NATIONAL REPORTS on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORTS on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
First published in Thailand in 2007 by the United Nations Environment Programme.
Copyright © 2007, United Nations Environment Programme
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DISCLAIMER:
The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of UNEP or the GEF. The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP, of the GEF, or of any cooperating organisation concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, of its authorities, or of the delineation of its territories or boundaries.
Cover Figure: Coral Reefs in Phu quoc Islands, Vietnam, by Nguyen Van Long
For citation purposes this document may be cited as:
UNEP, 2007. National Reports on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 11.
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
Table of Contents
OVERVIEW...... 1
ABOUT THE SOUTH CHINA SEA ...... 1 HUMAN POPULATIONS BORDERING THE SOUTH CHINA SEA ...... 1 CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND BIODIVERSITY ...... 2 THE CORAL REEF SUB-COMPONENT OF THE UNEP/GEF SOUTH CHINA SEA PROJECT...... 3 REGIONAL THREATS TO CORAL REEFS...... 3 TOWARD THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF CORAL REEFS...... 5 CAMBODIA ...... 11
INTRODUCTION ...... 11 PHYSICAL FEATURES ...... 11 CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION ...... 11 BIODIVERSITY ...... 11 STATUS OF CORAL REEFS ...... 13 THREATS...... 15 SOCIO-ECONOMY AND RESOURCE USES...... 16 MANAGEMENT...... 19 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 21 INDONESIA ...... 23
INTRODUCTION ...... 23 PHYSICAL FEATURES...... 23 CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND BIODIVERSITY ...... 24 THREATS...... 27 ECONOMIC VALUATION AND USES ...... 31 MANAGEMENT...... 33 MALAYSIA ...... 37
INTRODUCTION ...... 37 CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION ...... 38 BIODIVERSITY ...... 38 THREATS...... 41 SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION...... 46 MANAGEMENT...... 48 PHILIPPINES...... 55
INTRODUCTION ...... 55 PHYSICAL FEATURES...... 56 CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION ...... 56 BIODIVERSITY ...... 58 THREATS...... 59 ECONOMIC VALUATION AND USES ...... 61 MANAGEMENT...... 63 THAILAND...... 69
INTRODUCTION ...... 69 PHYSICAL FEATURES...... 69 CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION ...... 70 BIODIVERSITY ...... 74 THREATS...... 74 ECONOMICS VALUATION AND USES ...... 76 MANAGEMENT...... 78
iii NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
VIET NAM ...... 93
INTRODUCTION ...... 93 PHYSICAL FEATURES...... 94 CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND MORPHOLOGY ...... 94 BIODIVERSITY ...... 98 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS FROM CORAL REEFS ...... 104 STATUS AND THREATS...... 107 MANAGEMENT...... 111
iv NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW 1
OVERVIEW
Vo Si Tuan On behalf of the Regional Working Group on Coral Reefs
ABOUT THE SOUTH CHINA SEA The South China Sea is a semi-enclosed sea bordered by nine nations: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam. The area contains highly diverse tropical ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrass, and high species richness of marine organisms. A preliminary assessment of the sea’s biodiversity indicated more than 8,600 species of plants and animals (Ng & Tan, 2000). Fish alone contribute 3,365 species (Randal & Lim, 2000). The area is a global centre of shallow water marine biodiversity. Much of the southern half of the South China Sea lies on the Sunda Shelf and waters are shallow (< 200m deep) and influenced by both marine and river/terrestrial inputs. Further north, the South China Sea basin and Palawan Trough are much deeper, at > 1,000m, being bordered by the shallow continental margin and shelves. The coastal and marine waters include several major gulfs and bays, including: the Gulf of Thailand; Gulf of Tonkin; Lingayen Gulf; and Manila Bay. The geomorphological history of the South China Sea has been the main factor influencing the development of coral reefs in the region. Major oceanographic currents in the South China Sea are generated by the Asian Seasonal Monsoons. Surface currents flow north to south along the Viet Nam coast to the Java Sea during the northeast monsoon, October to February (Wrytki, 1961). The flow reverses south to north along the western margin of the South China Sea during the southwest monsoon beginning in June. The South China Sea interacts with the Indian Ocean via a north flowing current between West Kalimantan and Peninsular Malaysia bifurcating into the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea. Waters from the South China Sea may also flow seasonally into the Sulu Sea (Bate 1999) and Java Sea, contributing to the Indonesian through-flow. Within the South China Sea, local current patterns form complex eddies and counter-currents, mainly driven by the monsoon systems. Upwelling occurs in areas north west of the Philippines and coastal Viet Nam, and influences physical conditions in the South China Sea. Current regimes play an important role in determining the distribution and abundance of marine fauna and flora in general, and coral reefs in particular. Coral reefs do not develop in coastal areas with strong riverine inputs, and land-based activities can affect coral reefs via river discharges. There are many watersheds bordering the South China Sea, with approximately 125 major rivers draining some 2.5 million km2 of water catchments. The major systems include: • Kampar, Indragiri and Tembesi-Hari Rivers (Sumatra) • Pahang, Trengganu and Kelantan Rivers (Peninsular Malaysia) • Batang Lupar, Sarawak and Seribas Rivers (South Sarawak) • Kapuas River (West Kalimantan) • Rajang and Baram Rivers (Sarawak) • Mae Klong and Chao Phraya Rivers (Thailand) • Mekong, Red and Dong Nai Rivers (Viet Nam) • Xun Xi & Bei Rivers (Pearl River estuary - China).
HUMAN POPULATIONS BORDERING THE SOUTH CHINA SEA
The Global International Waters Assessment Project (GIWA) (Winkinson et al., 2005) provided information regarding socio-economic activities in the coastal catchments of the South China Sea. The present human population of the South China Sea’s coastal zone is estimated to be 200 million. A mayjority of the population is distributed in some 90 cities with populations > 100,000. Outside the cities, the remaining population is distributed in thousands of villages spread along the coast, across the lowlands and into the highlands. The larger urban centres include Manila (> 10 million, Philippines), Hong Kong – Macao (~ 10 million, China), Hanoi, Haiphong and Ho Chi Minh Cities (> 10 million in total, Viet Nam), Bangkok (> 5 million, Thailand), Kuala Lumpur (> 5 million, Malaysia), Singapore (> 2 million), and Brunei Darussalam (> 2 million). Outside the cities, coastal population densities are highest in Viet Nam (Gulf of Tonkin > 500 persons km-2), China and the Philippines (~ 470 persons km-2).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 2 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
Populations are increasing at rates between 1 - 6% annually in the sub-region (e.g. 2.1% for the Philippines, 2.9% for Indonesia, 1.6% for China, 3.3% for Malaysia, 1.3% for Thailand and 5.6% for Cambodia), with an overall average increase of ~ 2.2% per year (Talaue-McManus 2000). Population growth is highest in coastal areas of Cambodia, Indonesia and Malaysia. It is predicted that the population of the sub-region will approach 300 million by 2020 and double by 2035. Parts of the sub- region (e.g. Malaysian Sabah) are also experiencing substantial immigration from Indonesia and the Philippines, up to 4% annually in some areas.
The coastal areas of the South China Sea are the location for a wide range of economic activities, from subsistence agriculture and artisanal fisheries to light and heavy manufacturing and high technology industries. Subsistence farming and fishing are the major activities of large numbers of people outside of the main urban and industrial centres. The major export earners include commercial exploitation of natural resources, particularly fisheries, aquaculture/mariculture, oil palm and other forms of plantation agriculture, and mining. There have been increases in aquaculture (notably Tilapia in lakes and inland waters) and mariculture (shrimps) in coastal ponds, and the supply of tropical fish to the live and ornamental fish markets. At present, mariculture is largely dependent on wild stocks, although hatcheries are being developed. Forestry is also a major industry although large areas of loggable forests have already been exploited in many parts of the sub-region, or are now protected (e.g. Palawan, Philippines). Secondary industries including resource processing and manufacturing, and tertiary industries including electronics are of growing importance. Service industries, including tourism, are also expanding, with for example a 5% annual increase in tourism from 1987 - 1995 in the Philippines.
For most South China Sea nations, fisheries and aquaculture, plantation agriculture, forestry, mining, and manufacturing are important economic activities. The sub-region is a globally important source of minerals, with considerable reserves of oil and gas, which continue to cause international tensions. The South China Sea is the world’s second busiest international sea-lane, utilised by more than half of the world’s super-tanker traffic.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND BIODIVERSITY
Coastal areas of the South China Sea with large riverine inputs are mostly devoid of fringing coral reefs, although small fringing and patch reefs are present in some places. Fringing reefs occur away from the major river estuaries, particularly in the Philippines and the central - southern areas of the South China Sea. All major reef types, including fringing, patch platforms (including 'barrier' reefs) and atolls are observed in the South China Sea, with a total estimated reef area in the order of 10,000km2 (based on aggregation and de-aggregation of national statistics) (Spalding et al. 2001). Offshore, a series of large platform reefs and atolls have developed, the most famous being the Spratly Islands, Tung-Sha Reefs and Paracel Islands. These reefs are highly biodiverse and are thought to play key roles in the maintenance and replenishment of regional biodiversity, and may be particularly important in replenishment of harvested species.
