and are connected to them. Basically that is how community) and the specific cultural activities of the host community the Zimbabwean heritage is understood from the National Monuments (rituals and festivals). point of view. Additionally, mass tourism is a product of the late 1960s and early Research revealed that there is also another dimension of heritage 1970s. Since then a number of interrelated developments in the world which includes the liberation heritage. The liberation heritage is a economy, have converted part of the industry from mass tourism to so- called new tourism. The new tourism, which is the idea of responsible, category that has not been realized to be a heritage for a long time in green, soft, alternative and sustainable tourism, basically refers to the Zimbabwe. Of late, people have come to realize its value; it has taken diversification of the tourism industry and its development in targeted long for people to regard the liberation heritage like the battle sites, markets where cultural heritage tourism is in the first rank. Changing the graves, the songs and dances that are part of the liberation as lifestyles of the new tourists are creating demand for more targeted really something that is part of the heritage. Historically in Zimbabwe and customized holidays. A number of lifestyle segments, families, people have talked about the liberation heritage but there have been no single parent households, empty nesters (couples whose children have practical efforts that have been put in place to ensure that this heritage left home), double-income couples without children, will become has been recognized as a typology and being looked after in the manner prevalent (common) in tourism, signalling the advent of a much more in which other forms of heritage have been considered in the country. differentiated approach to tourism marketing. Changing values are also However, Zimbabwe is one the countries in Africa with rich generating demand for more environmentally conscious and nature- cultural and natural heritage. Zimbabwe has diverse types of heritages, oriented holidays. which range from tangible, movable and immovable. When it comes to Heritage has much potential in bringing tourists in Zimbabwe. As the richness of Zimbabwe in terms of heritage comparing with other a tourism product, people want to see those things that are peculiar to

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Zimbabwe. For instance, during cultural exchange programs tourists society, how the society values those traditional practices. For example, will be interested in seeing items that they do not have in their own there are some traditions that engage in traditional ceremonies such countries. People are interested in learning the lifestyles and the as rain making, the fact that they still practice that tradition shows cultures as well as learning more about our heritage. that they do value the culture. Nevertheless, if they no longer practice the ceremonies then they probably would no longer be valuing it. If The research indicated that Zimbabwe heritage as a tourism one group of people consider the passing on that form of that culture aspect has a lot of features which include, culture of its peoples and towards the younger generation it shows that they still value the contemporary to current, food and eating habits, social habits, attitude culture. Thus, it can be argued that the level of value that is placed on to life, manmade sites and archaeological sites, historical facts and the Zimbabwean heritage by the Zimbabweans cannot be determined sites and the people are part of the heritage that attracts tourism in from a general perspective. One has to analyze different levels and the Zimbabwe. There is also the culture, social, historical, way of life, different cultural practices as well as the different communities and age the aged people that can be shown to various visitors. Zimbabwe has groups and be able to establish fairly the value that is placed in the wilderness cites, wonder sites, some ancient linked tribes still living heritage in Zimbabwe. in their original state more or less. The Victoria or Mosi-oa-tunya is typical of a natural heritage site that has developed into a wonder site Additionally, on a different not as well, findings revealed that if counted among the top seven in the world. Wilderness experience in one looks at the physical heritage, it can be evaluated from a number Zimbabwe has to be the second most valuable site for Zimbabwe that is of perspectives. Firstly, if the government has established a whole loved by tourists. Among other world heritage sites there is Mana pools department and allocated money for development of those sites this and Bvumba forest. shows that the culture is valued in the country from a national level point. At national level, heritage can be said to be valued by people if As a tourism product, the people of Zimbabwe have a rich cultural they are prepared to pay their money and visit the sites. Then the very history, which counts for tourists were especially some remote tribes basic thing: when a certain fee is required in order to access the sites living in border areas of the country far removed from the modern day that means that monetary value is allocated to these sites as well. One civilization. These include areas like Chipinge in Manicaland Province can argue that when one question on the issue of valuing heritage, there and the Tonga people in Binga (Matabeleland North). Furthermore, as are really a variety of perspectives in which heritage can be valued. a tourism product; Zimbabwe has many historical sites. These sites are Therefore, in determining the level of value placed on the heritage site peculiar to Zimbabwe and there is mystery and cultural values that are by the locals a lot of perspectives have to be considered. attached to these sites. Major historical sites in Zimbabwe are Great Zimbabwe, Khami Ruins, Pit caves of Nyanga these are dwelling sites An example has been the Epworth balancing rocks in Zimbabwe. of the ancestors and some Rock Art paintings in the caves. It is a national heritage site: but the locals cut down trees they do not place value on the monument since it is located within the community. The Extent to which Zimbabweans value the heritage The major question that has been asked when determining the level of Zimbabweans value the pride of their heritage to some extent. value was to the local communities know the value that is in these sites Basically, Zimbabweans value the national heritage. The inquiry in Zimbabwe? On this note, one will be now looking at the value of revealed that the major obstacle in the manner in which the people heritage from a variety of levels within the country. At National level, appreciate and value Zimbabwean heritage has been the colonial period the National museums and monuments value the heritage because that has tended to undermine, underplay and ensure that Zimbabweans they decided to preserve the area. Then at community level probably look down upon their heritage. Taking for example, for people to have they do not value the heritage because of ignorance. The other issue pride in their culture for instance the achievements in the civilization to consider would be that the local community has it been benefiting of architecture like in the construction of the great Zimbabwe with the from these sites. Are the local communities realizing the economic manner in which it was done, the colonial period has tried to deliberate value of the heritage sites? A heritage may be valued at national level it and assign it to foreign origins saying that it belongs to King but if the communities are not aware of the value of the heritage or are Solomon. Colonialists have also tried to make everything that is locally not realizing the economic value of the monument, then they will not valued in religious terms as satanic and demonic to make sure that have an understanding of it. That is when we see the value of the sites people do not value it. For instance, most mission stations are located by locals depreciating because there will be no awareness at the base. In close to national shrines to make sure that those beliefs are pacified. For Zimbabwe, there are quite a number of sites that are valued at national instance, Epworth, Matopos are closer to mission stations. Therefore, level but at the community level they have no significance. currently a number of Zimbabweans look down upon their heritage or Heritage is a comprehensive concept that consists of many diverse their culture mainly because of that background. values like cultural, natural, historical, architectural, archaeological, On a different note, another respondent argued that the major and geological values. Heritage is a mirror of different ways of lives and issue depends on the type of heritage that is being discussed. For habits, in other words, different cultures and eras of the mankind and example, within the cultural heritage there are quite a number of things the society they live in. A well-preserved heritage enables communities that have to be considered, one can look at the culture, traditions, and to learn about their cultural history truly and chronologically. then evaluates on the value that is being placed on it and the extent of After the World War II, the world has seen a gradual increase in the value placed on the culture. On the other note, one can looks at technology and urbanization resulting in a series of threats to heritage; things in Zimbabwe that have not been commercialized properly. Then social, environmental and economical. Because of migration and one gets to question on whether Zimbabweans value these things or industrialization population density between rural areas and cities not. When one is establishing the level of value that is being placed on differ greatly. Globalization changed people’s lives in an undeniable an item, it is crucial to determine whether there is an understanding way, a way that is mostly stereotyped. These kinds of facts pose a great or appreciation of this culture within the local community’s point of threat to intangible cultural assets. Heritage is not a renewable resource; view. All in all the value ascribed to a certain tradition depends on the therefore, it should be conserved in the most efficient way. The word

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“preservation” has existed from the beginning of the very early times Victoria Falls and Matobo cultural heritage. The country is ahead, of human history, but its definition. Until recently, preservation is as compared to other countries within the SADC region for instance nearly equal to just protecting the physical assets, but now it is seen as countries like Malawi, which has only one internationally recognized a clear fact that when trying to protect heritage national, social, cultural heritage in the country. and economical aspects of the protection process should be taken into account. It aims to conserve, use and develop the heritage and to Tourism potential of heritage sites in Zimbabwe sustain it values and significance by giving the heritage a compatible Heritage tourism is a broad field of specialty travel, based on use. It is worth of mentioning that, the most important innovation of nostalgia for the past and the desire to experience diverse cultural the management approach involves the sustainability principle. landscapes and forms. It includes travel to festivals and other cultural Chapter summary events, visit to sites and monuments, travel to study nature, folklore or art or pilgrimages. The word “heritage” in its broader meaning is There seem to be limited literature about Zimbabwe’s heritage. generally associated with the word “inheritance,” that is, something From 1890, when Zimbabwe was colonised, the colonial system tried transferred from one generation to another. Owing to its role as a by all means possible to tread down upon the identity of the indigenous carrier of historical values from the past, heritage is viewed as part of people of Zimbabwe. The intolerance of colonialists to African virtues the cultural tradition of a society. The concept of “tourism,” on the resulted in an end, in some communities, to traditional practices and other hand, is really a form of modern consciousness. In this study, values. The section managed to define heritage and give different both heritage and cultural tourism are used in combination and/or perceptions of the term heritage. Heritage generally is the legacy that has interchangeably. been passed on from one generation to another. It is a broad term that Cultural/heritage tourism is the fastest growing segment of has to be defined from a variety of perspectives. The section managed to the tourism industry because there is a trend toward an increased define heritage as a tourism product in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe has a rich specialization among tourists. This trend is evident in the rise in the cultural, historical both tangible and non tangible. These can be utilised volume of tourists who seek adventure, culture, history, archaeology as quality peculiar tourism products and the government can utilise the and interaction with local people. From a touristic perspective it is funds that are drawn from the funds that are realised from the tourism easy to see the value of historic buildings, heritage sites and objects visits to maintain various heritage sites in Zimbabwe. Findings from d’art. Much of international tourism is centred around these material this section revealed that when determining the level of value placed expressions of culture whether it is the Taj Mahal in India, the contents on the heritage of Zimbabwe there are a number of perspectives that of the Louvre in Paris, France, or a city such as Venice in Italy. The 1972 have to be considered. The value of heritage can be determined from UNESCO convention focused on the protection of the World Cultural different levels. One has to analyse the value that Zimbabwe places and Natural Heritage, with an emphasis both on built environments on the heritage from the national level point of view. For instance, and natural spaces, which are of ‘outstanding universal value’ from the fact that there is a ministry and a fully fletched department that various aesthetic, scientific, artistic, historic and conservationist points is allocated by the government specifically for the management of of view. In 2005, 812 cultural, natural and mixed world heritage sites heritage sites in Zimbabwe. It shows that the country values its heritage inscribed. Of these, 611 are cultural sites, 154 are natural sites and there to some extent. Then the value of heritage can be determined from the are also 23 mixed sites in some 137 countries. local community level point of view. Do the communities know the importance of the heritage sites that we have in Zimbabwe. Heritage The very fact that such sites are recognised and designated for their value can be determined from the various practices. This depends on universal significance can transform them very quickly into tourist the communities and the level of knowledge they possess as well as destinations. Indeed, this is one reason why some countries seek the level of economic value they place on the sites. The next chapter inscription in the first place, along with reasons to do with genuine discuses on the heritage sites in Zimbabwe. protection of sensitive sites, landscapes and species, and the increased international profile and prestige designation brings with it. Heritage Heritage Sites in Zimbabwe tourism represents a major potential for local and national economic Introduction development. Meskell [50] argue that heritage sites generate revenue through tourism. The link between culture and tourism is the most The NMMZ is presently custodian of 137 National Monuments. visible aspect of the contribution of culture to local development. The Among these are outstanding monuments and the world heritage sites, monuments are the magnet that attracted the visitor to the community which are premier tourist attractions not comparable to any other but the monument itself was only a minor beneficiary of the economic sites throughout the world. These include the famous Victoria Falls impact. Nyaupane pointed out that visits to cultural and historical Mosi o Tunya-Smoke that thunders, Great Zimbabwe, and Matobo resources have become one of the largest and fastest growing sectors of Hills area. Monuments depict a variety of cultural and natural support tourism industry. Cultural heritage sites play a major role in economic phenomena that together embody the history of man in Zimbabwe and development through them being the centre of tourist attraction and his attraction with the environment. A number of National Monuments as such tourism is a major component of economic development. It have been opened to support tourism industry and therefore to generate is argued that 37% of the global tourism has a cultural motivation. the much needed foreign corporate world, to identify products and Rypkema [51] argues that heritage tourism is an important component services as truly Zimbabwean. The most popular sites are Victoria Falls, of local economic activity in many places in Europe and cultural Great Zimbabwe, Matobo Hills, Murewa Caves, Tsidi Ruins, Khami tourism is a major contribution to tourism overall and is among the Ruins, Ziwa National Monument, Old Bulawayo National Monument, fastest growing segment of the tourism sector. According to a UN Muzilikazi Grave National Heroes Acre, Domboshava Caves and General Assembly report of 2011, heritage tourism presently accounts Nalatele Ruins among others. Zimbabwe has diversity in terms of for 40% of world tourism revenue. It was argued that cultural heritage in Heritage sites and there are five internationally recognized heritage general and in particular those inscribed on the UNESCO World heritage sites in Zimbabwe are Great Zimbabwe, Khami Ruins, Mana Pools, List, generate substantial revenues and employment for tourism.

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This increased exposure and popularity with tourists, can ancestors through material culture, belief systems and ways of living. generate signiﬁcant economic beneﬁts for heritage sites and their It is unique, consists of natural and cultural, tangible and intangible wider geographical locations. At the same time, it is important that scattered all over the country. It ranges from Stone Age, Iron Age such increased touristic activity is effectively managed to ensure the and the late farming communities. Dry stone walls consist the most sustainability of the site and its surrounding communities. Increasingly, unique architectural prowess that define Zimbabwean as a people and the World Heritage Centre, established in 1972 as the UNESCO has granted us the identity we carry as a people. Rock paintings and coordinating body for World Heritage matters, is involved with engravings are part of Zimbabwe’s heritage, which is also scattered in management and training issues relating to the touristic dimension the country giving evidence of an artistic nature of ancestors, which of sites, including supporting the elaboration of management plans to was a means of communication and expression of various spiritual and handle the pressures that tourists can create. cultural livelihood. Belief systems, myths, taboos and material culture. There are springs, wetlands, mountainous landscapes, rocks, caves and Tourism is able to generate both income and employment relatively trees which have intangible values as well as minerals. Zimbabwe’s cost effectively by drawing upon the (previously largely untapped) heritage fits as a tourism products because it is unique and carries a resources of nature and culture. Studies which have taken places in wide range of values: historic, cultural, scientific, aesthetic, religious as Europe, Asia and North America have shown that heritage tourists well as economic. stay longer and spend more per day and therefore have a significantly higher per trip economic impact than do tourists in general. Rypkema NMMZ is a responsible heritage custodian and one of its mandate [51] further his discussion when he explains that if heritage tourism is to present the heritage to the public hence marketing is an essential is done right, the biggest beneficiaries are not tourists or even hotels, tool to achieve that. However, like any government funded institution restaurants, petrol stations that service them, the biggest beneficiary NMMZ is struggling financially to perform its duties which include are local citizens who gain a renewed appreciation of their site’s unique marketing. Therefore, there is a need to ensure the availability history and character. of financial resources enable adequate management of heritage management. Research works, conservation and restorations works As tourists are becoming more sophisticated, their need to can also be conducted effectively with availability of financial resources. recapture the past has been increasing. Tourists have been visiting Need for financial resources can also lead to over exploitation of cultural/heritage sites more frequently. Cultural/heritage tourism heritage sites through tourism, which may lead to loss of heritage or offers several benefits to tourists and residents, as well as governments. desecration of sites. First of all, cultural/heritage tourism protects historic, cultural, and natural resources in communities, towns, and cities. People become According to the NMMZ officials, the heritage sites are ranked. involved in their community when they can relate to their personal, The world heritage sites are at the top followed by class one National family, community, regional, or national heritage. This connection Monuments. The sites are ranked from class one to class three. motivates residents to safeguard their shared resources and practice Class one: These are sites that have site museums, they have tour good stewardship. Second, cultural/heritage tourism educates residents guides and custodians based on these sites, they are highly accessible and tourists about local/regional history and traditions. Through the and they command high number of visitors thus, so visitor-ship is research about and development of heritage/cultural destinations, high, they have a site museum to collect cash from those sites. Tourist residents will become better informed about local/regional history and destinations those are fully functional and operational and with a lot of traditions which can be shared with tourists. Third, cultural/heritage infrastructure to cater for the visitors. tourism builds closer, stronger communities. Knowledge of heritage provides continuity and context for communities, which instills respect Class two: There is only a custodian who acts as a custodian and a in their residents, strengthens citizenship values, builds community tour guide. There is no site museum. Accessibility is not as excellent as pride, and improves quality of life. Fourth, cultural/heritage tourism the first category. People can get there but they collect cash from these promotes the economic and civic vitality of a community or region. sites. Economic benefits include the creation of new jobs in the travel Class three: These are the sites that are not publicised extensively industry, at cultural attractions, and in travel-related establishments because the major duty is to conserve and preserve these areas. The and economic diversification in the service industry (restaurants, sites are opened when there is need. Access is free but accessibility is hotels/motel, bed-and-breakfasts, tour guide services). There is difficult. NMMZ do not normally encourage exposure or marketing of also manufacturing (arts and crafts, souvenirs, publications), and these sites because the cultural heritage is non renewable. Once these agriculture (specialty gardens or farmers’ markets); encouragement of cultures are over visited and carrying capacity is stretched, they are local ownership of small businesses; higher property values; increased bound to be destroyed. retail sales; and substantial tax revenues (Virginia Department of Historic Resources). Most tourists to Zimbabwe value and are attracted to these forms of heritage sites. Statistics show that a lot of tourists visit to experience In Zimbabwe, the National Monuments are protected and these natural and cultural sites. Most people seek experience in culture. promoted in accordance with the National Museums and Monuments They want to find out how people live, how they enjoy and how they Act 1972 [Chapter 25:11]. This law replaced the Monuments and do their daily chaos. They collect a lot of staff from the local crafts Relics Act 1936, which in turn replaced the 1902 Ancient Monuments and industries. The reason why Zimbabwe National Museums and Protection Ordinance and 1912 Bushmen Relics Ordinance. In April Monuments do not open heritage sites randomly or open all of them at 2000, there were approximately 14,000 entries on the Archaeological one time is because it is difficult to manage sites that are in the remote Survey, of which 118 were National Monuments (including natural, areas. They are more expensive to manage because visitor-ship in those cultural, and mixed sites). sites is low. The return that they get by opening access to them, by The heritage sites and their potential as ‘World Class’ tourist putting human resources there is not always that you find them giving destinations: Zimbabwe’s Heritage is the substance of what was left by returns. The practise is not peculiar to Zimbabwe. That a country does

