Aspects of Otherness in John Adams's Nixon in China
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sean atkinson Aspects of Otherness in John Adams’s Nixon in China This article explores the relationship between the music of John Adams’s Nixon in China and the action taking place on stage. At many points throughout the opera, these forces are at odds, creating dramatic moments that often heighten the previously established sense of sarcasm and reverse the expected narrative roles of the characters. This is achieved by manipulating the Other in a unique manner as to not directly reference Chinese music, but rather juxtapose culturally neutral music with easily recognizable Western topics and genres. When commenting on his music for Nixon in China (1987), John Adams stated, ‘at no point in this opera did I want to write fake Chinese music’ (Daines 1995: 118). Instead, Adams cleverly used diatonic harmonies in non-tonal (also read as non-functional) progressions. Timothy A. Johnson highlights many of these non-functional triadic motions in neo-Riemannian space, focusing specifically on shifts in and between hexatonic cycles (Johnson 2011). Unlike Johnson, however, the present study moves beyond the triadic transformations that permeate the surface of the music to examine the myriad of differing styles that Adams has incorporated in the opera. While certain neo-Riemannian transformations, including motion between hexatonic poles, help to avoid the creation of ‘fake Chinese music’, it is ultimately their combination with other stylistic references that create a discernible Other, that is, an external entity within the sphere of the opera. Indeed, the varied harmonic systems present in Nixon in China, when compared with the opera’s staging and narrative, support, augment, and even occasionally subvert the action on stage, helping to shape our understanding of the opera. Nixon in China interacts with, or comments on, a long tradition of exoticist representations of ‘the East’ (from which Adams wishes to distinguish himself). The conception of Otherness in the context of such operas was borne out of a postcolonial view of works saturated with exoticism. By way of summation, Ralph P. Locke provides this description of the plot of Orientalist operas: A young, tolerant, brave, possibly naïve or selfish, white European tenor-hero intrudes (at risk of disloyalty to his own people and to the colonialist ethic with which he is identi- fied) into mysterious, dark-skinned, colonized territory represented by sexy dancing girls and deeply affectionate, sensitive lyric soprano, thereby incurring the wrath of the brutal, intransigent tribal chieftain (bass or bass-baritone) and blindly obedient chorus of male savages (Locke 1991: 263). While Locke goes on to show how Saint-Saëns’s Samson et Dalila is an atypical example of this paradigm (especially in comparison to the operas coming out of France around the same time), many of the traits described are present in Nixon in China. Richard Nixon himself takes on the role of the ‘white-European tenor’, who once opposed any relationship with China and may encounter ‘disloyalty’ at home as a result of his visit. Though Nixon enters not a colonized territory of the United States, China is represented by ‘sexy dancing girls’ during the ballet (Act II, Scene 2), and the role of Chairman Mao’s wife, Chiang Ch’ing (Jiang Qing, or ‘Madame Mao’ as she is referred to in the opera), is dutch journal of music theory, volume 18, number 3 (2013) 155 TvM_18_#3_november_2013_5.indd 155 10-12-13 18:00 aspects of otherness in john adams’s ‘nixon in china’ voiced by a coloratura soprano, perhaps an extreme version of Locke’s lyric soprano as she also assumes the role of the ‘brutal, intransigent tribal chieftain’. Adams’s opera also responds to other twentieth-century takes on non-Western topics in opera, including humorous representations of the exotic in Gilbert and Sullivan’s The Mikado and more serious explorations of the Far East in Puccini’s Madama Butterfly and Turandot. In the case of Madama Butterfly, Puccini fused Western and Japanese musical elements in such a way that all audiences were able to sense an Other, as the resulting music sounded neither completely Western or non-Western (Cheng 2009). In contrast, The Mikado sharply juxtaposes, rather than blends, Western and orientalist idioms, thereby eliciting a humorous effect that perfectly suits a comedy, the fictional Japanese setting of which merely functioned as a foil upon which to criticize British government and institutions. Also relevant for Nixon in China is Susan McClary’s discussion of Bizet’s use of exotic elements in Carmen. According to McClary, ‘Bizet composed most of his “exotic” music not through instinct or by virtue of his borrowing from ethnic sources, but rather by means of well-developed signs that he and his audiences shared, as do most contemporary listeners’ (McClary 1992: 54). Bizet