If coral reefs are the most diverse tropical marine ecosystem on earth, then the Indo-Pacific in general, and the South China Sea in particular, are home to a globally significant coral reef system. The South China Sea is considered part of the “coral triangle” with the highest diversity of hermatypic corals in the world (Veron, 1998). More than 70 hermatypic corals have been recorded in the South China Sea. Hotspots of coral species diversity occur at Nha Trang (Viet Nam) with 351 species and El Nida (Palawan, Philippines) with 305 species. Records of more than 200 species occur for a number of sites in Viet Nam, Indonesia, and the Philippines (UNEP, 2004).
Coral reefs are an important marine ecosystem and habitat. Like mangroves and seagrass beds, coral reefs provide nurseries and breeding grounds for coral reef associated species and other marine life such as pelagic and migratory species. Like an oasis in the ocean, coral reefs are where schools of migrating pelagic fish aggregate. In fact, a quarter of the diet of pelagic and migratory species like the yellow fin tuna (Thunnus albacares) includes coral reef-associated organisms (Grandperin, 1978). The high species richness of corals and reef-associated fauna and flora in the South China Sea makes this region a valuable source of genetic and biochemical materials.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW 3
THE CORAL REEF SUB-COMPONENT OF THE UNEP/GEF SOUTH CHINA SEA PROJECT
Three priority areas of concern were identified in the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA)1 of the South China Sea, namely the loss and degradation of coastal habitats, over-exploitation of fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand, and land-based pollution. Within the concern about the loss and degradation of coastal habitats, coral reefs were considered as a priority habitat along with mangroves, seagrass, and coastal wetlands (Talaue-McManus, 2000).
The UNEP/GEF Project entitled “Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand” (the South China Sea Project) was developed to address the concerns and issues identified by the TDA. The South China Sea Project is funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and is implemented by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in partnership with seven riparian states bordering the South China Sea2. Of the three substantive project components, habitat degradation and loss is the largest, being divided into four sub-components: mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass, and wetlands.
The coral reef sub-component includes 6 participating countries, namely Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. At the regional level, the Regional Working Group on Coral Reefs (RWG-CR) is composed of the national focal points for the sub-component from each of the six countries, together with two internationally recognised experts from the region. The working group has agreed Terms of Reference and a set of Rules of Procedure, which state that each group shall elect its’ own Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and Rapporteur from among the members. The RWG-CR was responsible for developing criteria during the first phase of the project (2002 to 2004) for use in selecting sites for the various demonstration activities to be executed during the operational phase of the project (2005-2007). In addition, the RWG-CR was responsible for assembling information and data, for inputting these into a regional GIS and meta-database, and for conducting the analyses required to demonstrate the regional and global importance of the demonstration sites proposed to the Project Steering Committee. The RWG-CR was also involved in the process to revised the draft regional Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for the South China Sea. Specific actions of the RWG-CR in this regard included the elaboration of goals and targets for the coral reef component of the SAP, and development of a suite of costed actions for improved coral reef science and management in the South China Sea.
The regional coral reef network of the South China Sea Project extends to the national level. National Coral Reef Committees have been established in all participating countries, and are comprised of representatives from governmental agencies, scientific institutions, and non-governmental organisations. National reports and national action plans have been finalised by the Specialised Executing Agencies (SEAs) for the coral reef sub-component in each country, and included in regional database and utilised for SAP development SEAs are were also responsible for the execution of activities at the coral reef habitat demonstration sites during the operational phase of the Project.
REGIONAL THREATS TO CORAL REEFS
Following Tun et al. (2004), coral reefs in South East Asia are the most biologically diverse and productive coral reef systems in the world, but are also the most threatened and damaged reefs, with unprecedented rates of coral reef destruction from the acceleration of anthropogenic pressures over recent decades. The RWG-CR identified the key regional threats to coral reefs in the South China Sea during its sixth meeting from 22nd to 25th August 2005. These threats include over-fishing, destructive fishing, pollution (mainly eutrophication), and sedimentation. Indirect causes of these threats are high demand for food, coastal development, deforestation and unsustainable tourism. Coral bleaching is considered a serious natural threat to coral reefs in the region. Of these threats, some discussions were considered as part of the GIWA project (Winkinson et al. 2005), and are summarised as follows.
1 All project related documents cited in this paper can be found on the project website at www.unepscs.org.
2 Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 4 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
Over-fishing In total the South China Sea produces ~ 5 million tonnes of fisheries catch each year, some 10% of the total global catch. Five of the bordering nations are among the top eight shrimp (Penaeus spp.) producers globally, mostly through aquaculture with large scale attendant impacts to habitats and water quality. Domestic fisheries consumption is highest in the Philippines, with increased production required in Cambodia, Indonesia, and Viet Nam to meet increasing domestic demand. Reef fisheries provide essential sustenance to artisanal fisherman and their families throughout the sub-region, and also play an important role in supplying commercial quantities of high value products for export to expanding international, national, and local markets. Live reef fish export operations to Hong Kong and the Chinese mainland have burgeoned since the 1980s, with removal of large numbers of demersal coral reef fish.
Over-fising is considered to be having severe environmental impact in the South China Sea because most stocks are already exploited beyond maximum sustainable yield (MSY), partly through over- investment and encroachment of large-scale commercial operations into coastal waters, including incursions by foreign vessels using long drift nets into traditional/artisinal fishing areas. Demersal reef fish, holothurian, mollusc and crustacean stocks are heavily over-fished. There is also over- exploitation of sharks, tuna, bill-fish and other pelagic species. Sharks are also caught as ‘by-catch’ of the trawl fisheries and the tuna long-line fishery. Additionally, the benthic invertebrate fisheries, particularly for sedentary species of holothurian sea-cucumbers, trochus, green snails and clams, are over-fished, particularly around the major coastal population centres. Crayfish (‘lobsters’) are also targeted in oceanic waters, sandy reef lagoons and flats areas. There are clear indications of over- fishing, with two-thirds of the major fish species and several major fishing grounds already fully or over-exploited.
Overfishing does not only reduce production of living resources but also creates ecological imbalances in coral reef ecosystems. Extensive outbreaks of “Crown of Thorn” starfish, blooms of algae, and coral disease might be evidence of changes to coral reef ecosystem dynamics.
Destructive fishing Following the “Reefs at Risk” report (Burke et al, 2002), approximately 56% of reefs in South East Asia are under threat from destructive fishing. The use of poisons in fishing for demersal reef fish increased significantly in the 1990s (Cesar et al. 2000) to supply the live fish food trade in Hong Kong and China, and also the aquarium trade, with prices increasing but catch per unit effort (CPUE) declining sharply. The targeting and capture of endangered species (e.g. turtles and dugong) continues within the region, and there have been localised species extinctions. Blast fishing is also widespread within the region.
Benthic trawling also occurs in close proximity to reefs, with adverse direct effects on reef productivity and community structure. Trawl fisheries now target most demersal species, with catches of low-value fish being used for the production of fishmeal and other products. The collection of ornamental reef fishes and other organisms for the global aquarium market is also widespread in the sub-region. This activity has already caused serious damage to reefs in some areas, through use of destructive techniques of poison fishing and/or coral breakage.
Sedimentation Sedimentation is having severe environmental impact in coastal waters throughout most of the South China Sea. This has resulted from land use practices causing extensive deforestation in many coastal catchments, logging and mining, and urban development. This has been compounded by high rates of erosion and siltation. There have been major changes in turbidity and levels of suspended sediments in Malaysia, Viet Nam, Philippines, Indonesia (Sumatra) and Thailand. These impacts, with extensive dredging and land reclamation, have caused changes in biodiversity of affected benthic communities.
There are trends of increasingly large-scale forestry, by both national and international commercial operators. Large areas of the ‘loggable forests’ have already been logged and other areas have been assigned for logging, contributing to severe soil erosion in some places. Large-scale sediment mobilisation from unregulated forestry and agriculture has already impacted on the water quality of streams and rivers, and ultimately on estuarine and coastal habitats (e.g. fringing reefs) and processes in parts of the sub-region.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW 5
In the Philippines, approximately 1 billion m3 of sediment is lost to coastal waters annually, carrying high loads of particle-bound nutrients. This is of particular concern given that the timber industry has traditionally suffered from mismanagement and corruption, although there have been some recent improvements. Nonetheless, implementation of 'best-practice' forestry management, such as the retention of buffer zones along watercourses, is rarely enforced and violations are common (Hodgson and Dixon 1992). One exception to this is in Palawan (Philippines), where logging was halted through effective implementation of legislation in the early 1990s, providing a major reduction in sediment loss from the catchments and much needed protection for the fringing coral reefs and other coastal and marine habitats (A. Alcala pers. comm.).