Page 19 of 45 not open up their entire cultural heritage at one point. By ranking, it were suggested to be found were said to have belonged to the spirit means that the managements categorise them and when they see that mediums and chiefs which includes bowls, large soapstone, gold there is more volume in class one then class two is opened, when there objects and ceremonial spear. The succeeding paragraphs highlight the are more in class, class three will then be opened. In order that one main attractions at Great Zimbabwe. cannot just throw money everywhere without necessarily evaluating The great enclosure: It is suggested to be were king’s residence, or whether there is need to open up more sites. wives or premarital initiation school. The Conical Tower is one of the The study showed that Zimbabwe has more than 1000 heritage largest structures in the Great Enclosure, is 33 feet high at 16 feet in sites. However, some sites can be exploited while others cannot. Other diameter. Traditionally the Conical Tower is said to represent a grain sites like Mzilikazi’s grave have cultural limitations. People say you harvest symbolizing a good harvest and prosperity. cannot use a king’s grave for financial or tourism purposes. It is sacred. The valley enclosure: This is where other wives and villages lived However, there is need for cultural change and change is a process that an estimate of about 50 household is believed to have lived on these takes time. A Regional Director interviewed said the ways in which stone wall enclosures. As one walk along the Valley Enclosure they heritage sites can be used to attract more tourists will never be enough. are evidence of remains of Dhaka, huts, platforms and small towers. When you are in business you continue to expand and grow. There The Zimbabwean bird the seventh one, which is used as the National are a number of efforts that national museums and monuments have Emblem, is believed to be found in the seen closures. On the enclosure put in place to develop class one and class two sites. “To ensure that large amounts of iron and copper, beads and pottery were found. they develop infrastructure for tourists, they have established adequate infrastructure for instance, having a site museum to give information The Matombo Curio Shop: This is where tourist can purchase their about the sites to the visitors. Investing in human resources tour souvenirs, which include; the Zimbabwe bird and other traditional guides, custodians and we have a national museums and monuments arts and crafts. They can also purchase for a book showing the overall website to ensure that people get access. The organisation also exhibit site. Other souvenirs can be purchased from the traditional village, for and market the heritage sites. There are various efforts in place that are example, beadwork and some carvings, basketry. being done to ensure that visitor-ship increases”. The Hill Complex and the Cave: The Hill Complex was the Kings’ There are five World Heritage sites in Zimbabwe, which are fortress and ruling. This is said to be were the platform where the Kings Great Zimbabwe, Khami Ruins, Mana Pools, Matopos and Victoria sat and surveyed their Kingdom. Tourist gets to say something and Falls. There are other heritage sites like Domboshawa, Heroes Acres, hear their echoed coming from the bottom. Epworth Balancing Rocks, Ngomakurira Mountains, Naletale Ruins The Shona Traditional Village: It was recently restored after and Ziwa. However, this study focused Great Zimbabwe, Heroes Acre, authorities had initially removed it a few years ago. The village is one of Domboshawa, Ngomakurira and Naletale. The researcher also visited the major tourist attraction, sine this where visitors get a feel of how life two Museums, which are Military Museum (Gweru) and Natural was like at the Ancient City. History Museum (Bulawayo). The succeeding sections presents the findings on the sites visited. Recommendations for enhancing the What is there for tourist to see at the village? attractiveness of the sites are also made. • Traditional dancing done by the locals, performing a Shona Great Zimbabwe: Great Zimbabwe is NMMZ’s cash cow and song accompanied by their music which includes shakers and prime heritage site. It was declared a National Monument and World traditional drums. As they will be dressed in their traditional Heritage site in 1937 and 1986 respectively. The builders of Great finery, tourist can also join in as they sing and dance. Zimbabwe are believed to be the Karanga, a sub group of the Shona • who constitute a majority of the population in Zimbabwe [52]. It is Art and Craft Center were one gets to see pottery making, situated 27 kilometres south-east of Masvingo town. Great Zimbabwe bakery and beadwork. Stone/wood carving during the Great is the country’s largest archaeological site and the largest archaeological Zimbabwe years it was every man’s responsibility to be able to monument in sub-Saharan Africa. It represents the great civilization make basic implements for the household e.g. yokes stools and that existed in the country between 1200 and 1500 A.D [53]. axe hands. • The study showed that about 58 000 tourists (domestic and foreign) Lastly the village will provide an overnight accommodation to visited Great Zimbabwe in 2014. There was a slight improvement in visitors willing to experience the African night in traditional 2015 and 61 000 people came to Great Zimbabwe. The figures include hoes using the cultural materials, and they can also enjoy the the locals, the schoolchildren and they fluctuates. The local community traditional foods. understands the value, the importance of the Great Zimbabwe cultural The Great Zimbabwe Museum: This is the most exciting part of site. The great Zimbabwe has a local management committee, which the site, as visitors get an idea of the various day to day lives. They also is responsible for conscientise people on the importance of the great get artefacts. The main attraction is that tourist get to see the original Zimbabwe site. Locals in Masvingo are given access to the site. They soapstone birds known as the Zimbabwean bird. However, no one fill in forms and they are given free of charge entry. Great Zimbabwe is allowed to take any photos of the, as they is security cameras and has a good relationship with the local clients around Great Zimbabwe. policeman in the room with the birds. Great Zimbabwe was mainly built of cut granite blocks, laid in The study showed that, as a stand-alone monument, Great regular courses, and contains a series of daga-hut living quarters, Zimbabwe is operating very well they have some improvements. a community area, and a narrow passage leading to a high conical Management have tried to innovate but innovation can never be tower. Basically, it is believed to be the site of the main and religious enough. Lodges are being run by the great Zimbabwe. They have center of Great Zimbabwe. It is believed that when the old huts were opened a restaurant, they have camp sites and lodges, and they are now destroyed the remains were lived off new huts were built. Lot of items hosting weddings (1200 venue and tent).

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Great Zimbabwe is lagging behind on several areas in terms of • They do not have facilities to cater for the disabled visitors. innovativeness. In terms of technology, clients need Wi-Fi. One NMMZ • Abulation faculties not in good order official said, “We do not have Wi-Fi”. The impact of international Regulations for example VISA satisfaction, issues of prescriptions from • The administration offices needs a facelift, especially in terms international organizations the likes of UNESCO or other governing of furniture boards they have their restrictions which hinder the innovativeness of c. Opportunities the sites. For instance they cannot build a large hotel since they cannot meet the international standards required. This limits their ability to • Development of refreshment food courts on site make money. • Getting more tourists if they advertise more. Marketing strategies at Great Zimbabwe: The NMMZ official interviewed said, “the marketing strategies that we use include moving d. Threats around schools, companies, attending festivals and Indabas, Sanganayi • Visitors to Great Zimbabwe can lead to the repositioning of and Zimbabwe International Trade Fair so that we meet international the stone structures. and national clients. Great Zimbabwe has a website. We market via the website and constantly update information on the site, although it’s • Increase pressure on the structures if there are more visitors. national”. Other Facilities and Attractions Around and Close to Great Zimbabwe also have a sound relationship with other Great Zimbabwe: Great Zimbabwe Ruins are close to a range of organisations and government entities and departments. For instance, accommodation facilities that will suit ant visitor from business leisure Great Zimbabwe is working well with the government authorities to business tourist, these will include: like ZTA. There is ZTA Masvingo and ZTA Harare, who sometimes • The Great Zimbabwe Hotel bring visitors. An official, also said, “commenting on the need to have partnership we are working in partnership with the Zimbabwe National • Norma Jeans Lake View Resort Army (ZNA). They bring Soldiers training tour guides and they were • Zim Parks and Lodges awarded certificates. We are in good books with National Parks and the Masvingo Rural District Council (MRDC) as well”. • Kyle View Holiday Resort Service Provision and facilities that can enhance the attractiveness Norman Jean Lake View Resort and Zim parks: Visitors get to see of Great Zimbabwe: During the time of the study, Great Zimbabwe an overlook of Lake Mutirikwi and with the best fishing grounds. It is had accommodation and two dormitories. These two dormitories only located just 10 minutes away from Great Zimbabwe ruins, let meet the cater for 100 children. This limits the number of school children that needs of any visitor by offering a range of accommodation from self- can be accommodated at once. Of which the site cannot accommodate catering lodges to hotel rooms. They also have a restaurant available for two schools at the same time. This is not viable in terms of business the convince of their guests offering a full English breakfast and a four competitive. Even the dormitories are not enough they can only course meal for evenings. They also have facilities of the disabled and accommodate up to thirty four people. Accommodation is very cheap internet connections. executive lodge $50 per couple $40 dollars for standard lodge. Zim Parks and Lodges: Accommodation: it offers a range of self- Challenges that are being faced at Great Zimbabwe: A number catering lodges available at the Kyle Recreational Park. of challenges are affecting the sustainable management of Great Other attractions that visitor can view include: Zimbabwe. The NMMZ official interviewed said. “when you are surrounded by homesteads the major challenge is of deforestation. • A trip to Lake Mutirikwi This is a protected area but villagers still insist on tree cutting. The • Kyle Game Reserve drive community still cut trees and veld fire. Though we have tried to create awareness and have fire campaigns, the community is still lagging The Game Reserve Drive: Masvingo is also home to an excellent behind in terms of compliance” (Table 3). bird life which includes the African eagle, mostly known as the Zimbabwean bird. Animals found in the park – they are about 25species SWOT Analysis of Great Zimbabwe: of wild mammals. These animals commonly seen by include: buffalos, a. Strengths warthogs, zebra, crocodiles, Rhinoceros and hippopotamus. They is also a picnic sites mainly for daily use. The picnic sites have ablutions • Several tourism facilities built around it. and fire places. • It is a World Heritage Site. National Heroes Acre: The National Heroes Acre is located in b. Weaknesses Harare and is a burial sites for Zimbabwe’s national heroes. The shrine is built on a hill, in the western side of Harare. There is a forest, which • Lack of advertisement limits the number visitors to the site. has small wildlife like monkeys and antelope. At the top of the hill, one

Positive Impact Negative Impact It helps to preserve and appreciate traditional cultures and Some of the traditional dancing preformed, are to be performed for certain festivals but now they are history. done to entertain tourist. It can be used by local communities in conducting rituals on this Great Zimbabwe is open to the public and visitors causes damages to the monument by overusing site and helpful in doing archaeological research value. certain paths and areas especially the entrances to the Great Enclosure and Hill Complex through climbing of the walls. Table 3: Social Cultural Impacts of Tourism at Great Zimbabwe.

Page 21 of 45 can have scenic view of Harare’s western and southern suburbs. There Authority has been conducted whose agenda had been on seeking is also a museum at the National Heroes Acre. However, there is an assistance towards marketing of the site. Even at National Museums issue of marketing. At Heroes Acre, people are scared and they think and Monuments, there are archaeologists. There are researchers but the that they cannot go there. This is despite the fact that the place is very major challenge is that there is no one with a marketing background. interesting. In addition, the place has a lot of potential. NMMZ can Monuments had no exposure for marketing purposes. They were have billboards where people can be informed that they are welcome to treated as preserved places. come at the Heroes Acre. Even at Long Cheng Plaza and in Warren. If Partners at Domboshawa: There are no specific organisations that the place is well marketed they can attract more visitors. People want to the site is partnering with. But individuals come and assist the site. see the graves of heroes but they are scared and they do not know that Much help is needed when it comes to marketing of the site. they are allowed. Therefore, marketing is very weak, people are scared of heroes acre, largely because of the presence of military. There is also Challenges Faced at Domboshava when it comes to Site a need for cultural change, heroes acre is more than a burial site. So Management: Most challenges emanate from the community. There is more facilities can be provided there. no smooth relationship between the community and the management of the heritage sites. There is no clear cut communication on what the Domboshawa Caves: The monument came under the custodianship site means to them. The NMMZ official said, “the local community feel of National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe in 1936. The that the government took away their heritage (Government yakatitorera monument is accessible it can be reached via Borrowdale Road. It lies zvinhu zvedu), long back people used to climb the mountains, use the approximately 30 kilometres north of Harare. The major attractions monument for free, animals could graze freely, and they had free access on Site include an Interpretive Centre or Site Museum, beautiful rock to the community, religious ceremonies were done at the site. Now it art panels, geological formations, natural scenic environment that is a protected area”. Therefore, the community feels that they are being includes streams and wooded vegetation. Facilities available include shunned from their right to free access. Domboshava have been facing the camping grounds and toilets facilities, picnic facilities braai stands, challenges of ownership with the community. The locals think that they resting and picnic stands. are losing ownership of the heritage site. At one time, Domboshava The main reason why Domboshawa was declared a national Ruins where vandalized. They at times sneak in and cut trees as a means monument is that we have rock art that was done by the San. The rock of sabotage, Zimbabweans do no not value their monuments. They do art is similar. The paintings are archaeological evidence that shows that not understand the values of the national monuments. They expect to some people once lived in the area and they left evidence, rock art. The enter freely into the areas without paying and they do not contribute evidence could be traced back so that one can identify the exact people towards the preservation of the sites. They feel that only foreigners who painted the rocks. Besides the archaeological evidence, there is should pay, Zimbabweans expect to have free access to heritage sites. oral evidence that is passed on from one generation to another. The Domboshava also faces a challenges of veld fires. The locals are yet to Domboshava site is surrounded by the community the mountain has understand that the management at the site is just custodians of the traditional significance to the people of Domboshava. The forest that sites; they are not taking away their legacy. surrounds the mountain is called Ndambakurima; (a land that refuses Ngomakurira Mountains: Ngomakurira mountains are in the to be cultivated). Long back, the ancestors had allocated the place for same vicinity with Domboshawa caves but are a further 10km away. farming. Therefore, when people destroyed the trees so that they could Ngomakurira is a heritage site because long back drums could be farm, but when they came back they could find the trees back in place. heard in the mountain. People did not know who played those drums. This was mysterious and the place was sacred. Therefore, the elders It is a mystery up to this day. Ngomakurira means drums beating. allocated the area for traditional meetings and sacred religions. At the Therefore, because of the mystery that is involved with the mountain cave there is also, besides paintings there is a geological tunnel, Ninga. the government saw it necessary to award the site a national monument It starts from the cave. Forefathers could offer sacrificial animals to the status. ancestors. At Ngomakurira there are quite a number of tourists that visit the What the Local Community is Benefiting from the Site? There mountain. Mountain climbing is a bit challenge so most people are were a lot of problems between the community and the management hesitant to climb. Very few school children come. The site receives a regarding the management of the monument. This is because from few tourists and other local individuals. There are no strict regulations way back the community was not benefiting. Nowadays the locals are at Ngomakurira. The major issue that is required is that the visitors and allowed to have their projects at the monuments. They are encouraged locals should preserve the site and also deforestation and littering are to keep the environment clean. The community is involved in decision prohibited. making when it comes to issues affecting the monument. Projects are done free of charge. Employment at the sites is drawn from the TheFacilities that can be put in place in order to Attract Tourists: community provided there are people who are qualified. Rural The site needs electrification; there is need for a restaurant for electrification, the monument provided financial support. refreshments. What is amazing is that at Ngomakurira the electricity lines are there but the site has not been electrified. There is no water at Services to add in Order to Enhance Attractiveness of the Site: the facility. The features that are at Ngomakurira that attracts tourists There are a lot of services that the NMMZ can do. The problem is that includes: a cave, echo point, seasonal stream, there is a beacon which there is no adequate land. There are no camp sites. When it comes to one can view the mountain. There is also a need for adequate tour development, the place needs to have quality standard restaurants so guides at the site. One tourist interviewed said, “there is no one around as to attract visitors. A lot of ideas are there but there is no adequate in this place. Very few people visit the place. When it comes to services financial support from the government. provided, there are no services provided. The workers at Ngomakurira Marketing is a major weakness. The NMMZ official interviewed are just taking the money. There is no interest in telling people what said that a meeting with the team from the Zimbabwe Tourism the place it about, what used to happen here, one cannot travel from