did some research into Spanish musical idioms while writing the opera, but McClary emphasizes that the aim was to create music that sounded Spanish to a French audience, even if it was not authentically so. In fact, Bizet often recycled his coded ethnic music in different scenarios, substituting ‘a piece that was originally supposed to sound Russian in Brazil or in the Orient’ (McClary 1997: 120). Bizet’s imagination of the exotic, therefore, was much more important to the success of his exotic operas than a strict recreation of exotic sounds. The problem to which Adams posed himself was to create a sense of Otherness without resorting to traditional markers of chinoiserie (pentatonicism, high-register instrumentation, imitations of Chinese instruments, etc.) or anything that resembles these markers. Despite the opera’s similarities to Locke’s summary of Orientalist opera, Nixon in China provides a musical atmosphere where representations of China are absent. This, coupled with the fact that there are also few examples of traditional Western idioms, raises an interesting question: from where does our sense of Otherness emerge if neither it nor a Self is clearly defined? Indeed, the audience is often awash in a sea of harmonies that are foreign not in the context of a West/Far East dichotomy (as with Madama Butterfly) nor as a result of a shared code of exotic idioms (as with Carmen), but of something else entirely. The generic language of Nixon in China consists of traditionally Western harmonies (triads and other extended tertian sonorities) arranged in non-typical progressions (best described with transformational, not tonal, theory).1 When against this background Western idioms emerge in the form of functional chordal progressions or Classical topics, a sense of Otherness appears despite the lack of any references to Chineseness for comparison. Indeed, it is the rarity of these common-practice idioms that causes them to become a marked event in the context of the opera, signaling a strong 1 Transformational theory (or neo-Riemannian theory) describes motion between triads in which a pitch moves by a half-step or whole-step. There are three basic transformations that can occur: Parallel (P) keeps the root and fifth of a triad and moves the third by a half-step (C major M C minor; Relative (R) keeps the major third of the triad and moves the other tone by a whole-step (C major M A minor); and Leading-tone (L) keeps the minor third of the triad and moves the other tone by a half-step (C major M E minor). These three basic transformations can be used in any combination, resulting in compound transformations. For example, PLP would describe three transformations all occurring simultaneously (C major M G minor). A # fourth transformation, known as SLIDE, is also commonly referenced, though it moves both the root and the fifth of the triad by a half-step while keeping the third (C majorM C minor). For more on the history and # mechanics of these transformations, see the special issue on Neo-Riemannian Theory of the Journal of Music Theory 42/2 (1998). 156 TvM_18_#3_november_2013_5.indd 156 10-12-13 18:00 dutch journal of music theory sense of alterity. In other words, the musical Other in Nixon in China has little to do with China or the ‘non-West’, but is defined by the appearance of a familiar Western idiom in a context of what can be described as culturally neutral music. The clearest examples of Othering at work in Nixon come from the grand dinner scene at the end of Act I and the ballet scene in Act II. Both scenes elicit a sense of Otherness through a dialogue between music, narrative, and staging, yet each achieves this sense differently. The narrative of the grand dinner revolves around the notion of cooperation between the United States and China, the possibility/feasibility of which is constantly questioned by Adams’s score. The ballet narrative, which is derived from one of the eight model works (yangbanxi) that constituted the officially sanctioned repertoire during the Cultural Revolution, is fundamentally altered from its original conception (in a diegetic sense) by the intrusion of the Nixons into the story, which is supported by the appearance of clear Western topics and progressions in the music. The result is both a serious and satirical commentary on the actions taking place in the opera.2 Adding further complication to this opera’s notion of Otherness is the 2011 Metropolitan Opera restaging of the work. Though directed by Peter Sellars, who also directed the premiere performance in 1988, and remaining mostly unchanged, the new production introduces two seemingly subtle alterations to the staging that have significant consequences for the Other. In an interview during the live broadcast of the opera, Sellars explained that the changes were made to better accommodate new information about the characters that was not known during the original production (Adams 2012).