Pollution Eutrophication in the South China Sea occurs more frequently in coastal waters with moderate impact in some areas of the Philippines. Impacts are most significant in enclosed bays, harbours and lagoons with limited water circulation (e.g. Manila Bay), and particularly where sewage or industrial discharges are present. The rapid development of aquaculture has caused a high potential of nutrient richness in the coastal waters of Viet Nam and Thailand.
There is also some use of fertilisers in coastal catchments, particularly in plantation agriculture, although by world standards use is low. At present, the effects of the nutrients are uncertain, depending partly on rates of mineralisation and retention of the dissolved nutrients. There is little evidence of the effects of nutrient enrichment on the distribution and abundance of biota, increased frequency of hypoxic conditions, reduced levels of dissolved oxygen, or fish or zoobenthos mortality other than in some enclosed bays and in the immediate vicinity of river mouths. There are no indications that eutrophication from agricultural run-off is a significant problem at the scale of the entire South China Sea basin, although blooms of toxic dinoflagellates have caused paralytic shellfish poisoning in some parts of the region.
Coral bleaching Coral reefs in the South China Sea suffered the effects of high water temperatures in 1998, causing extensive bleaching in many areas. Moderate to severe damage was reported on Indonesia’s coral reefs after the 1998 bleaching event and recovery has been variable. Reefs in the Philipines, Thailand, and Viet Nam suffered widespread bleaching episodes leading to high, variable mortality. Recovery is occurring, yet will take time due to continued anthropogenic threats causing further stress. During 1999 – 2004, there is evidence of coral recovery in Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam after extensive coral bleaching mortality, mostly in the northern parts of Southeast Asia. Coral recruitment is low in the Gulf of Thailand indicating that recovery from the 1998 bleaching may be delayed. On a positive note, the coral reefs in the World Heritage Tubbataha reefs south of Palawan are showing rapid recovery after years of blast fishing and the 1998 bleaching event (Goldberg and Wilkinson, 2004).
TOWARD THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF CORAL REEFS
The UNEP/GEF Coral Reef Habitat Demonstration Site Network Fourty three coral reef sites (Figure 1) were charaterised in the framework of the South China Sea Project using a data compilation form agreed by regional experts during the preparatory phase of the project. Data and information for the characterised sites can be accessed from the GIS database which forms part of the South China Sea Project website
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 6 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW
The network of coral reef demonstration sites has been developed in conjunction with a suite of mangrove, seagrass, and coastal wetland sites. It is aimed that this network will act as a basis for regional exchange of information and best practice in coastal habitat management of the South China Sea.
Figure 1 Coral reef sites characterised by the South China Sea Project.
A forum for the exchange of information and experiences between habitat demonstration site managers and local government officials associated with each habitat demonstration site was developed within the framework of the South China Sea Project. This has involved the conduct of two Mayors’ Round-Table Meetings, the first in Bangkok, Thailand in November 2005, and the second in Beihai, Guangxi, China in June 2006. These meetings were highly effective in involving local and provincial governments in the implementation of the South China Sea project, and promoting the sharing of information between Mayors and Governors on the integration of environmental
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – OVERVIEW 7
management into local coastal development planning. During the meetings, the provincial Mayors and Governors pledged high-level local government commitment to promote the longer-term sustainability of demonstration site activities, and to integrate environmental considerations into their future development plans.
Participants considered the Round-Table meetings a highly successful and valuable forum for both political and technical people from the local government level to meet at the regional level in order to strengthen political support for the demonstration site network and exchange of experiences. Provincial Mayors and Governors urged UNEP to convene such meetings on an annual basis as far as the project budget allowed. An E-Forum for the exchange of information between meetings was established on the South China Sea Project website, and has been used to facilitate regional level communication between local governments between meetings.
Development of the strategy for sustainable management of coral reefs
During the elaboration of the draft regional Strategic Action Programme for the South China Sea, the RWG-CR analysed the status of coral reef management in the South China Sea geographic region of the six countries based on information assembled for 83 individual coral reef areas. The area of coral reefs in the 83 target coral reef sites is 217,407ha (29% of the total coral reef area of the six countries, of which 100,243ha (13% of the total area) is under management at the present time. In terms of management effectiveness only around 5% of this area is considered as being managed successfully. For 29% of the sites management effectiveness is considered low, whilst around 13% are not under any form of management. The area to be added to the total area managed sustainably by the year 2015 is 53,577ha, thereby increasing the total area under sustainable management to 153,820ha which represents 20% of the total reef area of the six countries berdering the South China Sea or 71% of the total area of the target sites.
Coral reef monitoring has been expanded in most countries bordering the South China Sea over the past decade, and has provided a technical baseline for long-term coral reef management (Tun et al., 2004). The data obtained in the framework of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) indicates that the decadal rate of loss of coral reef cover in the South China Sea is 16%.
The RWG-CR noted that setting a target for the total area under management did not represent a target for the environmental state of the reefs although it could be assumed that those under management would, depending on the management regime, be more likely to sustain their biological diversity than those that were not under management. Therefore, the RWG-CR considered an additional target related to reducing the regional rate of coral reef cover loss. The coral reef focal points of the participating countries agreed that improvements to coral reef management over the next ten years could lead to a reduction in the decadal rate of coral reef cover loss from 16% to 5%. The regional assessment of coral reef status conducted as part of the GCRMN programme will enable an assessment of the effectiveness of coral reef management actions as part of the revised SAP.
In summary, the RWG-CR proposed the following two targets as part of the revised regional Strategic Action Programme:
• By 2015, at least 70% of the existing area of coral reefs in the 83 target coral reef sites (153,000ha) to be put under an appropriate form of sustainable management. • By 2015, reduce the regional decadal rate of degradation in live coral cover from the present rate of 16% to 5%.
The concept of sustainable management was also considered the RWG-CR. The group agreed that the sustainable management of coral reef refers to managing the ecosystem in such a way that provides for coral reef resource(s) to be used continuously, and in a cost effective and ecologically friendly manner. Such management typical involves setting targets and objectives, and the establishment of a formal management framework that is clearly understood at all levels and by stakeholders. Indicators are typically used to assess the sustainability of management. The RWG-CR identified three categories of indicators for use in assessing coral reef management, including: management; ecological-environmental; and socio-economic indicators (Table 1).
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The purpose of the defining these indicators is to provide a means of assessing whether an area is, or is not, under sustainable management in the framework of targets defined for the coral reef component of the revised Strategic Action Programme. The SAP states that 70% of the existing area of coral reefs in the 83 target coral reef sites in the South China Sea shall be under sustainable management by the year 2015. Depending on objective(s), management input(s) (column 1) are expected to produce measurable output(s) which should be reflected through ecological indicator(s) (column 2) and/or socio-economic indicator(s) (column 3).
Table 1 Sustainable Management Indicator Matrix.
Ecological/Environmental Management Indicators Socio-Economic Indicators Indicators
MANAGEMENT CAPACITY • Formal management • LIVE CORAL FISHERIES framework COVER • Catch per unit effort • Trained man-power • Total landing (nos/levels) • ORGANISM • Income • Facilities and equipment ABUNDANCE • Sustainable financing
MANAGEMENT APPROACH • BIODIVERSITY TOURISM • Sectoral • Number of visitors • Integrated • INDICATOR • Number of tourism operators • Community-based SPECIES • Income • Multiple-use • TARGET SPECIES MANAGEMENT TOOLS • Licensing and permits • WATER QUALITY OTHER ALTERNATIVE • Seasonal closure LIVELIHOODS • Zoning
OVERALL LIVING STANDARDS • Level of education • Health of the community
Achieving the targets defined for sustainable coral reef management in the South China Sea requires the implementation of regional and national level actions. The revised Regional Strategic Action Programme contains a set of agreed regional actions aimed at meeting the following objectives:
Objective 1. To promote good environmental governance and sustainable management of coral reef ecosystems Objective 2. To maintain the regional management framework to ensure the use of sound science in the sustainable management of coral reefs in the South China Sea Objective 3. To Increase awareness of stakeholders on the ecological roles, economic values, and need for sustainable management of coral reefs Objective 4. To provide relevant scientific data and information for sustainable management of coral reefs Objective 5. To improve regional capacity in the management of transboundary issues regarding coral reefs
At the national level, six National Action Plans have been developed with the involvement of related stakeholders. It is aimed that the Governments of the participating countries will adopt and implement these action plans. The scope of national level activities is very diverse in order to cover concerned issues, including policy and legislation, public awareness, capacity building, scientific sound management, and development of models for effective management at the site level. Diverse stakeholders are also involved in implementing the plans in the countries, including central and local governments, non-government organisations, private sector, mass organisations and local communities.