Page 22 of 45 different parts of the world just to hear that drums used to be heard in conference centre about 1km from the site. One can ask, ‘how about this mountain. Tourists want to see things. What would be good is that accommodation provision, something like Inn on Great Zimbabwe’. the guys welcome you correctly. There is nothing that has been done There is a vending structure erected by ‘CAMPFIRE’ but it is in decay. here in terms of conservation. Instead of collecting money to pay the Naletale Ruins: Naletale Ruins are located in the Central Region. staff, they have to conserve the heritage”. The place seems to be isolated but has a lot of potential. There is need In addition, the monument is not being marketed very well. for wildlife to attract tourists. The site management is embarking on Marketing tends to be seasonal. Mostly they intensify the marketing a project in which the National Parks wants to create a small Game strategies during rainy season and then during the dry season they do Park and a wildlife fence being constructed by Insiza District, which not market the place and there are fewer tourists. is a sign of innovation. During the time of the study, the site was not attracting visitors. The site receives more than ten visitors per month. It was also pointed out that the locals feel that they are being shunned Locals hardly come. Excluding school children, the locals do not come out. What the society does not understand is that they are not being frequently because mostly there is nothing more interesting for them to shunned out, the monuments is protecting the area. Unfortunately a site see more than the site. The major challenge is that of marketing. There that is in a community, locals have attachment to the monument. They is no signpost along Bulawayo road (at Daisyfield, which is the shorter believe that they have communal ownership. Not everyone living in the route from Gweru) and a tourist can easily get lost. area has an attachment to the monument that is why there are so many challenges especially the challenge of poaching. The respondent argued The facilities are the site are not proper. The information centre is that there is a need to create awareness, awareness is more important just like a simple cottage, there was no creativity when it was contracted. than putting barriers at national monuments. Locals do not appreciate There are Blair Toilets. There is need for a lodge in place. The site is the value of the monument. Locals are contributing to deforestation. surrounded by farms. Therefore, there are not many challenges from When making bricks the area is large and unfenced. So some locals the community. especially children may climb the mountain without the approval Military and Aviation Museum: The Military and Aviation of the management. The headman was supposed to conscientise the Museum is located in Gweru (Central Region). The nature of community but the effort is not fruitful. The major problem is that the Zimbabwean heritage is so wide in the country that national museums locals are not aware of the value of the monument they are not given had to be decentralised up to regional level. Each region has a research adequate information. mandate. The central region was given a mandate to research on the Recommendations for Ngomakurira: There is need for military history and the mining history of the country. The NMMZ electrification of the area and an information center so that when official interviewed said, “most of our military history has aspects of the tourists come they can get adequate information of the site. There is colonial era. There are a few mining equipment that we have had from need for raising awareness to the locals on the need to preserve the site the pre historic and pre-colonial era. This is because during the past the since it is their legacy. The NMMZ official at the site said, “our sites mining prospects were low in this region. However, in the collection of should be affordable and they should offer many different activities military museum, they have the mining equipment that is currently in that cater for different age groups. They should offer many services like use in Zimbabwe and that which we had been used during the colonial restaurants, refreshments to liven up the places unlike what happens at era”. Ngomakurira where there are no services at all. They should preserve The military history that is at the museum is that which was used the sites like what happens at Ngomakurira the stream runs dry in dry during the pre-historic military history, apart from the arrows and bows season and nothing should be changed about that”. the museum has the collection, which in terms of colonial artefacts Tourists interviewed also had some recommendations. One of forms the basis of the military history collection. At the museum there them said, “if they want to keep up and improve the site they have to is also the aviation aspect. There is a collection of the equipment that provide decent toilets, information desks, they have to conserve the was used from 1945 when the heritage of this country was reactivated. site keep it natural. Disseminate information about the site. It is not all This was the period that formed the basis where history of aviation about money, it is all about preservation of nature”. really started. Pre-colonial, in the museum there are artefacts that were obtained in Europe even before colonialism. There are some guns that There is untapped potential at Ngomakurira. However, the head of were used around 1700. There are also arrows and bows that were used monuments explained that they are currently working on addressing pre-colonial. However, most of the artefacts that we have are definitely all the ills at Ngomakurira Heritage Site. They are working on colonial. improving the facility, electrification, road infrastructure. “There are challenges that we face hopefully by end 2016 things will have changed Lessons that users of the Military Museum Can Draw: The at Ngomakurira”, said the Head of Monuments in the Northern occupation of the country by Rhodes’s crew, organisationally the Region. There is some wildlife (antelope) but the problem of poaching. country was still young. Zimbabwe had no communication means There question is whether more wildlife be introduced. In some sites and roads that can be used to alert the people about the invasion. The visited, for example, Nalatale Ruins (Central Region), a fence is being occupation of Matabeleland, the Africans lost in battles even though erected in an area surrounding Naletale so that they contain wildlife. the whites where few in numbers, they had machinery, they had better There is also a possibility of a borehole to supply water (can the natural fire power, they were armed unlike the Africans. For instance, about stream be feed from a borehole so that natural swimming pools be five hundred people could be killed in one minute. There also lessons perennial, tourists, especially whites like to swim. There are overnight about mining. The NMMZ official said, “us Zimbabweans, we were not prayer sessions and the question is, “is all revenue being collected?’. educated but the gold was being mined and processed. The prospecting Ngomakurira is a multi-purpose site with a lot of potential. was done with indigenous and traditional methods. For example, a tree Proper offices and an informative centre are required at the could indicate the availability of minerals in the soil. That knowledge is site. There is a shopping centre (seem to be not active) and a church unique to Zimbabwe and it is viewed as heritage. Indigenous knowledge

Page 23 of 45 systems are the ones that were applied in the mining sector. The been designed in such a way that they empower the children because museums task is to capture these knowledge systems and preserve for they believe that they are the leaders of tomorrow. Because of lack of future generations”. However, due to resource restrains, the institution resources to put in place brochures, in the national strategic plan there is not being able to have their researchers go into the field to research. was anintention to print broachers, information sheets and place them Currently the knowledge that is in the museum was from oral accounts in all entry points of strategic areas. These include the airport and the from the elderly. They would record. As the case stands right now they borders. This is because tourists have not been aware of the heritage cannot go into the field. The organisation is aware of the reservoir of sites that we in Zimbabwe have. The most popular site that we have knowledge that is in the people. in Zimbabwe is Victoria Falls. The other areas have not been popular. “Our marketing is poor”. The Military Museum is also exploring innovative ideas so that it generate revenue. The Regional Director said, “museums has a tourism There are also difficulties in trying to acquire the knowledge that project; we are appealing to the government and the tourism sector. the people have in areas around them. The Regional Director said, “we The museum has an education program, because within this military want to give them the responsibility; we want them to be in partnership museum there is nothing much to interpret to the clients. A gun is a with the monuments in the drafting of management plans. Also within gun and one can actually see it from the artefacts that are there. The the schools, there is also a school in Shurugwi where we made an artefacts in the museum have not been as attractive as other museums. agreement that they preserve a historic site in the area. The school is Once one visits, no one would want to revisit again. When one sees a responsible for cutting grass and general maintenance of the area. This gun and a plane and a few artefacts there is nothing that can motivate was done to make sure that they own the program. To avoid clashes. that person to revisit again.” Therefore, in order to encourage revisits, However, the major challenge that we have are financial issues. We there are educational programs that have been run within the museum. have traditional cultural monuments and it is our responsibility to Within these programs exercises and assignments are given to school make sure that they do not fall off. The major problem is the issue of children and the pupils do those exercises and they might get excited funds to preserve our areas.” that they would want to come again. The museum should enhance exhibition. There are plans to spruce The programs have been included in education curriculums. An up the organisation’s exhibition. There are unique products that should outreach project has been initiated. There is a mobile museum that goes be marketed by the Military and Aviation Museum. For instance, to Masvingo. The team is involved in awareness campaigns. Informing there is a World War II Spitfire Fighter Jet (there are only two in the the communities on what heritage in Zimbabwe means, how they world, this one and the one in Canada. One can ask, ‘why not market should preserve that heritage and the issues that contribute towards it aggressively.’ Finally, one of the ways for marketing is the provision heritage in Zimbabwe. The museum informs the society on how they of quality services. The NMMZ needs to focus on areas that could be can communicate with museums and monuments when they have minor, for example, toilets. The toilets at the Military Museum were in discovered things that could be preserved for future generations. a ‘pathetic’ state when the researcher visited the site. The museum has also been embarking on primary schools visits. A Natural History Museum and Sites in the Western Region: Natural national primary schools’ quiz has been initiated as well, the museum history museum is located in Bulawayo. The museum has a potential of has an objective of informing the children to know their history, and becoming one of the major tourist attractions in the City. However, we want them to know how to preserve their history. The Regional NMMZ seem not to be making maximum use of this unique resource Director said, “we want to keep them aware that this heritage is very and is restricting visitors by their ‘strict’ adherence to closing times. important and how they should preserve it.” The researcher observed that there is no flexibility and the museum Partnerships at Military Museum and in the Central Region: The sticks to a rigid opening time of 830am to 5pm, everyday. There is a Military Museum has been trying to establish partnerships with mines need for flexibility and open for loner hours, especially on Friday and that are within the Midlands Province. These mines include Umki, Saturday. There is a restaurant at the museum and one can wonder Mimosa, Marowa and Sino. The regional Director said, “Sino helps why the museum cannot open till 10pm on Fridays and Saturday. the museum very much; good relations have been established with the People usually like to go out during weekends and NMMZ could take mine especially with fuel and other resources. Nevertheless, with these advantage of that social behaviour and open long hours. other mines partnership is yet to be established. Project proposals have been drafted and the mines are still to respond. The government does In addition to the Natural History Museum, in Western region not have adequate financial resources so there is need for the museum there are three World Heritage Sites: Victoria Falls, Matobo Cultural to partner with these mines and other private players.” Landscape and Khami. There are also Classes, which define heritage sites in Western Region of NMMZ in terms of development and Most of the activities that have been pointed, for instance the quiz, mobile museum are a sign of innovativeness on the part of national importance. Some of the sites that fall within the list are Old Bulawayo, museums and monuments. There are other areas that NMMZ has been Inyathi Old Mission, Stromatolite geological formation site, Gwanda innovative so that they improve the attractiveness of the site. In this Cave of hands, Provincial Heroes Acres, Fort Tuli, Chamunonwa, regard, the Regional Director said, “the museums approached a number Nkankezi, Filabusi Memmorial, Indaba Tree, Orbicular Granite site of embassies; the French embassy was responsible for the restoration and many more. The sites need to be developed in terms of visitor of the Khami National monument. The museums approached the US facilities, interpretive centres or site museums. A national marketing Embassy and it funded the restoration of the Naletati ruins”. programme, which incorporates all heritage sites should be developed. Marketing Strategies that have been Adopted: The study showed Access roads, visitor friendly facilities like energy sources; lights, that the marketing strategies are not quite in touch with the Morden cooking facilities, camping sites, toilets, bathrooms, running water. trends. The museums used to have brochures but most of them have Internet services like Wi Fi. There is a need for interpretive centres, not been updated. However, educational training programs have brochures, curios, tour guiding and refreshments.

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Visitation at heritage sites heritage sites is not in line with national plans for tourism development. For example, the Ministry of Tourism and Hospitality Industry plans Zimbabwe received 1 880 028 tourists in 2014, up from 1 832 570 to grow its revenue from the current $800 million to $5 billion by 2018. in 2013. Of this figures, heritage sites received less than 250000 tourists There is a need for NMMZ to attract more visitors to the heritage sites (less than 14%). Table 4 shows the visitation statistics from year 2009 so that it moves in line with national plans and global trends. Globally, to 2015 while Figure 4 shows the trends. tourism is a world-wide giant industry which has a high increase Figure 4 shows that there was marked increase in the number of rate such that UNWTO's Vision forecasts that international arrivals visitors to heritage sites between the year 2009 and 2010. Economic are expected to reach over 1.56 billion by the year 2020, which were stabilisation due to the adoption of the multi-currency system could 842 million in 2006 (World Tourism Organization, 2015). Heritage be one of reasons for that increase, especially for local visitors. From tourism is also, increasingly being used as a tool to stimulate regional 2011 to 2015, there has been a marginal increase in visitorship. The development in rural and urban areas and is growing faster than most low growth rate in the number of tourists seem to be at variance with other tourism segments and at a higher rate than tourism worldwide. the core objectives contained in NMMZ’s strategic plan (2012-2015). The influence of ownership orientation on services provided The core objectives in the strategic plan included the need to improve heritage awareness from 30% to 50% by 2015, to improve generation at heritage sites in Zimbabwe and management of financial resources from 10% to 30% by 2015, and Ownership orientation and service delivery to improve customer satisfaction from 20% to 50% by 2015. Ownership orientation and working hours: The study sought to Furthermore, the low increase in the number of tourists visiting establish whether the employees could work overtime even if there is no allowance. One interviewee said, “it is difficult to work without

250,000 overtime allowance”. One of the reasons is that there are no ownership claims to profit. Ownership structure influences the extent to which 200,000 management is committed towards realising profits. SOEs, by virtue of being owned by government, have been characterised by the ‘no own- 150,000 ership’ culture, thereby limiting drive towards profits. According to Omoyefa, loss making in the SOEs, therefore, pushed for privatisation, 100,000 which was a marked feature of the structural adjustment programmes (SAPs). Privatization of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) has become Number of Tourists 50,000 a key component of the structural reform process and globalization strategy in many economies. Several developing and transition econo- 0 mies have embarked on extensive privatization programmes in the last 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 one and a half decades or so, as a means of fostering economic growth, Years attaining macroeconomic stability, and reducing public sector borrow-

Northern Eastern Central Western Southern Total ing requirements arising from corruption, subsidies and subventions to unprofitable SOEs. By the end of 1996, all but five countries in Africa FFigureigure 44:: TTrendrend i nin V Visitationisitation t oto H Heritageeritage S Sites.ites. had divested some public enterprises within the framework of macroeconomic reform and liberalization.

National Museums and Monuments: Total Visitor Statistics in Zimbabwe Region 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Northern Region 23 406 35 286 40 520 50 556 46 789 48 739 50 987 Central Region 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Locals-Private Tours 877 1 224 1 394 1 696 1 630 1 847 Educational Tours 8 745 12 563 17 594 17 949 18 760 17 801 Foreigners 54 88 74 49 95 91 TOTAL 9 965 14 151 19 349 19 951 21 500 20 727 21 491 Eastern Region 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Locals- Private Tours 3776 3875 2302 3685 3516 3429 3263 Educational Tours 2242 6055 8867 8349 8644 7632 7642 Foreigners 2 60 107 100 95 85 114 Totals 6020 9990 11276 12134 12255 11146 11019 Western Region 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Locals Private tours 16883 18601 28661 28628 25479 34065 36802 Educational Tours 1493 34428 25578 20577 19413 25597 28151 Foreigners 1190 3246 4574 5951 6912 8558 8008 Total 19566 56275 58813 55156 51804 68220 72961 Southern Region 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Locals Private tours 17583 16201 28442 29654 26432 42765 35438 Educational Tours 1542 43274 26368 22537 19764 26343 29754 Foreigners 1075 3265 4436 6025 7036 8643 8753 Total 20200 62740 59246 58216 53232 77751 73945 Table 4: Visitor Statistics: 2009 to 2015.

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The inability of public enterprises to contribute to development • Beliefs or convictions about the world and how it works. These arose not only from their inefficiencies due to their monopoly or beliefs are based on and reinforced by personal experience. protected status but also because of lax governance and oversight. The The individuals with whom he or she associates can influence checks-and-balances that come with private ownership are essential. a person’s beliefs. The pressures that shareholders and external directors can exert on • Values are the community's assumptions about what ideals are managers help to improve efficiency. More so, capital markets can worth pursuing, for example, striving for success or avoiding exert pressure on companies to allocate scarce resources economically debt. Values are also based on personal experience and the and to operate within ‘hard budget’ constraints, and that managers influence of the members of the community with whom an who are responsible to shareholders and outside directors can exert on individual associates. workers to improve productivity, are all usually missing from public enterprises. Where SOEs were too strongly controlled by the State, they An organisation's culture is determined by numerous elements, often became inflexible bureaucracies. such as symbols, rituals, ideologies, language, tales, assumptions, relationships and humour. The symbols of organisational culture Additionally, SOEs face conflicting goals that affect the efficiency. include the following the architecture of the buildings, the arrangement The lack of profit-orientation culture prevents SOEs from identifying of offices, the name of the organisation and the use of departmental ways to improve efficiency. Managers in SOEs tend to relax because title, and the way outsiders are dealt with. little revenues can be ‘compensated’ by government subsidies. Efforts to enhance performance fall to second place and weak accountability In addition, organisation culture is often reflected and created systems prevent the development of an ownership structure that triggers by the building and offices of the organisation. The physical efficient behaviour from senior management. The absence of high and environment of the organisation reflects employees’ pride in their performance-oriented cultures resulted in countries like China taking work, the importance of ostentation and tradition for them and the a paradigm shift on how governments treat the SOEs. Woetzel [6] relative status of members of the organisation. In many organisations, argues, “the Chinese government privatised and commercialised most top management always occupies the top floors in the buildings. SOEs.” The directors of SOEs in China became accountable for the Likewise, the physical arrangement of offices also has certain cultural successes and the failures of their institutions. In short, SOEs in China implications. The arrangement of chairs and tables at meetings makes underwent a cultural change process. The same cultural shift process an explicit statement about the relationships between employees, could be beneficial to SOEs in Zimbabwe. managers, customers and so forth. Ownership orientation and Outlook of Administration Offices: Additional characteristics manifested by culture are the name The researcher observed that the outlook of administration offices, of the organisation, departmental titles, and slogans used within the especially at Great Zimbabwe, leaves a lot to be desired. Offices for staff organisation. A specific slogan introduced together with a new strategy have broken down furniture and the buildings are in need of repainting. may be extremely forceful. More so, the way in which outsiders are The same situation was also observed at the Military Museum. The handled in organizations symbolizes organizational values. A reception poor state of office furniture and offices may not foster a culture of area with a friendly receptionist who greets all visitors with a charming seriousness on the part of employees. The offices and furniture are part smile and gives them her undivided attention conveys a totally different of symbols and ‘rituals’ that demonstrate the value that one should place image to the setup in which visitors have difficulty in attracting the in his or her work. The nature of office furniture also helps in shaping receptionist’s attention on arrival. Another manifestation of this the personalities of employees. Every organisation has a particular relationship is the way in which prospective employees are greeted and culture, which is almost like a personality. It comprises an omnipresent taken into service in the organization. Socialization of new employees set of assumptions which is often difficult to fathom and which directs is another aspect that indicates organizational culture. activities within the organisation. In a nutshell, corporate culture may Competent Human Resources at NMMZ: One Regional Director be defined as the beliefs and values shared by people in an organisation. interviewed said that the strength of national museums is within its Just as an individual's personality determines his behaviour, shared human resources. Most of the employees are adequately educated and values and beliefs form the foundation of a particular culture that most of the times they are invited into other countries to present papers influences the actions and activities in that organisation. and share the information. From there we also note some experiences Organisations are made up of people and not simply of buildings, from those countries that we can note here in Zimbabwe. For example production facilities, products, markets, strategic analyses and the aviation museum, the shaping of the shades was borrowed from New technological innovations. Every organisation has its own unique Zealand, and then the display of artefacts was borrowed from South personality, which is known as its corporate culture. The heart and Africa. The museums borrow whenever they can and the exposure the soul of an organisation is its people. Each of these individuals has his get from various fields is enrichment to National Museums. However, or her own value system and code of conduct. Furthermore, there are emphasis should be on the provision of adequate trained guides at the certain fixed patterns of behaviour, and leaders have their own value sites. Heritage is dead if there is no interpretation. For tourists it needs systems in the organisation. A combination of all these factors gives an to become alive and it can only become alive if someone is at home to organisation its particular personality and corporate culture. interpret. Culture in an organisation, also termed corporate culture, can be The Need for Employee Empowerment:Empowerment of defined as the beliefs and values shared by people in an organisation employees is essential for ensuring the effective management of heritage [54]. It is akin to the personality of the organisation. It therefore refers sites. Empowerment is a process, and change does not occur overnight. to a set of basic assumptions that work so well that they are regarded as There are many indicators of success, which are open management, valid assumptions within the enterprise. These assumptions are upheld team spirit, and decentralised control. Open management entails a as the correct way to do things or understand problems in the particular situation in which team members are actively involved in meetings, enterprise. The term ‘basic assumptions’ refers to the following; evaluation and analysis of relevant issues, and identifying creative

Page 26 of 45 solutions. In addition, managers support their skill and autonomy, these goals; and strength and weaknesses of the current workforce. A and allow team members to exercise control in these matters. There is careful analysis of these items provides valuable information to design also team spirit. Group members and managers show a high degree of effective training activities [57]. enthusiasm, and company morale is high. For this reason, team spirit Firms that implement total quality management (TQM) invest is important. Decentralised control is another option. Team members heavily in training for employees at different levels. Without training, it function with autonomy, overlapping roles, and functions. However, is difficult to improve the performance of employees. The Total quality there are clear lines of authority. management aspiration of continuous improvement in meeting Consequently, from the preceding discussion, it can be ‘inferred’ that customer requirements is supported by a thorough learning orientation, employee empowerment is a process of distribution and redistribution including substantial investments in training and the widespread use of of power (authority) to management and employees. The reason is statistical and interpersonal techniques designed to promote individual that power is in the hands of management who can determine how to and team learning. In view of the aspect of education and training, this share it with employees. Nevertheless, there are differences between the research seeks to apply this principle in ensuring that there would powers of managers in the corporate world and the authority the leaders be continuous improvement of total quality management concept in in the SOEs have. Various government departments have different Zimbabwean SOEs. As a natural follow up to the concept of building constitutional roles. The managers in SOEs possess some degree of quality in to people, the view of training would start with management legal powers in addition to the normal supervisory responsibilities of and then workers. When the workers and management receive managers in the corporate world. Distributing statutory powers has its training on the essence of TQM application in an organisation, and challenges. Despite the advantages to both managers and employees, make it a continuous process, employees would appreciate the need implementing employee empowerment initiatives in organisations is to get involved and participate in the implementation of the concept. not an easy process. According to Kandula [55], both managers and The application of employee involvement and participation becomes employees often resist the implementation of employee empowerment imperative. programmes. The primary reason behind resistance is the wrong Employee Involvement and Participation: Daniel states that perception by managers who assume that employees will welcome the people are a fundamental component within any successful developing initiative (since it is to their benefit). organisation. Take away the people and the organisation is nothing. However, according to Johnson advancement does not happen. Take away the people’s motivation, commitment and ability to work Employees can either perceive it as ‘another gimmick’ played by together in well organised teams and again the organisation is nothing. managers to exploit them or fear the increased levels of accountability, Conversely, inspire the people to work well, creatively, productively which are often associated with empowerment initiatives. In addition, and the organisation can fly. Logically therefore, the development in some organisations, empowerment is not welcome because it and proper utilization of people are vital to the success of all quality is ‘perceived’ as a hint that management is deciding to implement management initiatives. In view of the preceding, it is clear that downsizing procedures. Another dimension of organisational barriers employees must be involved in the running of the organisation, that comes in the way of empowerment is from top management. and should be trained and informed about the organisation. This There is a perception that empowered employees will demand more encourages commitment and interest, leading to fulfilment and job compensation. The empowerment process could lead them to identify satisfaction [57]. their real potential. Juran and Gryna defined employee participation as the degree If there were staff empowerment programmes, any demotion in the to which employees in a firm engage in various quality management future would force them to leave the organisation. Lambert stated that activities. By participating in quality management activities, employees taking back power from employees after an empowerment process is acquire new knowledge, see the benefits of the quality disciplines, often a big element of fear for management. There is a strong possibility and obtain a sense of accomplishment by solving quality problems. that employees would resign if leaders reduce the power hitherto Juran and Gryna proceeded to explain that participation is decisive in workers. For these reasons, the concept of employee empowerment inspiring action on quality management. An important point to take is not ‘implemented’ in its full format in many organisations. For note of is that things such as teamwork, employee suggestions, and this reason, giving power to staff remains a highly misperceived and employee commitment exemplify employee participation. misjudged idea in the corporate sector. The aim of a team is to improve the input and output of any Building Employee Capability: Cherrington [56] stated that stage. Deming states that a team may be composed of people from total quality management has to be supported by building employee different staff areas, everyone having a chance to contribute ideas, capability through education, training and development. Cherrington plans and figures. Teamwork is sorely needed throughout the firm; [56] defined training as the acquisition of specific skills or knowledge. it can compensate one’s strength for another’s weakness. Dean and Training programmes attempt to orient employees on how to perform Bowen concurs with Deming in that they said that, teamwork can be particular activities or a specific job [57]. characterised as collaboration between managers and non-managers, between different functions. Dean and Bowen went on to state that, Cherrington [56] went on to state that education is much more team work practices include identifying the needs of all groups and general, and attempts to provide employees with general knowledge firms involved in decision making, trying to find solutions that will that can be applied in many different settings. Cherrington [56] went benefit everyone involved, and sharing responsibility and credit. on to suggest that education and training require a systematic approach and the development of a sound education and training program, Schein [9] stated that to achieve effective employee participation, systematically gathering data about the employees or the firm’s employees should be committed to their jobs and that job commitment needs. A good assessment includes an analysis of how well the firm is can be defined in terms of one’s loyalty, identification and involvement achieving its goals, the skills needed by the workforce to accomplish with the firm. Davis added flavour by stating that if employees are

Page 27 of 45 committed to their jobs, they will be motivated to spend more energy received from the government has been specifically for conservation. on providing high process, product, and service quality to satisfy the Unlike when one look at National parks who look after wildlife, he/ firm’s customers. Deming highlighted that in order to have effective she would find that from their initiation because their resources have employee participation, employees should be encouraged to report been regarded as natural and renewable. Therefore, the element of their own working problems as well as problems they find in other using the resources they manage for money was conceptualised from areas of the firm. Employees should be encouraged to inform top the beginning. Nevertheless, with regard to National Museums and managers or supervisors concerning conditions that need correction, Monuments it has just been the concept of preserving and all national for instance, inherited defects, machines not maintained, and poor Museums and Monuments board of directors have been so much tools. More importantly, employees should be encouraged to fix their concerned with preserving, making sure that structures survive, they own working problems. Ishikawa identified the benefits associated with do not fall. When they fall they are restored and reconstructed in the employee participation and involvement concerning the concept of manner in which they are done. total quality management, and highlighted them as follows: The drive to develop these sites as tourism entities has only come I. motivated, committed and involved people within the recently, at the realisation of little flow of revenue from the government. organisation; In this regard, one interviewee said, “we started thinking why can’t we market these sites for generation of revenue even for their own II. innovation and creativity in furthering the organisation’s preservation. Therefore, in the beginning it was for National Museums objectives; and and Monuments to charge minimal rates for them to be able to just III. people accountable for their own performance, people eager to preserve the sites without necessarily it being a business entity. So it is participate in and contribute to continuous improvement. just recently when began to think in the direction in which we can use these resources for income generation”. The Level of Innovation and Initiative of NMMZ in the Management of Heritage Sites: Innovation is about being creative The research established that one of the innovative ways that have and coming up with new ways of doing things. Maiyaki [58] defined been adopted by the NMMZ in the management of heritage sites is innovation as a process of making changes, large or small-scale, radical the strategic alliances. One of the Regional Directors interviewed said, and incremental to products, processes, and services that result in the “we have had partners. We have a program that we do that is called introduction of something new. Innovations add value to the customer National Heritage Education Blitz. This program is funded by partners. and may create new products or services to serve new markets, enabling We have had so many partners in this program. Additionally, the entities to expand market base or range of beneficiaries. Alternatively, National Museums and Monuments’ budget is largely donor funded. it may lead to product or service improvements, such as better Most of the partners are international partners though the partners are quality or service flexibility. To be called an innovation, an idea must not many. Most of the work at great Zimbabwe has been donor funded. be replicable at an economical cost and must satisfy a specific need. At Domboshava we are funded as well. Government grant has been Innovation involves deliberate application of information, imagination minimal for quite some time”. and initiative in deriving greater or different values from resources, The National Museums and Monuments had alliances with the and includes all processes by which new ideas are generated and ZTA and they have had alliances with NGOs. Nothing much has converted into useful products. In business, innovation often results happened when it comes to partnerships with the private sector except when ideas are applied by the company in order to further satisfy the when Museums and Monuments have worked with the private sector needs and expectations of the customers. It is also essential to note that in Great Zimbabwe and Khami ruins. innovativeness is closely related to entrepreneurship, which is about taking risks and coming up with new ideas. The concept of strategic alliances has become widely used in the business language to refer to the different type of partnership When responding to question on whether NMMZ has been agreements between two or more companies that pursue clear strategic innovative, one Regional Director said, “in terms of innovativeness, collaboration objectives, with different levels of possible integration we have been innovative. In terms of the national tourism plan, Great among the members. Strategic alliances are partnerships of two or Zimbabwe for instance, there is a village where there are ladies with more corporations or business units that work together to achieve pottery and guys who sell curios, this shows that things have improved a strategically significant objectives that are mutually beneficial. great deal in terms of the level of understanding within the community. In Matobo things have improved. The guides there are excellent. There A number of authors have written about strategic alliances. These has been a policy that has been adopted to train the guys in order to include Amaldoss and Staeline [59], Isoraite [60], Shchipanova [61], make the monuments live. Live in the sense that if one is at Rhode’s Uddin and Akhter [62], Vogel and Pires da Cunha [63], and Zamir et grave begins to have greater knowledge of the monument. In Binga, al, [64]. All these authors agree that strategic alliances have advantages they have a community museum. Binga Museum is live and there is an to organisations. The partnerships can be with suppliers and clients. interpretation of the life of the Tonga people. In addition, Amaldoss and Staeline [59], Isoraite [60], Kittel [65], and Zamir et al. [64] all contend that firms also use cross-border alliances Participants also said that, at Great Zimbabwe, National Museums to transform themselves or to better use their competitive advantages and Monuments provides accommodation for visitors, there are in the rapidly changing global economy. For example, Kittel stated that camp areas as well. The National Museums and Monuments have not GEC, a UK based company entered into strategic alliances in order to moved with speed to provide specifically for discussion. The point of diversify. departure for the National Museums and Monuments is that for years the mandate of National Museums and Monuments has not been in However, not all strategic alliances are attractive and authors like profit making or in developing the sites for revenue. The mandate Thompson and Strickland argued that some alliances fail. Failures national mandate since 1972 have been to preserve the monuments can be attributed to a variety of reasons, but all revolve around lack of and for other people to come and see the monuments. The grant they perceived benefits to one or more of the partners. Benefits may never

Page 28 of 45 have been realized in some cases, arid different goals and management external factors like uncertainty regarding technology and complex styles may have caused dissatisfaction in other alliances. Thompson economic environment motivate commitment in relationships. and Strickland also contended that alliances and joint ventures with Moreover, Zamir et al, [64] provided another classification of foreign partners have their pitfalls. non-equity strategic alliances. These include outsourcing, affiliate When analysing the types of strategic alliances that have been marketing, technology licensing, product licensing, franchising, created and implemented by different companies, academics tend to research and development, and distribution relationships. classify them based on different criteria. Writers like Savunen (2009), Service delivery is about delivering the right good and services to Theriault and Edwards [66], and Vogel and Pires da Cunha classified clients at the right price. The needs of clients are dynamic due to the strategic alliances based on the areas of collaboration. The strategic changes in the environment, therefore, companies need to constantly alliances can be mostly summarised into three dimensions: joint adapt. Markets are moving so quickly that is very difficult for one venture, equity strategic alliance, and non-equity strategic alliance. company to stay current on all technologies, resources, competencies, Joint Venture: This is when two or more firms form a legally and information needed to attack, and be successful in those markets. independent firm to share their collaborative capabilities and resources As a result, companies are turning to strategic alliances as means for to achieve competitive advantages in the market is termed as joint ensuring the provision of quality services. Authors like Mowla [68], venture in the form of strategic alliance. Joint ventures are effecting in and Zamir et al, [64] agree that strategic alliances offer a means for establishing long-term relationship and in transferring tacit knowledge. companies to access new markets, expand geographic reach, obtain Because it cannot be codified, tacit knowledge is learned through cutting-edge technology, and complement skills and core competencies experiences such as those taking place when people from partner firms relatively fast. A network cooperative strategy is particularly effective work together in joint venture. Expertise and experience in particular when it is formed by firms clustered together, as with Silicon Valley in field foster the sustainable competitive advantage. Tacit knowledge is California and Singapore’s Silicon Island [68]. an important source of competitive advantage for many firms [60]. More so, Isoraite [60] stated that strategic alliances have the In a joint venture, participating firms share resources and potential to allow companies to create new products, reduce costs, participate in the operations management equally. For example, Sprint penetrate additional markets, pre-empt competitors, generate and Virgin group’s joint venture, called Virgin Mobile USA, targets more revenue, and, therefore, create value for customers. In Japan, 15-to-30 years-olds as customers for pay-as-you-go wireless phone Shchipanova [61] argued that many domestic alliance arrangements are service. Brand (from Virgin) and service (from Sprint) are the primary formed with an eye to extending a helping hand to a less-than-sterling capabilities the firms contribute this joint venture [67]. In another company. Japanese companies have achieved an enviable reputation example, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Warner Brothers, Universal for relational capability, infusing trust and reciprocity into their Pictures, Paramount Pictures, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Inc. each transactions with customers and suppliers so as to spread the costs and have a 20% share in joint venture to use the internet to deliver feature burdens of product and process development, quality assurance, and films on demand to customers [67]. customer service. In the aviation sector, the Star alliance, a group of five world-class airlines that was established in 1997, improved service Equity Strategic Alliance: Ownership percentage is in equity delivery. Shumate and O’Connor [69] argued that the alliance brought strategic alliance is not equal. Two or more firms own the shares of together networks, lounge access, check-in services, ticketing and newly formed company differently according to their contribution dozens of other services to improve the travel experience for customers in resources and capability sharing with ultimate goal of developing and efficiencies for the carriers. competitive advantages. Internationalization of strategic alliances focuses on the linkages between two or more different firms’ However, strategic alliances are not risk free. Authors like Kittel management capabilities and operations activities. The different [65], and Zamir et al, [64] agree that there are problems associated corporate cultures are matched into one goal in the strategic alliances with alliances. According to Kittel [65], more than half of all strategic when it crosses the boundaries of the country. Many foreign direct alliances in the 1990’s were deemed failures in one way or another. investments such as those made by Japanese and U.S. companies in In addition, transactions cost theory suggests that firms entering into China are completed through equity strategic alliances [64]. alliances are potentially vulnerable to the opportunistic behaviours of Non-equity Strategic Alliance: A non-equity strategic alliance is their partners that impede achieving commitment [64]. Opportunistic less formal than a joint venture. To ensure competitive advantages two behaviour is those conscious deceitful behaviours engaged in by one or more companies form an alliance in a contract basis rather a separate party to the exchange that are meant to enhance their own position or company and therefore do not take equity shares. They share their outcomes, usually at the expense of the other party. These opportunistic unique capabilities and resources to create competitive advantages. actions may take the form of misrepresenting competences, limited Because of this, there is an informal relationship is built among the commitment of resources to the alliance, holding specific investments partners. Consequently, requires less formal relationship and partner by the partner hostage, appropriating private information, or premature commitments than other forms of strategic alliances. exit from the relationship. The implementation process of non-equity alliance is simple than Moreover, Zamir et al, [64] stated that unsuccessful alliances the others. Since it is less formal relationship in non-equity alliances, cause many losses to the partners of alliance. Some of the causes are does not need that much of experience likes others. In a complex venture as following: where success necessitates transfer of implied knowledge and expertise, non-equity strategic alliances are unsuitable because of their relative 1. Problems relating control of strategy implementation is a informality and lower commitment. However, firms today increasingly factor in failure of the alliance. When strategy implementation use this type of alliance in many different forms such as licensing goes out of control of any of the organization in the alliance agreement, distribution agreements and supply contracts [64]. The then the alliance starts moving towards failure.

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2. When one organization depends solely on the partners of other other’s specialised skills, ability to work well with others and decision alliances for skills, it is a drawback for the organization that making ability [69]. depends on others. There are certain factors that are important to achieve success at 3. When the concept of unequal gains prevail in alliance, partner each stage of alliance. In first stage of alliance, alliances are formed by getting less out of the alliance than those partners who gain scrutinising and selecting a suitable and reliable strategic partner, in more can cause problems and disagreement which can lead to the second stage the alliances are set, designed, job description and failure. ownership at each level is made. Third stage is the managing and post formation evaluation stage, which includes supervising the perceived 4. When the partners in alliance do not manage the project worth of outcome [70]. According to Zamir et al, [64] several key properly, it creates trouble when it is not planned that how, factors for strategic alliance formation and its success are important who, when and where the process should take place and how to consider. If a company overlooks the critical process of intensive much time and resources must be committed to manage the analysis, designing, managing and evaluation any strategic move while alliance. The partners must plan and monitor the progress of practicing alliance, it can bear unrecoverable loss. each step regularly. 5. Conflicts between the partners to decide the objectives and The influence of profit orientation on marketing of heritage plans can cause a change in the viability and relation of a sites as tourism products particular alliance. Importance of marketing in tourism: Marketing is a combination 6. When the strategic alliances lose control on basic strategy and of management task and decisions aimed at meeting opportunities they depend upon the alliance for growth of its overall business, and threats in dynamic environment in such a way that its market and fail to concentrate on alliance goal and their organization offerings lead to the satisfaction of consumers needs and wants in goal separately then conflicts arise and partners may become such a way that the objectives of the enterprise the consumer and the competitors. society are achieved. Kotler advocates that “marketing is the business function which identifies current unfulfilled needs and wants, defines 7. Differences in cultural values may lead to failure as culture and measures their magnitude determines which target market the clashes and different thinking can create a situation where organization can best serve and decides on appropriate product parties in organizations disagree to some aspects of agreement. services and programs to serve these markets”. 8. Different cultures, environment and rules prevailing in partner Market perceptions play a critical role in destination promotion organizations within the same nationality also cause failure of because tourism is an intangible product which cannot be physically strategic alliances. experienced before the actual travel. Therefore decision to travel is 9. When strategic alliances are created, many job positions and determined by how the destination is perceived in the markets. These their descriptions are changed to achieve the goal of alliance. perceptions are formed through word of mouth, media reports, country There are role ambiguity and uncertainty about specific roles travel advice, websites, social media and mobile based technologies that may bind organizations from fulfilling their obligations amongst a myriad of communication platforms. Marketing is needed created in the situation of alliance. to attract both existing and potential customers by creating awareness; to particular products and services provide by different travel 10. A partner may create multiple alliances with other competing supplies. Marketing also plays a key role in trying to achieve customer organizations which may affect the alliance. satisfaction in order to meet the needs and wants of specific customers 11. Antitrust regulations can fail an alliance. It can limit the by generating repeat business customers. benefits of an alliance by inviting governmental intervention. • Firstly domestic tourist have increased due to the appreciation Despite the problems associated with strategic alliances, authors of the of the National Heritage site. like Isoraite [60], Mowla [68], and Savunen [67] provided some ways • tourist have also increased because of the aggressive marketing for ensuring that alliances are established and become successful. of the site by the National Museum and Moments and Moments According to Mowla [68], to make a strategic alliance succeed, its of Zimbabwe, the Zimbabwe Ministry and Zimbabwe Tourism managers must be able to create an environment of trust, maintaining Authority broad strategic vision and feel genuine empathy for others, even those • Significant changes shows that the number of foreign tourist who are still competitors in other areas. The concept of mutually have significantly changed; from December 2014 to January beneficial is important. As in every business relationship, the idea of 2015 from 4,823 to 5,000. Then in the preceding January to a win-lose situation is far from being accepted. Seeking for win-win opportunities for all the members of the alliance is a critical element for March 2015 they has been a great change, from 6, 507 to 8,000 the success of such partnership in the future. in the same period the previous year at Great Zimbabwe. Trust is another factor which is critical in a strategic alliance since Activities conducted by the NMMZ to market heritage sites: each partner depends on the other to share information and to satisfy Marketing is one of the weakest functions in the NMMZ. The National mutual goals. Trust can be examined from two distinct perspectives: Museums and Monuments have never had a marketing department character-based trust and competence-based trust. Character-based since its inception. In 2013/2014 they started to involve a marketing trust emphasises full awareness of each other’s true strategic intentions, department. What National Museums and Monuments have done the willingness to be honest about problems and to maintain is have people who point reference. The institution does not have a confidentiality about strategic plans and key information vis-à-vis marketing manager in the organisation. Marketing has largely been ad- third parties. Competence-based trust relies on knowledge about each hoc, has not been well structured and well coordinated. It is just bits and