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Ng P.K.L. & K.S. Tan, 2000. The status of marine biodiversity in the South China Sea. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. Supplement N. 8: 3-7
Randal J.E. & K.K.P. Lim, 2000. A checklist of the fish of the South China Sea. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. Supplement N. 8: 569-667
Spalding M., C. Ravilious & E.P. Green, 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 425p
Tun, K., L. M. Chou, A. Cabanban, V. S. Tuan, Philreefs, T. Yeemin, Suharsono, K. Sour and D. Lane, 2004. Global Status of Coral Reefs, Coral Reef Monitoring and Management in Southeast Asia, 2004. p: 235- 276. in C. Wilkinson (ed.). Status of coral reefs of the world: 2004. Volume 1. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia. 301p.
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Wilkinson C., L. DeVantier, L. Talaue-McManus, D. Lawrence and D. Souter. 2005 International Waters Assessment South China Sea, GIWA Regional assessment 54. University of Kalmar on behalf of United Nations Environment Programme. 104p.
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Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coatal Waters of the South China Sea
CAMBODIA
Mr. Ouk Vibol Focal Point for Coral Reefs Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 186 Norodom Blvd. P.O. Box 582, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA 11
CAMBODIA
Department of Fisheries, the Kingdom of Cambodia
INTRODUCTION
Marine habitats in Cambodia play a very important role in the national economy and the balance of regional and global environment ecosystems. Marine habitats include coral reefs, inundated forests (mangrove forests), and seagrass. In Cambodia, these habitats primarily fall under the management of the Department of Fisheries with Article 1 of the Fishery Law stating that "Fishery resources comprise of live animal and vegetable reproduced itself and abided in the fishery domain", and that the "Marine fishery domain extends from the coastline to the seaward border of the outer economic zone of the People’s Republic of Kampuchea" (DoF, 1990). This coastal zone is 55,600sq. km and includes 69 islands and 28.065sq. km of coral reefs (DoF, 2004). Administratively, the coastal zone includes the two provinces of Koh Kong and Kampot, and the two municipalities of Sihanoukville and Kep.
From a functional perspective, Cambodia's coastal zone can be conceptualised as being made up of two inter-related systems - ecological and socio-economic systems. The ecological system includes the physical, chemical and biological environmental parameters that provide natural resources, sequesters pollutants, and offers fundamental life-support functions (e.g. clean air and water) for humans and other living organisms. The socio-economic system depends upon many functions and products of complex ecological systems. Cambodia’s marine ecosystems are abundant in living resources, but have limited capacity to provide fish, timber, coral reefs, seagrasses, clean water and other goods and services to meet the demands of socio-economic development. Given that the production capacity of the ecological systems is limited, it is not surprising that the final demands by society, and new opportunities for multiple uses, are the source of increasing conflicts arising within Cambodia's coastal zone.
Coral reefs, in particular, are critical habitats for a diverse range of resident and migratory species, especially endangered and vulnerable species. The structure of a reef provides shelter and food for many types of plants, fish and invertebrates (Nelson 1999). Many Cambodians are also reliant on coral reefs for livelihood and nutrition, with much demand placed on the many commercially valuable species dependent on these habitats. Additionally, these areas provide much potential for the development of eco-tourism in the future. Until recently, little was known about the status of Cambodia’s coral reefs due to minimal research and lack of monitoring in this region. However, our knowledge is now increasing with studies carried out by the Danida funded project on Environmental Coastal Zone Management in Cambodia implemented in the Provinces and Municipalities of Kep, Sihanoukville, and Koh Kong Province (Nelson 1999), the National University of Singapore (Chou et al. 2003), and through the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Due to limited research resources, information about the physical characteristics of Cambodia’s marine environment is almost completely lacking. However, some general parameters have been recorded such as sea surface and air temperature, depth, turbidity and/or visibility. Usually, visibility is very low near the mainland and high adjacent to offshore islands. Visibility can reach up to 20m in waters surrounding the offshore islands.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION
Coral reefs in Cambodia are mostly distributed as fringing reefs along parts of the mainland, particularly headlands, and around many islands (Figure 1). Corals near to shore are those adapted to living in turbid environments, while further offshore a wider diversity of species is found (Nelson, 1999).
BIODIVERSITY
Coral reefs are some of the most biologically rich ecosystems on earth, however the exact number of species found in Cambodian waters is yet to be determined due to limited research in this region. To date, at least 70 species of corals in 33 genera and 11 families have been identified during a brief
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 12 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
survey at Koh Tang near Sihanoukville (Nelson, 1999). A review conducted by the Fisheries Component of the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project found 520 marine fish species from 202 genera and 97 families, with an estimated total stock of marine fish of 50,000 metric tonnes (Ing, 2003). The total number of coral reef associated species in Cambodia is largely unknown (Table 1).
Figure 1 Map of Reef Distribution in Cambodia.
Table 1 Estimated Number of Species for Major Groups of Marine Biota.
Marine Biota Number of Species References Hard Corals 70 Nelson, 1999 Soft Corals 17 Nelson, 1999 Marine Fish 520 Ing, 2003 Echinoderms 21 Ing, 2003 Crustaceans 50 Ing, 2003 Molluscs 250 Ing, 2003 Marine Turtles 5 Ing, 2003 Marine Mammals 12 Ing, 2003 Seaweeds 16 Ing, 2003 Seagrass 9 CZM, 2002
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA 13
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS
In 2003, the Department of Fisheries conducted a coral reef baseline survey in Cambodia using standard methodologies as outlined by two global coral reef monitoring agencies, the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) (http://www.gcrmn.org) and Reef Check (http://www.reefcheck.org.). These methods employ rapid assessment techniques, which enable quick and reliable assessment of coral reef health. Reef Check was used for the survey of reef fish, invertebrates, and general reef condition. The GCRMN Line Intercept Transect Method, which has been widely used within the Asia-Pacific region to survey coral reefs, was used to provide detailed quantitative benthos assessment. Seven sites including the Koh Kong Islands, Koh Sdach Islands (Koh Kong Province); Koh Rong, Koh Rong Sanleom, and Koh Takiev Koh Tang island groups (Sihanoukville); and the Koh Tunsay island group (Kampot Province and Kep Municipality) were selected as monitoring sites. The data collected by monitoring activities provided a figure on coral reef status in the coastal waters of Cambodia.
Status of Reef Benthos (especially corals) Based on the GCRMN range, Cambodia’s coral reefs are in fair to good condition, with coral cover ranging from 23.1% in the Koh Sdach island group of Koh Kong Province to 58.1% at Koh Takiev island group of Sihanoukville. Dead coral was observed to range from 0% in Prek Ampil to 44.9% per square meter at Koh Rong. However, this may not be a reflection of the status of all reefs in Cambodia, as surveys were not carried out in areas of intensive seaweed farming. Reports from the Koh Pouh area indicate that coral reefs have been heavily impacted on by seaweed farming activities in that area, leaving most reefs in very poor condition (Mam 2001). Little other benthos was observed at most of the sites, accounting for only 2.2% of total cover at the Koh Sdach island group. The highest percentage of other benthos was observed in the Prek Ampil area of Kampot Province, accounting for approximately 5.6% of total cover (Table 2).
Algal cover was not very dominant at most sites, and no algae was observed on the reefs of Koh Takiev. The highest percentage cover of algae (17.5%) was observed on the reefs of the Koh Sdach island group of Koh Kong Province. The coverage of sand and rock is considered high, accounting for 15.4% of total cover at the Koh Sdach island group and 40% at Prek Ampil (Table 2).
Table 2 Percentage cover of benthos types on selected coral reefs in Cambodia.
Koh Koh Koh Koh Koh Prek Koh Benthos Kong Sdach Rong Takiev Tang Ampil Pouh Live Coral (%) 47.4 29.3 23.1 58.1 38.3 53.8 41.0 Dead Coral (%) 29.6 35.6 44.9 0.6 13.1 0.0 19.2 Other Benthos (%) 4.2 2.2 5.1 3.1 4.2 5.6 2.4 Algae (%) 1.6 17.5 0.6 0.0 0.6 0.6 10.1 Abiotic (%) 17.2 15.4 26.4 38.1 43.8 40.0 27.4
Only Koh Rong and Rong Sanleom of Sihanoukville have been monitored over time. The first survey was conducted in 1998 by the Daninda funded Environmental Coastal Zone Management (CZM) project (Nelson 1999). In 2001, the site was surveyed by Wetlands International and the CZM project (Mam 2001). The two final surveys were conducted by the Department of Fisheries with the support of the UNEP EAS/RCU3 in 2002 and 2003 for trainings on diving, reef check, and the GCRMN Line Intercept Transect (LIT). ). Although no exact positions of the transects were plotted by GPS for the last two monitoring programmes, it is believed that all surveys, including the last two, were conducted at very similar locations, although at different times of the year.
The percentage of live coral cover did not change significantly from 1998 to 2003 (Figure 2). The initial survey in 1998 found that live coral accounted for 20% of the total reef cover at this site. The percentage cover was observed to increase slightly to 26.25% in 2002, before dropping to 23.12% in 2003. However, regular annual monitoring is needed in order to detect any trends over a larger temporal scale.
3 East Asian Sea Regional Coordinating Unit.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 14 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
30
25
) 20
15
Coral Cover (% 10
5
0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Year
Figure 2 Trend of Live Coral Cover in Koh Kok (Koh Rong and Rong Sanleom) of Sihanoukville.
Status of Reef Fish Based on the ReefCheck method, about 17 groups of reef fishes and invertebrates have been recorded at seven locations. They include butterfly fish, sweetlip, snapper, barramundi cod, grouper, humphead wrasse, bumphead parrotfish, other parrotfish, moray eel, banded coral shrimp, pencil urchin, sea urchin, sea cucumber, crown-of-thorn star fish, giant clam, triton shell, and lobster. The following table shows the number of each animal group per 100 square metres. Reef fish indocators are found at nearly all sites except Koh Pouh of Kep Municipality. Sweetlip, barramundi cod, moray eels, lobster, triton shell, and banded coral shrimp were rarely present at any of the sites. The lack of banded coral shrimp may not be a true reflection of their actual numbers, but a consequence of their small body not seen by researchers (Table 3).
Table 3 Site Summaries of Major Fish Groups per 100m2.
Koh Koh Koh Koh Koh Prek Koh Major Fish Group Kong Sdach Rong Takiev Tang Ampil Pouh
Butterflyfish 1.63 0.47 1.75 0.75 1.25 7.00 0 Sweetlips (Haemulidae) 0 0.33 0 0 0 0 0 Snapper (Lutjanidae) 0.13 0.10 6.50 1.75 0.42 0 0 Barramundi Cod (Cromileptes) 0 0.07 0 0 0 0 0 Grouper 2.63 0.23 2.25 0.25 1.67 0 0 Humphead Wrasse 0.47 0.33 0 0 Bumphead Parrotfish 0.13 0.07 1.25 0 0 Other Parrotfish 4.38 2.37 0.75 2.00 15.33 0 0 Moray Eel 0.08 0 0 Banded coral shrimp (Stenopus hispidus) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Diadema urchins 5.0 17.0 213.0 17.0 129.8 7.0 4.3 Pencil urchin (Heterocentrotus mammilatus) 0 0.4 0 0 0.1 0 0 Sea cucumber (edible only) 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 Crown-of-thorns star (Acanthaster) 0.1 0.8 Giant clam (Tridacna) 2.0 1.2 0.3 0.3 Triton shell (Charonia tritonis) 0.2 Lobster
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THREATS
There are many anthropogenic impacts causing damage to the coral reefs of Cambodia. These include destruction of coral from anchors, dynamite fishing, discarded fishing gear, and seaweed farming. Monitoring data indicates the status of damage to coral reefs at the site level (Table 4).
Table 4 Anthropogenic damages to the coral reefs in Cambodia. (General reef condition: None=0, Low=1, Medium=2, High=3)
Koh Koh Koh Koh Koh Prek Koh Location Kong Sdach Rong Takiev Tang Ampil Pouh Coral damage: Anchor 0.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.0 0.3 Coral damage: Dynamite 1.8 0.7 0.0 0.0 2.4 0.0 1.3 Coral damage: Others 0.5 0.7 0.0 0.3 1.2 0.0 0.3 Trash: Fishing gear 0.4 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.8 Trash: Others 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.3
Destructive Fishing Methods There is little data on over-fishing and destructive fishing practices. Data from ReefCheck surveys and other studies indicate however, that dynamite fishing is a major threat to coral reefs in Cambodia (CZM 1999). Only one interviewee admitted to using dynamite, and claimed that a profit of up to 14.7 million riel per day was possible (CZM 1999). Information about cyanide fishing is equally lacking but thought to be practiced using cheap chemicals from Viet Nam (US$36/kg). It has been reported that groupers and cod are caught using this method for grow-out in cages at Tumnup Rolork and Stoeng Hav (CZM 1999). Coral collection, an important threat from 1995 to 1997, is declining because the Fisheries Department has tightened controls and confiscated coral from vendors. More recently, there has been a reduction in the collection of coral due to the prohibition of this activity by the Provincial Government and the declining value of coral for use in the curio trade. Anchor and Trawler Damage, Others Kind of Damage (divers, trampling, etc) Anchor damage is apparent on most reefs in Cambodia, largely as a consequence of a lack of mooring buoys and low-level awareness amongst fishermen of the damage boat anchors do to reefs. Tourism based on Cambodia’s coral reefs is limited, such that the impacts from tourist boats, divers and trampling are limited. However, this could be a potential threat in the future with the development of the tourism industry. The introduction of seaweed cultivation to Cambodia in 1999 is also contributing to the destruction of once healthy corals. Seaweed cultivation is a lucrative business attracting significant foreign investment in Cambodia. This activity is particularly prevalent in Kampot Province. The destruction of corals associated with seaweed culture is a consequence of local people cultivating seaweed directly on reefs, with damage caused by trampling or discarded trash. In some areas, corals are now under severe threat from seaweed farming and are disappearing from many sites. The majority of coral communities on Koh Pouh where intensive seaweed farming takes place have been converted to rubble due to unsustainable farming practices (Mam 2001). Development Impacts (ports, airports, dredging, etc) There are many construction activities taking place in the coastal areas of Cambodia, but their impacts on coral reefs are largely unknown. Construction activities, including commercial port expansion, five-star hotel construction, and golf course development are particularly prevalent in Sihanoukville municipality. Even with the Government’s policy of conducting Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), no EIAs were conducted prior to recent development activities in this important coastal municipality. Coastal agriculture and development have contributed to the damage of coral reefs in Cambodia as a result of increased sedimentation and land-based pollution. Without any prompt mitigation, large quantities of agricultural run-off and soil will continue to be discharged from coastal rivers to areas of Cambodia’s coral reefs each year. The sediment and nutrient loads of Cambodia’s coastal rivers are largely unknown, but increased turbidity has been reported for most coastal water areas.
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Coral Bleaching There is little data available on coral bleaching in Cambodian waters. However, similar to other places in the region, coral bleaching did occur in 1998. Bleaching from the 1997-1998 event affected Cambodian reefs, with one survey indicating that 80% of corals in Sihanoukville bleached during 1998 (Burke et al. 2002). Nelson (1999) also noted that bleaching occurred elsewhere in Cambodia, including other sites on Koh Rong Sanleom, Koh Rong, Koh Tang, Koh Damlong, and Koh Thas. Outbreaking or Invasive Organisms Crown-of-thorns starfish were abundant in 1998. At one site on Koh Tang, crown-of-thorns starfish were abundant, with more than 20 large starfish observed per 100m2 (CZM, 1999). However, recent surveys have reported low densities, with only one animal observed at some sites and none found in others. Of more concern are the numbers of Diadema setosum, with 218 observed per 100m2 in Koh Rong and Rong Sanleom. Potential threats to coral reefs There are many potential threats to coral reefs in Cambodia. Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia indicated that the main threats are from coastal development, marine-based pollution, sedimentation, over-fishing, and destructive fishing (Burke et al. 2002). Over-fishing is major threat to all reefs in Cambodia, and while destructive fishing is also a potential threat, it is unknown how many reefs are at risk. Coastal Development At present, coastal development is only a high threat to a relatively small percentage of reefs in Cambodia. However, in the future, as the amount of development along the coastline increases, the percentage of reefs at risk from this potential threat will also increase if strict environmental impact assessments and mitigation are not carried out. Marine-Based Pollution The majority of reefs are considered to be only at medium to low threat from marine-based pollution. However, many reefs would be at high risk in the case of a catastrophic event such as an oil spill, as the government is insufficiently prepared for such events. Sedimentation and Nutrient Inputs Burke et al (2002) considered the threat to coral reefs from sedimentation to be low. However, much land clearing, for both timber and agricultural purposes, occurs upstream of rivers and estuaries, and as this continues in the future, the threat of sedimentation to coral reefs may increase. Over-fishing Over-fishing is considered one of the greatest threats to coral reefs in Cambodia, with all reefs at high risk. It is thought some reef fish and invertebrates are now locally extinct, while populations of others have been reduced significantly. While exact figures are unavailable, it is certain that increasing populations in coastal areas are placing increasing demand on fisheries resources, due to a high level dependence on them for food and income.