Page 30 of 45 pieces of marketing ideas being thrown around. However, they have value upon to one’s holiday in Zimbabwe. There must be a number participated in tourism efforts Sanganayi-Sanganayi and Agricultural of things that attracts a tourist to visit Zimbabwe. These additional shows in all the provinces including the Harare Agricultural Show. products add value to the holiday. Museums and Monuments have done the traditional methods of Heritage sites have different market segments. They might be brochures but they in most cases are outdated. divided into two segments that are the international market and the The marketing strategies that NMMZ use include moving around domestic market. For instance, in Domboshava there are a much schools, companies, attending festivals and Indabas, Sanganayi and diminished number of international tourists that go there. But the local, ZITF so that they meet international and national clients. Great domestic market especially Harare, is a major area. The strategies differ Zimbabwe has a website. NMMZ also market via the website and from the strategies that are done at the Victoria Falls because some of constantly update information on the site, although it is national. them for the local tourists will be useless. Therefore, one need to be more focused, strategies should be customised for each and every site. Publicity by use of brochures: These will consist of a brief detail If they are generalised then they won’t be able to enhance the service of the attraction or facilities around it, photographs to show what it delivery at the monuments. Therefore, a strategy depends on the type of looks like. Their main purpose is to attract the readers to the particular heritage site and the tourists it attracts. It depends on who visits there. destination. So strategies are determined by the type of visitors. What needs to be Use of internet websites and social network platforms: These will done? If one visits rural areas there are a lot of bushman things but give full information, photos and maps of the site under consideration they cannot attract international tourists. The major issues are that are like facebook, twitter, Instagram. Advertising on special tourism events people aware of the site. There is also a need to protect the sites. like carnival and Sanganai programs where buyers and sellers meet and Suggestions for marketing of heritage sites: The participants said get an opportunity to showcase the products. The word of mouth by that marketing strategies were being utilised. Nevertheless, on the word former visitors and encouraging local and international travel agencies vibrant, it has not been vibrant. The focus for quite a long time has to put Great Zimbabwe on flyers in order to create its awareness and been that of preservation and interpretation. In addition, part of the publicity of the destination. reason was the structure of the organisation. The museums have been By advertising: By use of broadcasted media on the local television supported by the government all along; the government were paid for and also by print media e.g. featuring in flight magazines in domestic the services and development activities at monuments so the role of airports. national monuments was to preserve the sites. They were just stewards of monuments and making sure that people understand what is there. Increased sales promotions: Whereby they give discounts for a However, that has changed in a way that National Monuments want to large number of people or people from the same organisation, especially establish a marketing department. What is needed is an understanding during their low peak season. of the issues of tourist attraction for the personnel in the marketing Participating on tourism events: For instance on carnival programs department. One has to understand the things that drive tourists and and Sanganai which are held every year. come up with strategies. Pricing structures used at Great Zimbabwe and other facilities The very successful examples can be picked from Midlands. The around it: education officers have developed curriculum tools, the curriculum of schools. Students are given homework based on their tour. Therefore, Discount pricing–This can be done by offering reduced prices. We it is not just a tour to the military museum but it is a tour that is part find that historical monuments if they is a certain number or group of of the curriculum. It is all about awareness creation. The focus was not people from a certain place they can be given a certain percentage as a profitability. However, it is done to instil value or appreciation within discount. This was done at the Great Zimbabwe monuments. the locals of the monuments. Variable Pricing- This is when different prices are set for different There are events that are in place to market heritage sites, for seasons for the year for the same product or service. This concept can instance, the museum week and cultural week. One Regional Director be applied for accomodation offered at or around The Great Zimbabwe. said, “the NMMZ has plans, several plans. It is actually the process For example, in times of low business prices should go down and during of putting these plans into action that is the challenge we have. We the peak season or holidays prices go up since the demand will be high. have development plans. The organisation has a development plan for This is helpful in increasing tourists arrivals to Great Zimbabwe area. Chinhoyi. The plan came out in 2012. There is poor management and Special Offers- This is when customers receive something for the department has to enhance our marketing plans and strategies”. value for their money or something for free. This can also be used for Promotion can play an important role in meeting educational accommodation e.g. at the Great Zimbabwe Hotel they were offering and financial goals and objectives. If a site can accommodate greater free accommodation and paying of meals at discounts for children numbers, and has a mechanism for retaining tourism earnings, it can below 12 years. These are mainly offered at particular seasons. be promoted to draw in additional visitors and generate increased Facilities that can be provided at heritage sites: The research revenue for sustaining operations, solving management problems and established that a number of facilities can be provided at heritage sites. meeting goals and objectives. Many simple and low-cost promotional These include informative centres, camping sites, accommodation, actions are possible; the manager can select those that are within the proper sanitation facilities and amenities like swimming pools. NMMZ site’s capacity to carry out. In addition, many of the skills and materials should be aware of the fact that heritage sites from a tourism perspective involved overlap with those used in interpretation programmes. are special sites. They are special products. If one is in Japan, possibly Promoting a site to help finance management operations:A what forces the person to come to Zimbabwe is not necessarily the portion of visitor fees should be set aside to help finance promotional Khami Ruins. Khami Ruins is an add-on attraction; it is an incremental activities. This will start the cycle of attracting additional visitors,

Page 31 of 45 thereby generating increased revenue for operations. A mechanism (SWOT) can be used to identify gaps between a site’s promotion should be set up for retaining a portion of the earnings. This will create strategy and tourism trends. A SWOT analysis is a marketing tool the necessary incentive to promote increased visitation. Even with such used to evaluate a site’s promotional abilities by examining the a mechanism in place, some sites may need outside funding to begin strengths and weaknesses of its promotional organisation, financial developing promotional materials; international organisations can be and staff resources, and existing promotional strategy. Strengths and approached for such assistance. weaknesses are considered factors over which the site has some control; opportunities and threats are external. The analysis results in a matrix The site manager should decide which type of visitors to target in a comparing the results. Strengths and weaknesses include: promotional campaign on the basis of the site’s policy and management objectives. Certain types of tourism fit a site’s goals and objectives • The ways in which the site is being marketed, the size of the better than others. As with any management action, promotional marketing budget, performance measures and the degree and campaigns should reflect the site’s stated policy vision statement and nature of the staff’s involvement in marketing efforts objectives. For example, at natural sites, if local economic development • The site’s tourism products, including the quality of service, is an objective, managers may wish to promote bird-watching or image and reputation trekking where local people may be hired as guides or drivers. At an archaeological site affected by theft of objects destined for trafficking in • A profile of current visitors stolen art, a promotional programme may be designed to attract better- • Suppliers and the quality of goods and services they provide off visitors who are willing to pay an extra fee to support an artisan cooperative making high-quality replicas of objects at the site. These • The people who handle any marketing for the site and the can then be sold to satisfy a portion of the demand fed by trafficking. image they promote, for example, the way it is presented by tour operators compared with the site’s own promotional Dividing visitors into groups according to their characteristics, materials referred to as market segmentation, permits managers to set up well-directed promotional links between different consumers and Opportunities and threats include organisations. The segmentation process requires research into the • characteristics and preferences of visitors who may want to come to Political factors, including government legislation a site. Distinct segments of consumers might include those belonging • Economic factors to museum associations or organisations for the protection of wildlife. Identifying people with similar motivations and needs enables the • Social factors manager to pinpoint the types of promotional materials needed. A • Competition, identifying competitors and analysing their simple example is an elderly target audience, for whom promotional strengths and weaknesses materials can be in larger print and may list special services for senior citizens. A known drawback of SWOT analysis is that it is carried out at one point in time but may guide policy over several years during which To be selected for management action, a market segment must both internal and external changes are likely that would necessitate have three characteristics: modifications to the strategic plan. Managers without sufficient time • it must be measurable or staff to carry out promotional tasks may consider seeking outside assistance. Tasks such as writing to guidebook publishers, magazines • it should be easy to reach through promotional distribution and newspapers to publicise attractions and present management systems, and issues are time-consuming and vie for a manager’s attention. An • it should promise increased earnings sufficient to more than independent promotional organisation representing the different repay the costs of targeting it with promotional materials. interest groups may provide a solution. Such a group can analyse a site’s tourism market and management realities. It has the further Knowing how tourists inform themselves on a site they wish to virtue of being independent, so that it can bridge gaps between visit will help identify where to focus promotional efforts. For example, competing interest groups. A group such as an NGO with ties to the since most “eco-tourists” wishing to see polar bears in Manitoba, site and that knows the tourism business, or a government group with Canada, seek information from travel agents, the site’s managers are a mandate to coordinate all the stakeholders could play this role. If an wise to send their promotional materials to travel agencies. However, outside organisation is solicited, it must be given clear direction so since few travel agencies are able or willing to stock the full range that its output reflects the site’s goals and objectives. For example, if of available brochures and are ill-prepared to deal with specialised a goal is to support local entrepreneurs, such as ground operators, the inquiries, a more efficient approach may be to send agents a brochure organisation must ensure that it promotes both smaller local operators and then contact them personally to brief them on the site’s attractions as well as larger or regional and national companies. and the logistics of reaching it. Developing a site’s “tourism identity” is an essential element of a Developing a theme using a site’s central message for the park’s promotional strategy. This identity, which is based on the site’s goals, promotion helps develop marketing and promotional materials. objectives and market potential, becomes associated with the site in Combining a site’s most attractive elements to develop slogans or the minds of potential visitors. It could centre on a famous fresco or “sound bites”, will facilitate the design and creation of brochures and an endangered animal, for example, and be used to develop a logo for interpretation displays. For instance, a park could be “the best kept future promotional activities. secret in the Caribbean”, or the place where “billions of years of nature Strategies for promoting a site: International tourist guidebooks meet thousands of years of history”. can be a free source of promotion. Guidebooks are a popular source An analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of information for trip planning and are available for almost every

Page 32 of 45 country and region of the world. Because guidebook information is external conditions and the internal factors can influence each other constantly changing, new editions are regularly updated, and editors and work together to affect a business. Some of the external factors are usually willing to publish information free of charge. This presents are beyond a company’s control. The external factors could also be an opportunity to have information on a site and local attractions and the outside constraints or opportunities. The general environment services distributed to a wide audience. and the remote climate are the other terms for the segment. One can argue that the macro factors are generally more uncontrollable Supplying information to travel magazines, newspapers, radio than the microenvironment factors. Given that the macro factors and the internet is another cost-effective way to promote a site. Travel become unmanageable, the success of the company depends upon its magazines and newspapers publish information on tourism attractions adaptability to the environment. The macro environmental factors free of charge and local radio and television stations broadcast such include the political, economic, social, technological, legal, and the information as a public service. These can all be useful sources of free ecological (natural environment) conditions. publicity for the site. In-flight airline magazines reach a large public, and because they are published quarterly or bimonthly, articles remain in Political Environment: The political factors are the governmental circulation for considerable periods. Most publications can be accessed activities and political conditions that may affect a group. The examples by the internet and the information transferred in this manner. of the political environment include the laws, the regulations, the tariffs and the other trade barriers, the war, and the social unrest. The political Brochures can be used to distribute site information to a wide situation of a country is dependent on the organizations such as the range of audiences. They can be mailed to national tourism offices, philosophy of the political parties, the ideology of the government or included in promotional information sent to tour operators, the party in power, nature and extent of the bureaucracy influence of newspapers, magazines, radio and television stations and distributed to the primary groups. hotels. However, unlike other types of promotional material, brochures are costly to produce, and should be designed to remain valid over a The political environment has not been stable and NMMZ was long period of time. Most people who receive brochures read them. affected by the withdrawal of donor funding. It is a political activity that However, research has found that brochures are likely to exert more affected the museums and monuments greatly. The tourism arrival in influence on people who have not visited a site before and less likely to the country has reduced; this meant that there is a decline in revenue. attract repeat visitors. Now NMMZ is largely relying in the local fiscus, the major clients being school children. One respondent said, “we have been affected even our Contacting tour operators directly is a useful means of interesting research, publications and some other conservation programs that we them in a site. Tour operators are always on the lookout for new used to do. Even the government grant that we used to receive, now attractions to sell to their clients. Operators, particularly companies the government is constrained economically thus there is no longer that specialise in activities offered at the site, will appreciate receiving sufficient funds.” a brochure and any information about the local community. Direct contact with tour operators bypasses travel agencies and improves the In Zimbabwe, since the year 2000 tourist arrivals have been chances of a positive response. severely affected by the bad image that the country had acquired due to negative publicity. This negative destination brand has continued Producing an information package to area attractions and services to haunt the nation to the extent that all efforts towards destination can help direct benefits to local residents. If one of the goals of a marketing will come to naught if this is not addressed. During the site’s tourism programme is to benefit local communities, a multi- period 1980 - 1999 arrivals into Zimbabwe were growing at an average lingual community guide sheet may be a valuable promotional tool. rate of 14% per annum. If they had continued on the same growth rate, It can direct visitors to neighbouring destinations and attractions, over 14 million arrivals would have been realised by 2013. The graph providing a detailed picture of what the area offers, including dining, below shows the actual arrivals up to 1999 and the hypothetical arrivals shopping and accommodations. The information is especially useful based on the average annual growth in the period 1980–1999. Since the for attracting the independent traveller. Such a package should be year 2000 arrivals have been negatively affected by the poor image that distributed to key points such as hotels in major cities and at national the country acquired consequent to the concerted negative publicity tourism offices or embassies abroad. If a site has internet, it can be drive by global mainstream media like the BBC, CNN, Sky News and distributed electronically. A guide can also be used as a management other. This was after the fall out with Britain arising from land reform tool for bringing about desired visitor behaviour, by for example programme. discussing cultural rules and taboos and good conservation practices. Such a guide can be produced by the community with the help of It was on the back of this media onslaught that neighbours like site management. A local NGO may provide free computer time and Zambia and South Africa upped their acts to increase arrivals in their translating services. Selling the guide even if it is very simple may help own countries at a cost of Zimbabwe. The land reform programme pay for future copying expenses. and associated exodus of white farmers triggered much resentment The challenges in the management of heritage sites in Zimbabwe and capital flight which made the economy plummet leading to the massive flight of our people to countries like South Africa, the United The Influence of the Environment on the Management and Kingdom, and the United States, in search of better economic pastures. Attractiveness of Heritage Sites as Tourism Products in Zimbabwe: Efforts from 2009 to counter the vicious attacks on our own image have This sub-section provides the analysis of the components in the borne some fruit and taken the sting out of a portent anti- Zimbabwe environment, in general, and the assessment of the airline industry, sentiment that had grown around the land reform programme and in particular. It is essential to note, the businesses do not operate in a on own diaspora’s anti-nationalist sentiment. As a direct result of vacuum, rather, they function in an environment. In this section, there our efforts we were able to successfully bid to host the 2013 UNWTO is a discussion on the components of the NMMZ’s environment. The General Assembly. business environment is the total of all the external and the internal factors that influence a company. It is vital to bear in mind that the Going forward there is no question that we need to do a lot more