SOCIO-ECONOMY AND RESOURCE USES Socio-economic status Population A population census conducted in March 1998 showed a population of 11.4 million, with approximately 85% living in rural areas. In coastal areas, populations ranged from 28,677 in Kep to 527,904 in Kampot Province (Table 5). The average household size ranged from 5.0 people in Kampot province to 5.5 people in Sihanoukville, with females heading 24.8% of households in coastal areas (Ministry of Planning 1999). Table 5 Population size and density of Cambodia and its coastal areas. Location Areas Population Women Density (km2) (% total) (/km2) Cambodia 181,035 11,426,223 51.8 64 Kampot 4873 527,904 52.1 108 Koh Kong 11160 131,912 48.7 12 Sihanoukville 868 155,376 50.5 179 Kep 336 28,677 51.0 85 Source: Ministry of Planning - General Population Census of Cambodia, 1999.
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Cambodia’s population is growing at an estimated annual rate of 2.4% (Ministry of Planning 1999). The population is mostly comprised of people of Khmer decent (90%). The main ethnic groups are the Cham, Vietnamese, Chinese (also sometimes called Khmer-Chinese), and others from different hill tribe groups. It is estimated that 95% of the population speak the Khmer language. The main religion in Cambodia is Theravada Buddhism, while the Cham are Muslims. There are no estimates of the distribution of ethnic groups in coastal areas, however, the proportion of Cham people on at least part of the coastline is relatively high (Ministry of Planning 1999).
Occupations There is a scarcity of clear information about the occupations of Cambodia’s coastal people. However, studies suggest that while most households depend on several occupations and sources of income, fishing is dominant, being the main occupation in six villages of Sihanoukville, six villages of Kampot, five villages of Koh Kong, and three villages of Kep. (Carl Bro International a/s 1999).
Migration There was considerable rural to urban migration in the years immediately following the 1993 elections, as villagers searched for better employment opportunities in the largely urban private sector generated by the influx of international development assistance (UNICEF 1996). Coastal migration is still occurring with 29.6% of men and 15.6% of women relocating in search of employment (Table 6). There has been substantial migration into the coastal areas, particularly Koh Kong province, over the last 20 years. Table 6 highlights the percentage of distribution of migrants by reason for migration and gender.
Table 6 Migration into Cambodia’s coastal zone by reason and gender.
Reason for migration Both Sex (%) Males (%) Females (%) Total 100 100 100 Transfer work 11.0 15.2 3.2 To search for employment 31.0 29.6 15.6 Education 2.5 2.8 1.6 Married 11.4 12.2 9.3 Family moved 53.9 28.9 56.2 Natural calamities 2.7 2.6 3.0 Return after replacement 6.0 5.3 6.1 Other reasons 5.2 3.6 5.1 Source: Ministry of Planning (1999).
Education According to the 1998 Census, 61.2% of Cambodia’s literate population had not completed the primary level of education. In Kampot, Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, and Kep, the percentage of the population yet to have completed education at a primary level was 65.9%, 58%, 56% and 68%, respectively. A small percentage (1.45%) of Cambodia’s literate coastal population had acquired literacy without passing any grade or class (Ministry of Planning 1999).
Gender disparity is greatest among the poor, but it is also significant among the richest 20% of the population. Boys and girls have fairly similar school enrolment rates until the age of 10. By 15 years of age, male enrolment is 50% greater than that of girls, and by 18 years of age, male enrolment rates are nearly three times as large as female enrolment rates. This means that initially, parents send both their sons and daughters to school, but take the girls out of school after a couple of years. Household survey data suggest that more than 60% of children drop out of school because they have to help the family with household and market work. Furthermore, parents are often reluctant to send their girls to secondary school as they would be required to travel long distances or stay away from home (Ministry of Planning 1999).
Income level The average per capita income of Cambodia in 1998 was 79,355 Riels or US$20.80 per month. In coastal zones it is slightly less, with the average income per person per month reported at US$19.50. This level was higher than that in the Tonle Sap zone (US$17.80) and mountain zone (US$18.21), but
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 18 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – CAMBODIA
lower than in the plain (US$23.09) (Ministry of Planning 1999). General problems faced by some local communities include lack of rice and food, lack of water during dry season, lack of schools and health facilities, lack of capital for productive use, and decline in fish catch.
Fishing conflicts Small-scale, trawl, and motorised push-net fishers are in conflict over access to inshore areas and fish resources. Trawls often destroy small-scale fishing gear and large commercial operators typically do not pay compensation to local fishers. Small-scale fishers cannot claim compensation as trawling is banned in most inshore areas and the crews of such vessels are usually under the protection of high- ranking military, police, or government officials. There have also been reports of significant variations in the types and levels of taxes and other fees paid by local fishermen. In Koh Kong it has been reported that many fishermen had to pay a monthly fee ranging from R50,000 – 80,000 to the police, army, fisheries officers and village guard, in addition to the annual tax to the Fisheries Office. There are also reports of fishing equipment being confiscated if fishermen did not pay around R50,000 per month to people whose task it was to prevent violation of fishing regulations (Carl Bros International A/S 1999).
Resource uses
The development of Cambodia’s coastal zone continues to occur at a rapid pace. While the coastal areas of Cambodia are a prime location for foreign and domestic tourism investment, due to pristine beaches along the coastline and the offshore islands, the primary economic benefit comes from extractive use of its resources. As a consequence, the coastal area is experiencing high immigration rates, second only to Phnom Penh. Concern exists about the unsustainable use of natural resources, particularly those located near the coastline, and the detrimental effect that loss of value would have on many local communities.
Marine resources are vital to the livelihood of many inhabitants of coastal villages, with many people reliant on fishing for their primary source of income. Most fishermen catch fish, shrimp, crab and squid around different islands and headlands, some fishing up to 15km from the village. Much shrimp, crab, crab meat and expensive fish is sold to traders both locally and internationally, with villagers in Koh Kong selling most of the sea products in Thailand. There is seasonal variation in prices which traders are willing to pay for the products, with villagers having no other option but to sell their products to the traders (Carl Bros International A/S 1999).
Many people feel there has been a decline in their standard of living over recent years, with loss of value of marine resources due to significant reduction in fish stocks and declines in fish catch. Many fishermen are dissatisfied or angry about the use of trawling and pushing nets and boats using lights in shallow water because it can damage local fishermen’s equipment and also takes away all the small fish and other marine resources (Carl Bros International A/S 1999).
Reef Fish and Fisheries The most direct use of the coral reef ecosystem is marine fisheries with the Department of Fisheries reporting 42,000 to 45,000 metric tons of non-reef fish and reef fish collected every year (Ing 2003). However, these figures are unreliable and it has been estimated that it could be much larger than the official figure. It is also hard to determine how much of these resources have come from coral reefs. With increasing population growth in coastal areas, increasing demands are being placed on this resource with more people dependent on fish for their livelihoods and nutrition. Reef fish are the most valuable species in both domestic and international markets, and therefore the most targeted species by both legal and illegal fishers.
Reef fish, such as Sweetlips (Haemulidae), Snapper (Lutjanidae), Barramundi Cod (Cromileptes), Grouper, Humphead Wrasse and Parrotfish, are the most valuable and targeted marine species. Though, at present, there are no statistical records of these fish. Traditionally fishers catch these species by using trap, gillnet, and hook and lines. These species are collected in all sizes including juveniles. The juveniles and pre-adult fish are collected and ranched in cages along the coast, to be then sold alive to both local restaurants and international markets in Hong Kong, China and Taiwan when they reached commercial sizes.
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Tourism Tourism related to coral reefs seems is limited in terms of infrastructure and activities. Cambodia has very limited resources to develop the marine tourism sector. However, compared to the last few years, more and more tourists are coming to Sihanoukville to see the coral reefs of Koh Thas, Koh Rong and Rong Salem, and even Koh Tang. Diving and snorkelling by foreign tourists in Sihanoukville is also becoming more popular and expected to increase in the future with much potential for further development of eco-tourism in the region. Currently there are three private SCUBA diving centers in Sihanoukville, namely, ECO-SEA, Chez Claude, and SCUBA NATION. Each centre brings about 30- 40 divers per month. It is anticipated that the number of divers will increase in the near future when infrastructure and equipment are put in place.
Other Uses Apart from fisheries and tourism, coral reef resources may play another very important role in scientific research for medical purposes and socio-economic use. However, in Cambodia very limited scientific research has been carried out for medicines or other purposes. In terms of socio-economic use however, most local people who live nearby the reef areas are making their living from the reefs. Most of them are fishers, but some are gaining indirect benefits from the reefs by selling fishing gear and fishing boats.
Collection of corals for souvenirs has also been popular for many years, and even now, though illegal, is still continuing. The main types of corals collected include table corals (Acropora spp.), elephant ear corals (Turbinaria spp.), deer horn corals (Porites spp.). Previously, large amounts of dead corals were collected by high rank military officers for use in the construction of their homes.
MANAGEMENT Legislations Existing laws and regulations for coral reef management in Cambodia are insufficient, especially considering the increasing threats to coral reefs in the country. There is no law that explicitly relates to coral reef management, although Cambodia’s fisheries law notes the requirement to protect Cambodia’s rich marine living resources. Most laws relate to the protection of fisheries rather than coral reefs and there is still a lack of clear policies and regulations for the management of these important resources. The weaknesses in the current system need to be identified and laws amended to provide a sound legislative basis for the protection of coral reefs, while facilitating the development of a transparent legal framework and procedures. Transparency is imperative to reducing the current levels of misuse of authority within the system and ensuring the protection of coral reefs.
Currently, two new legislative tools are being proposed by the Department of Fisheries. These are: Royal Decree on the establishment of protected aresa and the conservation of coral reefs and seagrass in Koh Rong and Koh Sdach Group of Islands. Sub-Decree on the management of Marine Protected Areas covering coral reefs and seagrass areas.
At the time of writing, the Royal Decree had been submitted to the Consul Minister and was awaiting approval, while the Sub-Decree submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is still in draft form. It is uncertain as to when these legislative tools will be implemented.
It must be recognised that these amendments will remain ineffective unless qualified law enforcement officials, at the local and national level, ensure compliance. Ultimate success is dependent on the awareness of local communities and resource users of laws and regulations and their compliance to the system. Only then will coral reefs be effectively protected by law.
Institutional framework The institutional framework for the conservation of coral reefs in Cambodia is still rudimentary, possibly as a consequence of little understanding and awareness of the significance and benefits of this habitat amongst stakeholders. Day-to-day management of natural resources and resource use on the coast is primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), particularly the Department of Fisheries. There are fisheries staff at district and provincial levels responsible for the patrolling and management of commercial and medium-scale marine fisheries, and the protections of critical fisheries habitats such as mangroves, seagrass and coral reefs.
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However, there are overlaps of responsibilities among concerned government agencies, particularly Ministry of Environment and Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, and between the national and provincial level agencies and departments. The Ministry of Environment is responsible for the management of protected areas and for overseeing environmental protection. This includes the protection of coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves, particularly when they are in a protected area. This overlap does not seem to be problematic for managers on the ground, but needs to be clarified legally. As coral reef management is a shared responsibility between many departments, including the Department of Fisheries, the Provincial Government, and District Government, there are many potential sources of institutional conflict (Chou et al. 2002).
Existing institutional frameworks for coral reef management in Cambodia should be reformed to ensure the protection of coral reefs from the national down to the local level. In compliance with the Fisheries Master Plan, empowerment of local communities is required to enable community participation in management. Providing resource users with an opportunity to contribute to management decisions, gives the community greater ownership over, and responsibility for, marine areas and resources. With the rapid development of most coastal areas, it is important that local communities have a sound knowledge of the importance of coral reef areas and the potential impacts of economic activities, particularly tourism.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) Legally, only one marine protected area has been established, namely the Ream National Park. Originally, it was designed to protect mangrove forests, with no consideration of adjacent coral reef areas. However, the park was later extended to include some coral reef area. The first project was community-based fisheries management at Ream National Park, which was a demonstration project funded by ADB in 1999. This project involved the development of community participation in fisheries resources management at the site. Regulations at the community level were developed, and participatory enforcement was initiated.
Currently, the Department of Fisheries is proposing to establish another MPA around two groups of islands, specifically the Koh Kong island group and Koh Sdach. The area of this proposed MPA is 712 km2. The Department of Fisheries realises the importance of establishing these areas and their significance to the sustainable management of marine fisheries in Cambodia.
Monitoring The Government of Cambodia is committed to ensuring the effective management and conservation of the countries marine resources. Therefore, information on the extent and present health of coastal and marine ecosystems, including coral reefs, is needed to provide the basis for a long-term management strategy. Monitoring and assessment is a critical element of marine resource management aimed at achieving the sustainable use of Cambodia’s coral reefs and associated resources. In the past there has been no coral reef monitoring programmes in Cambodia due to a lack of funding and resources. However, several organisations/programmess have supported coral reef survey activities in Cambodia since 1998. These include:
Environmental Coastal Zone of Cambodia (CZM) This programme, financially supported by DANIDA, focused on coastal zone and resource management and conservation. The project started in November 1998, undertaking the first coral reef baseline surveys in some areas, particularly around Sihanoukville.
Wetland International Asia-Pacific and Lower Mekong Basin Programme In 2001, a team from the Ministry of Environment, Wetlands International Asia-Pacific, and Lower Mekong Basin Programme conducted field surveys of Cambodia’s coral reefs and seagrass areas.
National University of Singapore (NUS) Project In 2002, The National University of Singapore, with support from the Singapore International Foundation (SIF) and Youth Expeditions Projects (YEP), organised three expeditions to assess the marine biodiversity of the reefs off Koh Kong Province, Cambodia. Data was collected from the Koh Sdach group of islands, using the methods of Reef Check and Line Intercept Transect (LIT).
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United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN) In 2002, UNEP/ICRAN supported staff from the Department of Fisheries in SCUBA diving, Reefcheck and LIT Training courses through the implementation of the project entitled “Proposed Marine Protected Areas in Koh Rong and Rong Sanleom”.
United Nations Environment Programme/Global Environment Facility/South China Sea Project (UNEP/GEF/SCS) The Department of Fisheries is currently implementing the coral reef and seagrass component of the UNEP/GEF project entitled “Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea”. This project determined the general distribution of coral reefs within Cambodia’s marine waters, and conducted baseline surveys to determine the abundance and distribution of coral reef benthos, reef fish, and invertebrates. The general condition of coral reefs was investigated by identifying visible impacts. The project also supports the development of the National Action Plan for Coral Reef and Seagrass Management in Cambodia.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Due to the fact that Cambodia had a very long period of civil war, limited research has been carried out on coral reefs and the marine environment. As a result, information regarding the status of coral reefs is scarce. Recent surveys indicate that coral reefs cover a total area of 28.065km2, including 70 species of coral in 33 genera and 11 families. Live coral cover at coral reef sites in Cambodia has been observed to range mainly from 23%-58%. However, there have been reports of much damage and destruction of reefs as a result of destructive fishing methods and seaweed farming. In general, near shore reefs are in poor condition with turbid conditions, while healthy reefs are found further offshore, away from human impacts.
Policies and plans for the long-term management of coral reefs in Cambodia are not yet in place. Existing laws focus on fisheries only. This situation, in conjunction with ineffective law enforcement, is not conducive for the effective management of coral reefs and their resources. There are also overlaps in responsibilities among concerned government agencies, which have the potential for conflict in the future. In addition, the Cambodian government has limited capacity, infrastructure, and finances to conduct regular scientific research and monitoring. Greater awareness of the ecological and economical value of coral reefs is needed from all stakeholders at all levels to promote the protection of these areas. With the increase in demand for these resources, increasing populations in coastal areas, as well as the potential for development in the future, there is a need to establish effective management strategies for the long-term sustainable use of coral reefs in Cambodia.
Therefore the development of a National Action Plan for coral reef management in Cambodia, coupled with: improvements to legislation, administrative frameworks and enforcement; establishment of management models; research and regular monitoring; capacity building and maintenance; increasing public awareness and participation; and financial sustainability, is urgently needed to ensure sustainable use and reduce the degradation of this important resource.
Recommendations: Implement a National Action Plan for coral reef management to ensure conservation and sustainable use of coral reef ecosystems. Implement a national policy, legal and administrative framework applicable to coral reef management and conservation with the aim of reducing the degradation of coral reefs and maintaining their multiple benefits and uses. Establish management models to ensure sustainable use of coral reefs according to their different ecological and economic values in order to maintain a balance of uses. Establish research and monitoring facilities to monitor the status of coral reefs and to support conservation and management. Build cross-sectorial capacity for sustainable coral reef management at national and local levels.
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Increase awareness of managers and communities on the ecological roles and economic values of coral reefs to promote the balance between utilisation and conservation of these resources. Create financial sustainability and improve economic status of coastal communities.