Page 33 of 45 to build a strong Zimbabwe National Brand and constructively engage in the fashion and the consumer preferences are essential. The social our nationals in the diaspora, if we are to bring back what can be dimension or environment of a nation determines the value system referred to as the pre- 2000 glory days. During this period 1980-1999 of the community, which affects the functioning of the business. Zimbabwe enjoyed a very attractive country image, with international The sociological factors such as the cost structures, the customs, the arrivals in the country growing at an average rate of 14% per annum, conventions, the values, the beliefs, and the mobility of the labour have and over 48 international air carriers landing every week at Harare far-reaching impact on the companies. International Airport. The operations of NMMZ cannot be separated from the social Economic Environment and the Influence of Financial Resources environment because if people have got their own challenges, low on the Management of Heritage Sites: In addition to the political disposable income then they do not have income to visit the sites. One factors, there are the macroeconomic factors. These elements can interviewee said, “the social environment has had a major impact on influence the business operations. The conditions include the interest the flow of visitors. If people have salaries then there are more visitors rate, inflation, and the currency exchange regulations. The economic for example at the end of the year when civil servants get their bonuses environment refers to the aggregate of the nature of the monetary then we have more visitors. When salaries are delayed visitation is also system of the country, the business cycles, and the socio-economic delayed.” infrastructure. In terms of financial resources, the NMMZ requires Legal Environment: The legal environment also affects the between US$2.5 to 3 million. At the moment, the SOE is using what it management of heritage sites. One participants said, “the legislation generate. One interviewee said, “we do not receive anything from the was restrictive, but the act is being reviewed to align it to the new government not even a cent. We have scaled down. Therefore, to meet constitution. The new constitution provides for these initiatives. the shortfall be cut down operations. Instead of using ten experts we Hopefully by May 2016 we hope the new Act will be in place. So that work with four.” the institution will be able to engage in commercial activities in order The study showed that finance is a major challenge in the effective to develop the sites and improve revenue flow.” management of heritage sites. Financial resources fuel business Other Challenges Faced in the Management of Heritage Sites operations, therefore, NMMZ needs to have adequate financial resources in Zimbabwe: One of the challenges is vandalism and graffiti at for both working capital and capital expenditure. Finance, production, Ngomakurira and Domboshava. This situation is not peculiar to and marketing are often referred to as the three fundamental areas that Zimbabwe. The conservation of heritage sites around the world is often require strong management expertise (Robbins and Coulter, 1999). challenged by acts of vandalism and destruction. These may, in certain Therefore, careful financial planning should precede the acquisition cases, be politically motivated taking a form of protest directed at of any significant asset or change in business focus. Expenses must heritage sites which are seen as metaphors for modernity and external be scrutinized in line item detail on at least a monthly basis to assure financial obligations are on target. Cash flow is crucial to wise financial control over local resources. In other cases, they may include the often planning and cash or similar current assets on hand should be 1.5 innocent collecting or acquiring of souvenirs by tourists. While the times the level of current liabilities. The amount of collateral required singular collecting of stones or plants, or the touching of a statue or for loans will vary by industry but expect to provide at least 30 to 40% removing of a piece of mosaic may not have a signiﬁcant effect on a site of the equity needed for traditional loan purchases. Five credit factors as a whole, it implies often dramatic consequences when done by very generally considered are character, capacity for repayment, capital, large numbers of people. collateral, and loan conditions. All of these elements relate to one’s In order to raise awareness among tourists about the fragility of ability to raise adequate capital. Finance or capital can be raised from a heritage sites and the enormous costs involved in their preservation number of sources, both internal and external. and maintenance, UNESCO collaborated in an experimental project The budget for cultural heritage and tourism allocated to national lead by the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and regional culture related institutes is far from being able to meet the and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM). The idea was that if demand. The infrastructure for the promotion of culture is not fully tourists are better informed about the fragility of heritage sites, they will established at the national level, and it is also true that the financial assume more responsibility for their actions. To address this problem, support of the promotional programs for culture is insufficient. an initial pilot study was carried out in 2002 focusing on the role of National and local authorities should avoid cultural events held only tourist guidebooks in raising visitors’ awareness and, in particular, the for demonstration purposes or the repetition of similar projects, quality of information concerning the cultural heritage they included. and should try to harmonize the investment with the software. Additionally, new revenue resources should be developed and the tax The results of the study, based on a sample of popular guidebooks, rate adjustments and tax collection should be increased reasonably. showed that, while all guidebooks were rich in cultural information and Furthermore, for efficient fund raising and operations, the promotion historical/artistic descriptions, no speciﬁc message about the fragility funds for culture should be expanded. Certain principles should be of cultural heritage and the need for respect was included. established regarding the use of raised funds. Chapter summary The Influence of the Social Environment on the Management of This chapter focused on the management of heritage sites in Heritage Sites as Tourism Products: There are also the social factors, which are the sociological factors related to the general society and Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe has more than 1000 heritage sites, which can be the social relations that affect the companies. The societal elements visited by tourists. However, the NMMZ does not have the capacity to include the levels of poverty, the population growth, and the health effectively manage all the sites. Marketing of the sites is very weak and situation. It is important to note that institutions operate in society, there are also challenges of financial resources. In addition, there are and the situation of the clients affects the business volume. One can issues to do with the accessibility of the sites. The next chapter focuses argue that the social changes, such as the migration as well as changes on country experiences in terms of the management of heritage sites.

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Management of Heritage Sites in Other Countries tangible and intangible heritage resources along the “Jesus Christ Route”, but also to create conditions for the improvement of local Introduction capacities and knowledge, local economic contexts and infrastructures, Heritage tourism has dramatically grown and it is one of the largest local democratic governance and multi-sector cooperation, and the market segments that have shown growth in terms of tourism. Due cultural creativity and self-esteem of the local populations. The project to the uniqueness of heritage and the intrinsic quality as perceived by is creating job opportunities and revenue for scientists, technicians and various tourists, heritage tourism has developed so much potential skilled and semi skilled labour in the ﬁelds of architecture, archaeology, conservation, transportation, communication, tourist related activities in terms of it being a tourist product. European and Asian markets (guides, bed and breakfast and restaurant managers), and in other for heritage tourism have increased in the past decade. Some other sectors such as handicrafts, museums and agriculture. regional countries are success stories in terms of heritage management. Therefore, the next section discuses the management of heritage sites The overarching philosophy underlying this and similar ‘routes’ in other countries, the other countries experiences, as well as the policy projects initiated and implemented by UNESCO, is to use the rich and options that can be adopted by Zimbabwe. diverse assets of an area as a matrix for the global development of a wider territory and its diverse economic sectors. While considerations Country experiences of economic viability and sustainability are clear concerns underlying Heritage tourism is one of the most forms of cultural tourism that these projects, UNESCO equally sees here opportunities to create have dramatically increased worldwide. Heritage tourism is a new conditions for inter- religious and intercultural dialogue and revenue generating source for most African, Asian and European peace. To achieve this, the organisation works closely together with countries as well as other continents worldwide. Tourists often travel concerned governments, other UN organisations and NGOs, in order looking for rich and unique experiences as well as products that are to carefully elaborate locally contextualised development strategies original and peculiar to various countries. In as much as one would which integrate the various needs and aims of different economic commercialise these heritage sites, the management of these heritage and political institutions, communities, groups and actors. This is sites is very crucial and it has to be done in a sustainable manner. Table illustrated in particular by the “Jesus Christ Route” project in which 5 shows a global list of the World Heritage Sites. different Palestinian Ministries and the ‘AD hoc’ working group were collaborating in the different research, planning, training and action Table 5 shows that Africa is still at the bottom list on the world phases. heritage site listings worldwide. This is not necessarily due to the fact that is a few heritage sites in Africa. The reason being Africa has so Cultural/heritage sites are among the most preferred tourism many untapped sites that have so much potential but the potential has experiences in America. In Virginia, there is the Virginia Historic not been tapped by the managers of theses heritage sites. Management Triangle (Williamsburg, Jamestown, and Yorktown). Virginia Historic of heritage sites in most African countries is very poor. There have Triangle has been called the ‘largest living museum in the world’. been inadequate resources to manage these sites as well as lack of Furthermore, it is one of America’s popular vacation destinations, innovativeness and diversity. Most sites have been preserved and not attracting more than 4 million tourists each year. Jamestown is where exposed so Africa is still lagging behind on the world heritage list. What America began when in 1607, a few hardly souls carved out of the is amazing is that Southern Africa being the cradle of mankind, Southern wilderness the first permanent English settlement in the New World. Africa is a home to the ancient Khoi and San people, a lot of traditional Williamsburg is the world’s premier living history site, an entire and medicinal, human and wildlife co-habitation. These have not been town that has been restored to the days when it was the political and tapped into, a lot of sites are there but they are not accessible, they are economic center of the American colonies. Yorktown is where General not developed and they have never been exposed even to the locals. George Washington defeated England’s troops in 1781 in the final These sites are now disintegrating due to lack of maintenance. That is battle of the American Revolution. Although famous throughout the why on the world listings Southern Africa has only 38 sites which is less world, the Virginia Historic Triangle is still a ‘small town.’ However, when compared to Europe and North America with 404 it has a lot of every year more than 4,000,000 tourists come to visit. Due to its varied, cultural and historical heritage sites that has not been utilised. year-round attractions, it is one of the most popular visit destinations in the United States. In 2005, UNESCO through its office in Ramallah in the Palestinian Territories, and in close collaboration with relevant Palestinian Many African countries today cherish development that is Ministries initiated the ﬂagship project ‘Cultural Itinerary–Jesus Christ catalysed by cultural heritage. Heritage sites in Africa offer a unique Route’. The aim of this integrated project was to mobilise a selection opportunity for community empowerment through integrated rural of cultural, religious and natural heritage resources (tangible and development and it also has the potential to mobilize resources for intangible) in the area to create internationally marketed and high cultural tourism, craft development and improved farming methods. quality tourism products. In line with the United Nations Millennium The majikenda kayas of Nigeria, The Kasubi tombs of Uganda and Declaration [71], this was not only to promote and preserve both in South Africa through the National Heritage Resources Act there Region Natural Cultural Mixed Total has been a considerable realisation of development of communities SADC 20 17 1 38 springing or radiating from cultural heritage. Development can come Africa 33 42 3 78 in many forms but cultural heritage can provide opportunities for Arab States 4 60 1 65 sustainable development. The government and Non-governmental Asia-Pacific 48 129 9 186 organisations historically have been known by many communities Europe and North America 56 375 9 440 especially in Africa as where development should come from but it is Latin America and Caribbean 35 83 3 121 however apparent that many communities are realising that Heritage Source: UNESCO (2015). sites are alternative sources where not only development but sustainable Table 5: World Heritage Sites: SADC and Globally, 2015. development should come from.

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Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt, and Oualata are four desert cities There is clearly much scope for further development and expansion in Mauritania included on the list of World Heritage Sites since 1996. of cultural resources. From the list of the world heritage sites it can be Built in rich oasis and constructed around wells, these cities have noted that there is limited development of cultural resources. While been important nodes of exchange between nomads and sedentary SADC countries have 11.5% of global natural world Heritage sites and populations since the middle ages. Situated at the crossroads of the more than 60% of natural sites in Africa the region only has about 2.5% trans-Saharan salt, gold and slave routes, they saw their golden age of global Cultural World Heritage Sites and 40% of cultural sites in in the 15th century. Through the cohabitation of different nomadic Africa. and sedentary populations and the symbiosis of moral and material In the SADC region, contemporary and cultural heritage is existence which developed in this context, these cities created a rated as fairly popularity as popular or highly popular. However, particular ‘spirit of the place’ based on different forms of cooperation. for Lesotho, Madagascar, Swaziland and Zimbabwe the quality and This ‘spirit’ is embodied, in particular, in the architecture and the variety of cultural experiences is rated among the best. The variety and quarters of these cities manifesting the presence and interactions of a quality of cultural experiences was rated a significant weakness for large variety of tribal groups and communities. Botswana, Mauritius and Zambia. Cultural departments and Museums In the middle of the 20th century, the social and economic authorities are generally poorly financed in SADC member states and conditions underlying life in these cities were challenged by the effects corporation between tourism and cultural agencies is very limited in of important structural changes in Mauritania. New economic and most instances. As a result cultural resources suffer from a general lack social poles appeared along the country’s coasts leading to a demo- of preservation, interpretation and tourism development. Compared graphic exodus of the desert cities. This exodus was further ampliﬁed by to natural resources cultural tourism facilities are generally poorly an important phenomenon of sedentarisation of nomadic populations developed and are not tourist friendly. Yet Southern Africa is home and a series of droughts. In this context, Mauritania’s government to the origins of Humankind, ancient Khoi and San cultures, a large initiated a programme of reforms including an agenda to alleviate knowledge pool concerning traditional and natural medicines, human- poverty. One of the aims here was to stop the exodus of populations in wildlife co-habituation and a wide spectrum of traditions, music and desert sites by providing new economic and social perspectives. lifestyles. There is so much aspects of African contemporary lifestyle such as languages, humor and living environment. These features are In 2002, as part of a multilateral programme for the safeguard and of interest to tourists and even though these aspects may not be the development of world heritage cities in Mauritania, UNESCO, the main tourist attractors they could form an important part of the overall Mauritanian government and the World Bank, signed a convention in tourism package. Table 6 shows the World Heritage Sites in the SADC order to carry out a pilot project regarding the sustainable redevelopment Region (Table 6). of the historic centres of Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt, and Oualata. The aim of this project was to shape a strategy to halt the exodus and Zimbabwe’s position in relation to other countries the subsequent abandonment of these historic centres. This strategy In terms of managing heritage, the concept, the principle and in provided a framework for the rehabilitation of the historic centres of practice Zimbabwe used to be the leading African country in terms of these towns and lead to the sustainable socio-economic development managing counties. Most countries have come to Zimbabwe to see how of local communities. In order to allow the renaissance of the spirit we manage sites. However, other countries have overtaken Zimbabwe. of these cities, a series of workshops were organised to familiarise The new dimensions that other countries have taken have made them populations and political and technical stakeholders with the values of rise to the top. In South Africa for instance, it has been focusing more architectural heritage preservation and to identify ﬁnancial resources on developing sites for tourism and the partnerships that they have for the architectural rehabilitation of these places. Tourism in a wider with the private sectors. Most of their sites are well developed and sense, as a modern form of ‘nomadism’ was considered as one of the they are in a good state they generate a lot of income. There is a good sources to revitalise traditional crafts and professions, to create new partnership between parks and other state enterprises. The other way activities, and to improve visitor housing and reception areas. is their prevailing economy, the SA Economy is thriving. People have

Country Number of Sites List of the Sites Botswana 1 Tsodilo Hills DRC 5 Virunga National Park, Kahuzi-Biega National Park,Garaba National Park, Salonga National Park, Okapi Wildlife reserve Madagascar 3 Tsigy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, Royal Hill of Ambohimaga, Rainforests of Atsinanana Malawi 2 Lake Malawi National Park, Chongoni Rock Art Area. Mauritius 2 Aapravasi Ghat, Le Morne Cultural Landscape Mozambique 1 Isla Mozambique Namibia 1 Twyfelfontein (/Ui-//aes) Seychelles 2 Aldabra Atoll, Vallee de Mai Nature Reserve South Africa 8 Fossil Hominid Sites in the Cradle of Humankind, iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Robben Island, uKhahlamba/Drakensberg Park, Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape, Cape Floral Region Protected Areas, Vredefort Dome, Ritchersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape. Tanzania 7 Ngororngoro Conservation Area, Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara(in danger),Serengeti National Park,Selouse Game Reserve, Kilimanjaro National Park, Stone Town of Zanzibar,Kondoa Roack Art Site Zambia 1 Mosi oa Tunya/Victoria Falls Zimbabwe 5 Mana Pools National Park,Great Zimbabwe National Monument, Khami Ruins National Monument,Mosi-oa-Tunya/Victoria Falls, Matobo Hills Source: UNESCO (2015). Table 6: World Heritage Sites by Country, SADC Region.

Page 36 of 45 better disposable income. In many other countries the museums are not go there. From there one can also note some experiences from part of the ministry of tourism in Sudan For instance. In SA there those countries that we can influence heritage management here in are good relations between the departments other SOEs. Most of the Zimbabwe. For example within the aviation museum in Zimbabwe, the national monuments in SA are found in national parks. The situation shaping of the shades was borrowed from New Zealand, and then the is different in Zimbabwe; the National Museums and Monuments has display of artifacts was borrowed from South Africa. The Zimbabwe been under the Home Affairs Ministry. The reason why it was under museums borrow whenever they can and the exposure they get from the home affairs was for enhancing security and for the protection various fields is enrichment to National Museums of Zimbabwe. The of monuments not for developing them as tourist resorts. It was other country that has significantly influenced Zimbabwe is France. It protectionist more security wise other than to open up for enjoyment is a very interesting developing country and there are a huge number and generating income. of visitors in France. Appleton, has been managed properly since visitorship is high they have put in place strategies to manage the In relation to the countries in the SADC Region Zimbabwe fares visitorship. In German there is an Olympic museum, it’s very interesting better in terms of the number of world heritage sites. Zimbabwe has five and unique. Kenya is succeeding in terms of heritage management. world heritage sites. This is better when comparing to other countries They have pride in their heritage; Kenyans really know and appreciate within the region which include Botswana, Malawi, Mauritius, their heritage. So Zimbabweans have to learn to embrace their heritage Mozambique Namibia and Zambia. The strength of national museums as well and they should have pride in their heritage. is within its human resources. Most of the employees are adequately educated and most of the times they are invited into other countries to However, in Zimbabwe there is a challenge in terms of the present papers and share the information. institutional arrangement in the management of heritage sites. There is not a very sound working relationship between National Museums and There is however clearly a much scope and need for further Monuments and National Parks in Zimbabwe as one would find between development of the heritage sites in Zimbabwe. There are a lot of South African National Parks in and the South African Monuments. challenges that have been hindering effective management of the Great Zimbabwe used to be part of National Parks; historically it used heritage sites in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe used to be a learning ground to be managed as a national park. Chinhoyi caves and Matopos were for most heritage management authorities in the southern region but managed by both National Parks and National Monuments, so National the situation has since changed. Comparing with other countries, Parks would charge, National Monuments would charge then a visitor Zimbabwe is lagging behind in terms of services and products that are would end up paying twice to experience one place. The challenge of being offered at the facilities. There has been lack of innovation and institutional arrangements within the management of heritage sites diversity in the management of the heritage sites. has had a negative impact on the development of the heritage sites in However, due to various cultural exchange programs and the Zimbabwe. The government of Zimbabwe has not been decisive; on massive use other internet as well as expose and festivals that are held in this issue whether it should allocate these functions to National Parks different countries. Zimbabwe has borrowed some of the management or NMMZ or to just merge these entities. The other options could be techniques and has managed to develop theme and adopt theme to to have a park where monuments are found and manage them as one enhance the heritage tourism in Zimbabwe. entity then they share the incomes. What Zimbabwe Borrows from Other Countries Zimbabwe should borrow the concept of comprehensive cultural tourism from other countries apart from the issue of good relations Zimbabwe has managed to borrow policy options from other within various institutions. The element of regarding cultural heritage countries worldwide. The Heritage tourism in Zimbabwe has been as a tourist resource that can be used to generate revenue should be largely influenced by lessons that it has drawn from various other borrowed. That is, the mindset should change especially regarding the countries. Zimbabwe has learnt from other countries like South way Zimbabwe have been managing heritage. Zimbabwean heritage has Africa, the concept of Township tourism. Zimbabwe has also signed a been managed primarily in terms of conservation without necessarily Memorandum of Understanding with the Chinese government which developing them, making them accessible, using them to benefit the is expected to contribute towards the financing and development communities around them. Management used to fence off the areas of heritage tourism in Zimbabwe. Other developments that have and the communities have not been allowed to access the sites. The been adopted by the authorities in Zimbabwe include the Sri Lanka, communities have been divorced from the sites without being involved Norway and Zimbabwe arrangement which is a positive step towards in the management of these resources. They were not allowed to do resuscitation of the heritage sites. Zimbabwe is also a member of income generating projects on the sites other than the state institutions. Southern African Association of Museums, the AFRICOM (Africa Thus, Zimbabwe should be innovative; they should embrace corporate Council of museums). These associations have exposed Zimbabwe to governance and adopt structural reforms to improve the management various learning opportunities. The NMMZ is very open to new ideas. of heritage sites in Zimbabwe. Most of the staff and archeologists in Zimbabwe often go for training, workshops and refresher courses in other countries to enhance their Areas that Zimbabwe is leading skills as well as exchange ideas with other successful countries that are There are very few but significant areas that the Zimbabwean doing well in terms of heritage management. management of heritage sites is leading. In Africa Zimbabwe happens to have educational programs and the francophone countries like Zimbabwe can manage the flow of tourists to avoid congestion in Gabon, Ivory Coast among others are borrowing from Zimbabwe. these heritage sites. If one looks at South Africa, the Robin Island, there Countries like Kenya, Tanzania and other countries they borrow from is preservation. It is also a focus for tourism. But because of the need various presentations that are made during seminar presentations. for it to be sustainable, South Africa have put in place a mechanisms Zimbabwe has the potential to influence other countries in the region that make sure that it will limit the number of visitors, there is a ship and globally because it has quite a huge number of world heritage sites. that goes to Robin Island once a day if one misses it then one does The potential of Zimbabwe to influence others has remained untapped

Page 37 of 45 for a long time. As far as other countries are concerned in terms of SOEs. Most of the national monuments in SA are found in national management of our heritage site, Zimbabwe used to be doing very parks. The situation is different in Zimbabwe; the National Museums well in terms of management of heritage sites especially when it used and Monuments has been under the Home Affairs Ministry. The reason to have funding. But right now Zimbabwe is underperforming. Some why it was under the home affairs was for enhancing security and countries treat their national heritage institutions seriously. Politicians for the protection of monuments not for developing them as tourist in Zimbabwe do not prioritise the heritage sites that we have. Funding resorts. It was protectionist more security wise other than to open up is very much limited. Kwekwe museum, and Aviation museum where for enjoyment and generating income. not completed, Aviation museum was only six months when Zimbabwe There is no sound working relationship between National attained independence, thus it is still at its first stage of construction up Museums and Monuments and National Parks in Zimbabwe as one to now. These museums were only in the first stage of construction but would find between South African National Parks in and the South because they have not been valuable thus they have not been developed African Monuments. (That reminds one of the Victoria Falls rain forest since independence. For instance the National Heroes Acre, nobody some of these issues) Great Zimbabwe used to be part of National Parks think about the heroes’ acres except when one dies. Thus, the heritage it used to be managed as a national park. Chinhoyi caves and Matopos sites are not adequately managed. Heritage has not been prioritised for were managed by both National Parks and National Monuments, so a long time in Zimbabwe. National Parks would charge, National Monuments would charge Chapter summary then a visitor would end up paying twice to experience one place. The problem is an issue of institutional arrangements and also the The chapter has managed to reveal that heritage tourism has government is not decisive, on this issue whether it should allocate dramatically grown and it is one of the largest market segments that have these functions. A decision to just merge these entities, or have a park shown growth in terms of tourism. Due to the uniqueness of heritage and where monuments are found and manage them as one entity share the intrinsic quality as perceived by various tourists, heritage tourism incomes should be made. has developed so much potential in terms of it being a tourist product. European and Asian markets for heritage tourism have increased in In the respondents’ opinion, the strategies that could be used to the past decade. Some other regional countries are success stories in improve the heritage sites would include having National Museums and terms of heritage management. Therefore, the section discussed the Monuments be part of the Ministry of Tourism. It should be realised management of heritage sites in other countries which include South that the need for conservation of these sites is important because they Africa and Kenya among others. The other country experiences have want them to survive long, but the need for development of these influenced the management of heritage sites in Zimbabwe. Comparing facilities benefit more. This is because the Ministry of Tourism have Zimbabwe with other countries it has to improve a lot issues and adopt such a mandate and they bring in more clients since they develop their some strategies from other countries in order to address the problems sites. The government allocates huge grants to them. Other than that, hindering effective heritage management. Zimbabwe should promote if it is impossible then National Heritage and Monuments will have to cultural tourism as well as the commercialisation of heritage sites so partner with the Ministry of Tourism, there is need for establishing as to enhance revenue collection as well as raise funds for heritage a close working relationship to share ideas. A sound marketing management and preservation. department will be handy. Strategies for Packaging Heritage Sites in Zimbabwe as In addition, there is a need for competent marketing personnel. The need for a marketing department and having marketing strategy Tourism Products documents to improve the marketing of Zimbabwe’s heritage sites. In Introduction addition, management training is essential for staff. One participant said, “as much as we want to preserve our sites, it’s not preservation This chapter focuses on the strategies that the NMMZ could adopt against access. As much as we want people to come to our sites, we to manage the heritage sites. Focus is on the options for managing should have our archeologists trained in management skills. They the heritage sites as tourism products, the issue of financing and should have business management. They should know how to manage performance management. the sites as a business entity. They are specialist in preservation of Options for Managing Heritage Sites as Tourism Products in sites, they are trained in managing heritage sites as conservators but Zimbabwe in business they do not have adequate knowledge. That combination would see the business thrive. A lot of potential is being untapped In terms of managing heritage, the concept, the principle and in because we are conservators not business managers.” practice Zimbabwe used to be the leading African country in terms of Furthermore, at its 2010 meeting in Brasilia, the World Heritage managing counties. Most countries have come to Zimbabwe to see how Committee recognised the challenges and opportunities in the we manage sites. However, other countries have overtaken Zimbabwe. relationship between tourism and World Heritage and expressed its The new dimensions that other countries have taken have made them appreciation for the work that had been undertaken over recent years. rise to the top. In South Africa for instance, it has been focusing more It requested the World Heritage Centre to commence the development on developing sites for tourism and the partnerships that they have of a new and inclusive programme on World Heritage and Sustainable with the private sectors. Most of their sites are well developed and Tourism. The principles are as follows: they are in a good state they generate a lot of income. There is a good partnership between parks and other state enterprises. The other way Principle 1: Contribution to World Heritage objectives: Tourism is their prevailing economy, the South African economy is thriving. development and visitor activities associated with World Heritage People have better disposable income. In many other countries the Properties must contribute to and must not damage the protection, museums are part of the ministry of tourism in Sudan For instance. In conservation, presentation and transmission of their heritage values. South Africa, there are good relations between the departments other Tourism should also generate sustainable socio-economic development

Page 38 of 45 and equitably contribute tangible as well as intangible benefits to for government projects in return for profit sharing. In PPPs substantial local and regional communities in ways that are consistent with the project risks (financial, technical, and operational) are transferred to the conservation of the properties. private party and the private party benefits through unitary payments from government budget and/or user fees. United Nations [71] also Principle 2: Cooperative Partnerships: World Heritage Properties pointed out that PPP differ in a fundamental way from conventional should be places where all stakeholders cooperate through effective procurement contracting because they are long term oriented, covering partnerships to maximise conservation and presentation outcomes, a period on at least 20 years. In conventional procurement, the risks are whilst minimising threats and adverse impacts from tourism. assumed to be relatively contained in a contract which is focused on a Principle 3: Public Awareness and Support: The Promotion, short-term infrastructure deliverables. In PPPs, the key is to develop Presentation and Interpretation of World Heritage Properties should risk-sharing mechanisms that enhance the returns to both the public be effective, honest, comprehensive and engaging. It should mobilise and private sector. PPPs are based upon a stewardship model in which local and international awareness, understanding and support for their the private sector takes a more aggressive role in aspects of the project protection, conservation and sustainable use. to which they had previously been excluded from in the conventional procurement approach, such as design, financing, operations and Principle 4: Proactive Tourism Management: The contribution maintenance [71]. In addition, Bloom [73] agitated that PPPs are about of tourism development and visitor activities associated with World the public getting better, more cost-effective services; the private sector Heritage Properties to their protection, conservation and presentation gets new business opportunities. requires continuing and proactive planning and monitoring by Site Management, which must respect the capacity of the individual Implementation of PPPs: African governments are turning to property to accept visitation without degrading or threatening heritage the private sector to design, build, finance, and operate infrastructure values. Site Management should have regard to relevant tourism supply facilities hitherto provided by the public sector. PPPs offer policy makers chain and broader tourism destination issues, including congestion an opportunity to improve the delivery of services and the management management and the quality of life for local people. Tourism planning of facilities. Governments are also turning to partnerships with the and management, including cooperative partnerships, should be an private sector as a means to improve the procurement of public services integral aspect of the site management system. and enhancing performance management. When looking at PPPs in Africa, Gqoli [72] pointed out that African governments are looking to Principle 5: Stakeholder Empowerment: Planning for tourism the relationships to radically improve infrastructure networks in their development and visitor activity associated with World Heritage countries and enhance service delivery to their people. Governments Properties should be undertaken in an inclusive and participatory are hoping that this development finance model, where the state shares manner, respecting and empowering the local community including risk and responsibility with private firms but ultimately retains control property owners, traditional or indigenous custodians, while taking of assets, will improve services, while avoiding some of the pitfalls of account of their capacity and willingness to participate in visitor privatization like unemployment, higher prices and corruption. In activity. theory, PPPs may have the potential to solve sub-Saharan Africa’s Principle 6: Tourism Infrastructure and Visitor Facilities: profound infrastructure and service backlogs, where nearly 600 million Tourism infrastructure and visitor facilities associated with World people lack access to electricity, almost 300 million have no access to Heritage Properties should be carefully planned, sited, designed, safe water [73]. Nevertheless, Aboubakr [74] argued that the record of constructed and periodically upgraded as required to maximise the PPPs in Africa since year 2000 is mixed, the process is complex, and quality of visitor appreciation and experiences while ensuring there is governments should not expect PPPs to be a ‘magic bullet’. no significant adverse impacts on heritage values and the surrounding Implementation PPPs in Africa seem to be a relatively new environmental, social and cultural context. phenomenon. Nevertheless, PPPs have been used in Kenya, Tanzania, Principle 7: Site Management Capacity: Management systems Mozambique, Lesotho, and South Africa to promote health care for World Heritage Properties should have sufficient skills, capacities delivery [73]. In Zimbabwe, although mooted way back in 1998, it and resources available when planning tourism infrastructure and was only in 2004 that the Government made the first attempt of a framework on PPPs investment in the country. This was in the form managing visitor activity to ensure the protection and presentation of of the ‘Public-Private Partnership in Zimbabwe Policy and Guidelines’ their identified heritage values and respect for local communities. of 2004, which sought to provide the parameters for the development Principle 8: Application of Tourism Generated Revenue: of an appropriate legal and regulatory framework to protect investors Relevant public agencies and Site Management should apply a sufficient and consumers. The Guidelines however never really took off in a proportion of the revenue derived from tourism and visitor activity significant fashion, even though some PPPs projects have been done in associated with World Heritage Properties to ensure the protection, the transport and health sector [75]. conservation and management of their heritage values. Consequently, PPPs were an answer to Africa’s health care Principle 9: Contribution to Local Community Development: challenges. For instance, the Kingdom of Lesotho’s health sector faced Tourism infrastructure development and visitor activity associated daunting challenges including battling the world’s third highest HIV/ with World Heritage Properties should contribute to local community AIDS prevalence rate (23% for adults aged 15-49), low life expectancy empowerment and socio-economic development in an effective and (45 years), and an over-burdened health care system with demand equitable manner. consistently outstripping the state’s ability to provide vital health care services, particularly for poor people [76]. In 2010, a new era in Private Public Partnerships (PPPs) as a Financing Mechanism health care dawned when Health and Social Welfare Minister, Mphu Gqoli [72] defined PPPs as contracts between government Ramatlapeng, handed over three publicly-run clinics in Likotsi, Qoaling institutions and private parties in which private parties provide funding and Mabote to the Ts’epong Consortium, managed by one of Africa’s

Page 39 of 45 largest private health care providers, Netcare. The project replaced the PPPs seems not to be smooth. In Zimbabwe, there is no legal framework 100-year old Queen Elizabeth II Hospital, which continued to operate for PPPs. This resulted in debates being generated on how some of at minimal level, with a new facility that can provide quality care for the PPPs were signed, for example City of Harare-Easipark PPP has patients and improved working conditions for staff [76]. The project courted a lot of controversy, so as the Airport Road construction. What benefits from collaboration within the World Bank Group and a strong raised questions on the implementation of these PPPs is the fact that partnership with the government of Lesotho. The World Bank provided they involve foreign partners and one wonders whether Zimbabwean technical assistance to the design and management of the PPPs as part companies do not have capacity to partner the public sector. of the Health Sector Reform Program. In addition, South Africa faces challenges in the implementation In addition, Lesotho has another example of PPPs, The Global of PPPs. According to Creamer (2012), while presidential and Partnership for Output Based Aid (GPOBA), partnership program governmental support for PPPs remains strong, leadership in this administered by the World Bank. GPOBA provided a US$6.25 million field is still considered to be weak as evidenced by the inability of grant to help subsidize the cost of access to services for the residents the public sector to bring the many planned projects to fruition. For of Maseru District, the capital city and home to nearly one-third of example, since 2000, on average, only two PPPs have been successfully the country’s population [74]. The GPOBA grant means expectant concluded per year on the national and provincial levels (ibid). Also, mothers, infants, children, and patients at risk of or living with HIV/ Campbell [77] pointed out that too much has been done in secret, and AIDS and tuberculosis will have access to improved health services. As that poor planning has cost the government. Venter [78] concurs with well as providing access to basic services for the poor, the output-based Campbell [77] and gave an example of the Gautrain Rapid Rail Link, approach puts an emphasis on accountability and efficiency in service in which only costs ballooned from R3.5 billion to R4 billion in 2000 delivery, which complements the overall design of the larger hospital to R30.462 billion in 2011. Therefore, appropriate legal framework is PPP project. The innovative financing and implementation structure of required in the implementation of PPPs. the project positions Lesotho as a leader in health sector public-private PPPs require governments to think and behave in new ways that arrangements, potentially providing a model that could be replicated require new skills. They can be a tool for reforming procurement and regionally and even globally. The success of PPPs in providing health public service delivery and not merely a means of leveraging private infrastructure in Lesotho, can also be replicated in the NMMZ. sector resources. PPPs are more than a one-off financial transaction Moreover, in South Africa, the government has been exploring with the private sector. They need to be based on firm policy foundations better ways of financing and managing pubic capital assets, serve the and long-term political commitment. Also, PPPs require application of public interest, and deliver public goods and services PPPs. The main sound performance management systems so that results are attained. models of PPPs in operation in South Africa are the design, finance and Private sector partners look for these factors when deciding whether or operate (DFO) model, the design, finance, build, operate and transfer not to bid for a project. (DFBOT) model, the design and transfer (DT) model, the build, operate and transfer (BOT) model, as well as equity partnerships [72]. According to Farlam [79], increased use of private funding for The implementation of PPPs follows certain stages, as in Table 7. governments’ capital projects call for efficiency and effectiveness. PPPs have resulted in the creation of hybrid organizations, and In Zimbabwe full implementation of PPPs is vital so as to build transforming or ‘’modernising’’ work practices in public organisations the infrastructure. According Biti [33] infrastructural development with the introduction of private-sector management practices (such requires substantial investment by the private sector, especially in as performance-related pay and business process re-engineering). power generation, telecommunications, and railway and aviation Atun [80] also argued that PPPs evolved as a synergistic model to services. In this regard, a number of PPPs were implemented in Zimbabwe and they include the rehabilitation of Plumtree-Mutare combine both the social objectives and the business objective of Highway (PPP with Group 5 of South Africa), a partnership between running profitable institutions. This meant that PPPs should embody Harare City Council and Easipark. However, the implementation of performance management as one of their major characteristics.

Stage Description Inception Registration of PPP project with relevant treasury, and appointment of project manager Feasibility Study Preparation of feasibility study comprising of needs analysis, options analysis, project due diligence, value assessment, economic valuation, and procurement plan Treasury Approval I Procurement Designing of a fair equitable, transparent, competitive, and cost effective procurement process. Preparing bid documents, including draft PPP agreement Treasury Approval IIA Procurement Pre-qualification of parties, issuing request for proposals with draft PPP agreement. Receiving bids and selection of preferred bidder Preparing value for money report Treasury Approval IIB Procurement Negotiation with preferred bidder, and finalizing PPP agreement management plan Treasury Approval III PPP Agreement Signed Development Measuring of outputs, monitoring and regulating performance Delivery Reporting progress Exit Evaluation by Accounting Officers Source: Gqoli (2004). Table 7: PPP Project Stages.

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Implementation of performance management financing mechanisms that can be adopted to address problems of inadequate resources [89-91]. According to Centre for Good Governance [81] performance management is a broad concept that involves understanding and Summary of the main findings acting on the performance issues at each level of organization, This study showed that NMMZ is facing challenges in the marketing from individuals, teams and departments to the organization itself. of heritage sites. There is also the issue of financial inadequacy as the Performance management is aimed at improving organizational SOE is failing to provide the required services at the sites. The research efficiency and effectiveness. Performance management also aims to showed that heritage is a comprehensive concept that consists of ensure accomplishment of an organization’s mission and goals. In this many diverse values like cultural, natural, historical, architectural, regard, PPPs can be a strategy for ensuring performance management archaeological, and geological values. Heritage is a mirror of different in the public sector. ways of lives and habits, in other words, different cultures and eras of Provision of basic services in developing countries has traditionally the mankind and the society they live in. A well-preserved heritage been the exclusive responsibility of public authorities. However, enables communities to learn about their cultural history truly and these agencies cannot, on their own, meet the continually expanding chronologically. After the World War II, the world has seen a gradual demand for services because they lack the funds to improve and increase in technology and urbanization resulting in a series of threats to develop services. Implementation of PPPs means that there is need to heritage; social, environmental and economical. Because of migration management performance so that private partners benefit from the and industrialization population density between rural areas and cities agreements. Therefore, PPPs can be viewed as part of public sector differ greatly. Globalization changed people’s lives in an undeniable reforms. Performance management is aimed at ensuring attainment of way, a way that is mostly stereotyped. These kinds of facts pose a great organizational objectives. According to Centre for Good Governance threat to intangible cultural assets. Heritage is not a renewable resource; [81] far-reaching changes in the global economy have made it therefore it should be conserved in the most efficient way [92-98]. The imperative for the governments all over the world to improve the word “preservation” has existed from the beginning of the very early quality of their governance structures. times of human history, but its definition. Until recently preservation is nearly equal to just protecting the physical assets, but now it is seen as a Implementation of performance management in Zimbabwean clear fact that when trying to protect heritage national, social, cultural public sector is seen through Results Based Management (RBM). and economical aspects of the protection process should be taken According to Madhekeni [82], the concept of RBM in Zimbabwe came into account. It aims to conserve, use and develop the heritage and to as a result of a number of factors. These include the problem of resource sustain it values and significance by giving the heritage a compatible constraints, the quest for better quality and more responsive service use. It is worth of mentioning that, the most important innovation of delivery by citizens, and demands by the private sector for improved the management approach involves the sustainability principle. The services and infrastructure for development and growth. The need to lack of cooperation between the governmental bodies and the private manage performance is also expressed in the current policy framework, sector is always being felt heavily and this causes a great problem for the Zimbabwe Agenda for Socio-economic Transformation (ZIM- the promotion of heritage sites as touristic destinations. Therefore ASSET). ZIM-ASSET has cluster 7, which points out that Government it is essential that a master tourism marketing plan is prepared in will be reinvented to improve general administration, governance as coordination with all the authorities either from public or private well as performance management [83-88]. sector. It is also necessary to overcome infrastructure problems such as However, there are challenges in the implementation of transportation in order to ease reaching heritage sites [99-101]. performance management. According to Centre for Good Governance Cultural and natural heritage that attracts so many tourists, and [81] absence of enabling conditions, cross cutting nature of operations, is a resource for development, is, fortunately, distributed throughout and disjointed set-up for performance management compromise the world, thus providing an additional opportunity for many non- performance management. industrialized countries like Zimbabwe. Raising awareness, educating Chapter summary and training the staff concerned, is essential in involving communities in the process of conserving and enhancing their heritage. It is the This chapter focused on the strategies that the NMMZ could adopt involvement of all that will enable the heritage of humanity to be better to manage the heritage sites. Focus was on the options for managing preserved, living conditions to be improved and poverty reduced [102]. the heritage sites as tourism products, the issue of PPPs as a potential Preserving cultural and natural heritage, to bring it within reach of financing mechanism and performance management. The next chapter all, making cultures and civilizations better known, improving daily presents summary, conclusions and recommendations. living conditions and reducing poverty, is what gives meaning to the Conclusions and Recommendations sustainability of tourism development. The findings of this research demonstrate that heritage sites in Introduction Zimbabwe, for example, Great Zimbabwe has a lot of potential as a This chapter provides the conclusions and policy option that could historical attraction, because of its richness in social cultural activities be adopted in Zimbabwe to improve the management of heritage sites it offers to visitors. If satisfactorily implemented, Great Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe. Recommendations are provided in order to address will make the tourists appreciate the local life that transpired years the challenges that have been raised during the study. There is need ago on the Ancient City, resulting in preservation of the local culture to change the organisational culture, the NMMZ should embrace and history [103-105]. Therefore, the findings also revealed that if the diversity and corporate governance to improve the services. The NMMZ increases its customer awareness through in increased usage paper also recommends the need to improve marketing strategies; of prompting and marketing the destination both domestically and the NMMZ should establish a marketing department. Private Public internationally they will soon flooded with a huge number of visitors. Partnerships and strategic alliances are crucial and these are the In addition the research findings also supported the idea presented

Page 41 of 45 in literature review that continuous improvement in marketing and before the visitor comes so that they make informed choices about the promotion through the internet [106-110]. destinations they are visiting and the activities they want to be engaging in [122]. Recommendations Engage local communities: There is need for engaging local Marketing: The paper recommends that Zimbabwe should authorities in the management of heritage. The central government concentrate more on the marketing of heritage sites. The promotion, should consider the inclusion of policies in local development plans presentation and interpretation of heritage sites should be effective, to protect the values, integrity and authenticity of heritage sites. Local honest, comprehensive and engaging [111]. The locals should authorities can support authorities through providing support and by participate in all the marketing strategies. The NMMZ should mobilise the preparation of supplementary planning guidance to the national local and international awareness campaigns. It needs to create an boards. Local authorities are closer to the grassroots [123]. understanding within the people of the value of the heritage sites and the board should provide maximum support for the protection, Additionally, local communities should be active participants conservation and sustainable use of all heritage sights in Zimbabwe in the management of heritage sites. The issue of ‘Cultural Consent’ [112-115]. should be emphasized on the local communities. This means that local communities must agree to host tourists after deliberating on Cultural tourism in Zimbabwe has to be marketed and promoted the merits of tourism. Tourism must not be imposed on them. Local effectively. It is essential that destination addresses basic issues such communities have to be involved in tourism planning and ensure as infrastructure, easy access, interpretation, guide services especially that they directly benefit from tourism. Train local people to develop foreign languages must be of excellent quality [116]. Other forms tourism which is acceptable to them and complementary to their local of interaction that have to be included in the marketing strategies customs Local communities in Zimbabwe do not value some of the include the use of traditional methods which includes the use of maps, heritage sites because they do not benefit from them. There is need guidebooks that are up to date, pamphlets, story boards audio or visual to train the informal sector in the local communities to run micro- displays supplement and complement guide services. For instance, businesses such as guest houses, canteens and restaurants. This is Zimbabwe can adopt some strategies from other countries such as evident in Domboshava though it is still on a small scale. Some local Thailand. The ‘Amazing Thailand’ campaign is a success story of an communities have been running a restaurant at the site. active, efficient and successful marketing campaign that has brought Thailand out of financial crisis which plagued the Asian countries in Thus, heritage infrastructure development and visitor activity 1997 [117]. associated with heritage properties should contribute to local community empowerment and socio-economic development in an It is high time Zimbabwe should make use of the ICTs and effective and equitable manner [124]. The Promotion, Presentation develop advanced advertising strategies. Most cultural heritage-related and Interpretation of heritage properties should be effective, honest, advertising materials are focused on regional cultural heritage and comprehensive and engaging. It should mobilise local and international cultural events. There is need for engaging private travel planning awareness, understanding and support for their protection, agencies to design specialized advertising and promotions materials. conservation and sustainable use. This will promote the growth of cultural tourism. According to a study conducted by the European commission, 20% of the tourist visits to Adequate planning is essential: The NMMZ should emphasize on Europe were made for cultural purposes. Furthermore, culture was the the production, adoption and regular review of agreed management main component of travel for 60% visitors [118]. Thus cultural tourism plans for each Heritage Site. Strategic plans have to be constantly has to be promoted in Zimbabwe. revealed. Tourism infrastructure and visitor facilities associated with heritage sites should be carefully planned, sited, designed, constructed Additionally, the NMMZ should be part of the Ministry of and periodically upgraded as required to maximise the quality of visitor Tourism. It should be realized that the need for conservation of these appreciation and experiences while ensuring there is no significant sites is important because they want them to survive long, but the need adverse impacts on heritage values and the surrounding environmental, for development of these facilities benefit more. This is because the social and cultural context [125]. Ministry of Tourism has such a mandate and they bring in more clients since they develop their sites. The government allocates huge grants to Tourism planning, short and long term regional development them. Other than that, if it is impossible then National Heritage and policies and strategies, development plans, their implementation, Monuments will have to partner with the Ministry of Tourism, there tourism inducement act, strategic goals, projects are the most mentioned is need for establishing a close working relationship to share ideas. A terms for the conservation and recovery of any heritage site. Planning sound marketing department will be handy [119-121]. for tourism development and visitor activity associated with heritage sites should be undertaken in an inclusive and participatory manner, Infrastructure and services: Heritage tourism should promote respecting and empowering the local community including property infrastructural development and improvement of services at the owners, traditional or indigenous custodians, while taking account of heritage sites. Products and services offered should be of high quality. their capacity and willingness to participate in visitor activity. Quality facilities could be provided at heritage sites to enhance the attractiveness of heritage sites. Facilities that could be offered include Cultural Heritage tourism has static characteristics distinct from offerring accommodation: Visiting clients do not have accommodation other tourism patterns. Accordingly, a variety of theme tours need to be planned basing on region, theme and heritage characteristics. When for example in Domboshava clients want to watch sunset and sunrise a region establishes a master plan focusing on cultural heritage, it is but they do not have accommodation. desirable to introduce Cultural Imagination (CI) concept. There are Tourists are expecting a rich experience which requires interaction numerous cases in which regional events within the regions, designated with local communities. Tours should be customized. Detailed as cultural asset conservation policies in those regions [126]. There is information about a tourist destination has to be given out electronically need for combining immaterial and cultural assets, these are valuable

Page 42 of 45 tourism resources and they promote the understanding of cultural make return visits, to recommend the experience to others, to develop heritage. a long term interest in the place and perhaps to become ambassadors for its conservation. Planning for cultural tourism development and visitor activity associated with national heritage properties should be undertaken in The development of human resources is a very important aspect an inclusive and participatory manner, respecting and empowering the in cultural tourism. The preservation, promotion and interpretation of local community including property owners, traditional or indigenous culture need highly skilled and competent people. The education and custodians, while taking account of their capacity and willingness to training of tourism personnel should be given highest priority. Cultural participate in visitor activity. tourism requires a high degree of human interaction; people involved in this industry must have good public relations skills. The archaeologists Strategic alliances: The utilisation of strategic alliances as a in the Zimbabwean heritage sites should be trained in these skills. They source of competitive advantage in today’s world is a reality. Every must be able to interpret cultural values of the destination [116]. In partner should be given equal decision making powers. The usefulness this connection, tour guides must be given foreign language training. of company unions is complex, but their impact on every facet of Education and training should be experience based, interdisciplinary economic competition is profound. No firm can afford to ignore the in nature and customer-focused. use of alliances in competitive strategy. Therefore, the NMMZ need to identify partners. In fact, ZIM-ASSET indentifies private-public Furthermore, as much as Zimbabwe wants to preserve the heritage partnerships (alliances) as one of the ways for financing SOEs’ capital sites, it’s not preservation against access that should be emphasized. As projects. Heritage sites in Zimbabwe should partner with Zimbabwean much as people are wanted to come to our sites, NMMZ should have the blue-chip companies for them to be sustainable [127]. archeologists trained in management skills. They should have business management. They should know how to manage the sites as a business One of the most interesting and controversial topics in business entity. They are specialist in preservation of sites, they are trained in management theories today is the concept of ‘strategic alliances’, a term managing heritage sites as conservators but in business they do not that defines a rather innovative and interesting form of relationship have adequate knowledge. That combination would see the business between companies or organisations. The growing importance and thrive. A lot of potential is being untapped because Archeologists are quickening pace of strategic alliances in all kinds of different industries conservators not business managers. all over the world are in economic theories regarded as the answer to an ever-growing globalisation of the relevant markets and an increased Expand opening hours: Expand opening hours of museums. competition [63]. According to Lincoln [70] strategic alliances are co- Tourists should be able to access these sites anytime. Other local tourists operative agreements between organizations that allow them to benefit go to work so some may want to visit the sites after work. For instance, from each other’s strengths. An alliance is a business-to-business in Bulawayo, the Natural History Museum they close early. Heritage collaboration or a business network [62]. In addition, Mowla [68] sites should be flexible. This gives tourists freedom to visit the sites stated that alliances can be ‘horizontal’ (firms that are in the same anytime and it attracts more visitors. Tourists do not like restrictions line of business), ‘vertical’ (backward or forward), or ‘diversified’ so if the sites should be flexible in terms of opening and closing hours. (partnerships with businesses in other sectors of the economy). More Improve the institutional framework: Since there is not a so, there are contractual (non-equity) and equity-based alliances. very sound working relationship between National Museums and Contractual alliances entail a relatively low level of commitment and Monuments and National Parks in Zimbabwe as one would find may include the following co-marketing, research and development between South African National Parks in and the South African contracts, strategic suppliers, and strategic distributors/agents. Equity- Monuments. The government should clarify the roles of these based alliances, however, call for a higher level of commitment and may institutions. Good institutional relations promote the development of include strategic investment, cross shareholding, and joint ventures cultural tourism in Zimbabwe. The government can form collaborations [64]. World Heritage Properties should be places where all stakeholders among the institutions. Collaborations or merging of these institutions cooperate through effective partnerships to maximise conservation and improve the management of the heritage sites in Zimbabwe. One of presentation outcomes, whilst minimising threats and adverse impacts the advantages of collaborations is that the organisations are able to from tourism. equally share information. This avoids duplication of roles as well as Organisations derive a myriad of benefits through entering into policy discord within the sector. Alternatively, Parks and NMMZ could strategic alliances. Isoraite [60] identified four main advantages of just merge or have a park where monuments are found and manage strategic alliances. The merits are ease of market entry, sharing of risks, them as one entity share incomes. ability to share knowledge and expertise, synergy and competitive Site management teams: The NMMZ should focus on the advantage. Therefore, a strategic alliance is a partnership that offers establishment of management or steering groups including stakeholder businesses a chance to join forces for a mutual beneficial opportunity representation from key partners, major owners, managers and and gain competitive advantage. communities. The success of a site in terms of protection, conservation, Human resources: Tour guides within the heritage sites are and promotion depends on the input and shared vision of all the inadequate. For heritage tourism to thrive it has to develop a highly stakeholders. qualified guide system. Since interpretation is very important in Sustainable finance: A secure source of financial support is crucial cultural tourism, highly qualified guides must be fielded to interpret to the success of World Heritage sites. This may come directly from the culture. There guides must be fielded to interpret the culture. These the state, donors, trust funds or directly from visitors; often a mixture guides must be certified through a cultural tourism qualification system. of all sources is used. Natural heritage sites that rely on sporadic, Well-informed tourists are at the very centre of all sustainable tourism project-based funding are likely to remain at risk of funding shortfalls. activity. With good preparation, they are more likely to appreciate the Drawing up and implementing a plan for sustainable financing is thus distinctive features of a destination or heritage site, to enjoy the visit, to a major element in management. Understanding and meeting the costs

Page 43 of 45 of heritage management today, many protected areas find it difficult to 8. Islam G, Michael Z (2009) Rituals in organizations: A review and expansion of achieve financial stability (e.g. the ability to meet all the costs associated current theory group organizational management cambridge. with the management of a heritage site). The reasons are often complex 9. Schein EH (1992) Organisational culture and leadership. (2ndedn) Jossey but have been summarized by the United Nations Development Bass Publishers San Francisco. Programme as follows: government budget allocations that are below 10. Ravasi D, Schultz M (2006) Responding to organizational identity threats: estimates of need, legislative, political or institutional constraints to exploring the role of organizational culture. Academy of management journal. innovation and cost-effective operations, due to the poor integration of 11. Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (2009) Evoking supply side response through protected areas into national development policies. Managers who are privatisation and foreign currency generation. Fidelity printers harare. ill-equipped and poorly motivated to diversify funding sources and are 12. Mafumbe I (2011) Parastatals: throwing good money after bad financial gazette often working without strategic financial plans or even management Harare. plans. There is limited technical knowledge on screening, assessment, 13. Henning E (2004) Finding Your Way in Qualitative Research. Van Schaik formulation and implementation of new mechanisms to improve Publishers, Pretoria. protected area financing. Financial planning is basically the process of 14. Mamimine PW (2008) A guide to writing a masters and doctoral proposal LMS defining costs and identifying ways to meet those costs. Good financial LETSELA Harare. planning helps managers to make strategic financial decisions such as 15. Quy VT (2011) Organizational culture of privatised firms and state owned reallocating spending to match management priorities and identifying enterprises in Vietnam. University of Economics of Hochininh City. appropriate cost reductions and potential cash flow problems [116]. 16. Michael J, Braunscheide L, Nallan C, Suresh A, Alicia DB (2010) Investigating In addition, there is a need for NMMZ to build a diverse funding the impact of organisational culture on supply chain integration. Wiley Periodicals 49: 883-911. portfolio to minimize funding risks and fluctuations. Most sources of funding can be either insecure or subject to fluctuations. Combining 17. Peters TJ, Waterman RH Jnr (1982) In search of excellence: Lessons from different sources of funding is thus a key element to long-term financial america’s best-run companies harper collins New York. sustainability (Appendix 1 and 2). 18. Zhang X (2009) Values expectations adhoc rules and culture emergence in international cross cultural management contexts nova science publishers New Private Public Partnerships (PPPs) as a financing mechanism: It York. is inevitable that PPPs are the way to go these days. SOEs have to engage 19. Saunders M, Lewis P, Thornhill A (2012) Research methods for business in PPPs for them to survive in this harsh economic environment. Students. 6 edn Prentice-Hall London. 20. Yin RK (2003) Case study research design and methods applied social Dedication research methods series Sage Publications: London.

This thesis is dedicated to my five children Nyasha, Fungisai, 21. Rawnsley AC (2012) Teeside University Research Governance Policy Sharon Chido, Tafadzwa Andrew and Moreblessing for their endless Procedures and Guidelines for Research Ethics Teeside University love, support and motivation. You are a delightful lot. Thank you for 22. Sekaran A (2000) Applied business research: qualitative and quantitative giving me the zeal to continue working. methods. John Wiley and Sons New York. Acknowledgment 23. Marczyk GR, Dematteo P, Festinger D (2005) Essentials of research design and methodology. Wiley New York. First and foremost I would like to thank my academic advisor Mr Gordon Esses and all the supervising staff at Atlantic International University for their guidance 24. Kothari CR (2004) Research methodology methods and techniques new age. and support throughout this study. With great pleasure, I would like to thank the International New Delhi. senior management at National Museums and Monuments for giving me the 25. Ritchie J, Lewis J (2003) Qualitative research in practice a guide for social authority to conduct a study on their organization and all their valuable inputs. I sciences students and researches sage publishing New Delhi. am grateful to persons who shared their thoughts and memories on the subject. Dr Nyaruwata, Mr Elvis Mari, Mr Jeffreys Majengwa, Mr Bvocho. Thank you all 26. Ravasi D, Schultz M (2006) Responding to organizational identity threats: for the valuable inputs without which the project could not have taken shape. I exploring the role of organizational culture. Academy of management Journal. would also like to thank most sincerely my research assistant Mr Brighton Shoniwa who worked tirelessly to collect the data and material for the research and all the 27. Nyoni E (2012) Restructuring procedures manual printflow harare. endless hours we spend discussing the project. Last but not least I like to thank my 28. Cartwright S, Cooper CL (1993) The Role of Culture Compatibility in Successful friends and family for the encouragement. I thank the Almighty God for allowing me Organisational Marriage. Journal of the Academy of Management Executive. a chance to pursue my dreams. 29. Hofstede (1992) Cultures and organisations: software of the mind. McGraw References Hill Maidenhead.

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