REFERENCES
Burke, L., Selig, E., Spalding, M. (2002). Reefs at Risk in South East Asia. World Resource Institute. 10 Street, NE Washington, DC 20002, USA.
Carl Bro International a/s (1999). Cambodian Socio-economist and International Sociologist: Socio-economic and Natural resources studies in three villages in Koh Kong Province. DANIDA Ref. No.104.Camb.1.MIKA.3. Cambodia.
Chou, L.M., Loh, T.L., Tun, K.P.P., (2003). Status of Coral Reef of the Koh Sdach Group of Islands, Koh Kong Province, Cambodia, Part II. Marine Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences. National University of Singapore. Blk S1, 14 Science Drive 4. Singapore 1175 43.
Chou, L.M., Tun, K.P.P., Chan, T.C., (2002). Status of Coral Reef and Socio-economic Evaluation of the Koh Sdach Group of Islands, Koh Kong Province, Cambodia. Marine Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences. National University of Singapore. Blk S1, 14 Science Drive 4. Singapore 1175 43.
CZM (2002). National Report of Coastal Resources in Cambodia. Environmental Coastal Zone Management in Cambodia. Danida/Ministry of Environment. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
CZM, (1999). Case Study: Coral Reefs of Sihanoukville, Destruction by Dynamite and Coral Collection. Environmental Coastal Zone in Cambodia. Danida/Ministry of Environment. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
DoF (1990). Compiled Theme of Fishery Laws. Department of Fisheries. Phnom Penh.
DoF (2004). Map of Seagrass Distribution in Cambodia. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Ing, T. (2003). National Report on Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea, Cambodia. The Cambodian Fishery Component of Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand. Department of Fisheries. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Mam, K. (2001). Coral Reef and Seagrass Survey in Cambodia. Lower Mekong Basin Program of Wetlands International Asia Pacific. Ministry of Environment. Phnom Penh.
Ministry of Planning (1999) General Population Census of Cambodia 1998. Final Census Results. National Institutes of Statistics. Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh.
Nelson, V. (1999). State of Coral Reefs Cambodia. Environment Coastal Zone Project, MoE/Danida, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
UNEP, (2003). Report of the Training Programme in SCUBA Diving and ReefCheck Technique in Cambodia (30 pages), and Report of the Training Programme in Coral Reef Survey Using Line Intercept Transect (LIT) Method (24 pages). United Nations Environmental Program, UN Building, 9th Floor Block A, Rajdamnern Avenue, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.
UNICEF (1996). Towards a Better Future: An Analysis of Situation of Children and Women in Cambodia. UNICEF, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
INDONESIA
Dr. Suharsono Focal Point for Coral Reefs Puslit OSEANOGRAFI–LIPI Research Center for Oceanography - LIPI Pasir Putih 1 Ancol Timur, Jakarta UTARA, Indonesia
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA 23
INDONESIA
Suharsono Research Centre for Oceanography - LIPI
INTRODUCTION The South China Sea coast of Indonesia is comprised of four provinces, namely Riau, Jambi, West Kalimantan and Bangka-Belitung, stretching roughly from the Malaka Strait to the Natuna and Java Seas. The Natuna Sea is the northern boundary while the Java Sea is the southern limit. This region belongs to the shallow Sunda shelf and consists of more than 3,500 islands surrounded by well- developed fringing reefs. This vast area offers a variety of environments for reef development and therefore the diversity of fringing reef types are high. The northern coastline of Natuna and Anambas Islands faces the winter swell of the South China Sea, while fringing reefs along the east coast of Sumatra, the west coast of Kalimantan, and the northwest coast of Java enjoy in the relatively calm intra-archipelagic seas. Riau Province has the largest bordering the South China Sea, with 3,214 islands and 235,306 square km of territorial waters or almost 71.3% of Riau as a whole. In addition, Riau’s coastal zone is the centre of various economic sectors including the shipping industry, agribusiness, tourism, residential development, and waste disposal. The dominant economic activity in the area is the development of industrial areas on the Batam, Rempang and Galang Islands, and the development of tourism and industry on Bintan Island.
PHYSICAL FEATURES Tide and current The tide along the South China Sea coast of Indonesia is diurnal with a range of 1.2-2.3m. The amplitude of the tide varies depending on the location of the islands and the weather. Current patterns in the area are very complex due to the physiography of the group of islands and due to its position at the equatorial zone. Reversal of monsoon seasons has significant effects on currents. The group of islands stretches mainly in southeast-northwest direction. This controls the current in the straits. The tide and the physical change of seawater mass with the South China Sea also affects the current pattern in this area. In general, the North monsoon causes the current to flow in a southeast direction. During the East monsoon, currents generally flow from the northeast to the southwest. The tidal current in the inner side of the islands is characterised by an alternating current, parallel with the islands axis running in southeast-northwest direction. The speed of surface currents ranges from 5 to 30m/second. Tidal currents reach peak velocity at times of spring tides during the North monsoon. The dominant physical factor influencing the development of coral reefs along the South China Sea coast of Indonesia are the monsoon seasons and the and reversal of currents associated with shifting monsoons. The physical properties of coastal waters in the area are influenced significantly by the South China Sea. During the easterly monsoon, coastal waters are influenced by the movements of three water masses, i.e. water of low temperature and high salinity from the north and south; water of high temperature and low salinity from the Malaka Strait; and fresh river water from Sumatra (Musi River) and Kalimantan (Kapuas River). Results of research activities indicate that the influence of rivers from West Kalimantan is stronger than that of rivers from Sumatra. Surface water temperature of the easterly monsoon ranges between 28.87°-30.86°C, with an average of 30.78°C. In general, coastal water temperatures are higher than those offshore, and water temperature in the deeper layer is lower than that of the surface. Salinity in the surface layer varies significantly, and is typically lower than those at greater depths. Low salinity conditions are commonly found close to the land and reflect the occurrence of big rivers, such as the Kapuas and Musi Rivers, which have greatest impact in the Natuna Sea. The impact of the Kapuas River extends some 30 miles offshore and affects the entire coastal water body. In September-October 2001, the impact was noted to reach 120 miles from the coast. During the beginning of the easterly season of 2002, the flow pattern of the water mass in the Natuna Sea showed water movement toward the southeast and southwest at times of high tide, and to the north and northeast during low tide. Based on water mass circulation, it is concluded that this forms the
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 24 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
entry point of the water mass from the South China Sea to the Java Sea. Coral reefs are found in the western and southern parts of the Natuna Sea where the seawater is relatively clear, i.e., in the waters of Belitung Island, east of Bangka Island, and the Karimata Islands. Rainfall The most important climate factor affecting natural resources management is rainfall. The average yearly rainfall is 2,214mm with an average of 110 rainy days between the period of October to February.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND BIODIVERSITY
In the framework of the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project, a coral reef base map was developed based on the interpretation of Landsat 7 data. This map was not groundtruthed. The accuracy of the map depends on the skills of the interpreter and the cloud cover on the image. Assuming that the interpreter is an expert, it can be said that the map accuracy is only related to the percentage of cloud cover on the source image. Therefore, since the average cloud cover on the images used to derive the maps is around 20%, the reef base map accuracy is more or less 80%. Consequently, all information derived from the map such as perimeter and area only has a maximum validity of 80%. Initially the coral reef base map represents five classes of substrate (i.e. coral reef, sand flat, mud flat, land, and other). These were subsequently reclassified into three classes, namely coral reefs, land, and other areas including sand and mud flats. Figure 1 and Table 1 highlight coral reefs sites of interest in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea.
Figure 1 Distribution of coral reef sites of interest in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea.
Natuna Islands The Natuna Islands, Tambelan Islands, and Anambas Islands are island groups situated in the Natuna Sea (southwestern waters of the South China Sea). The island groups have several types of fringing reefs and they are affected less by terrestrial processes. Natuna District covers an area of 2,776km, with a total coastline of 2,109km. The total area of coral reef in the district is estimated to be 159km2. The development of fringing reefs in the area is largely influenced by the reversing wind and current regimes associated with the monsoon seasons.
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Table 1 Approximate area of main coral reef sites located in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea based on Landsat 7 data. (approximate 20% error) No Site Area (km2) 1. Natuna Islands 159.05 2. Anambas Islands 62.55 3. Batam, Rempang, Galang and Bintan 61.45 4. Senayang and Lingga 47.32 5. Karimata Island and Surroundings 10.41 6. Bangka Island and Surroundings 29.34 7. Belitung Island and Surroundings 11.61 Total 381.73
The reef flats of the Natuna Islands are mostly narrow with steep reef slopes along the western and eastern parts of the island. The inner reef flat is dominated by seagrass, particularly Thallassia sp. and Enhalus sp., and the seaweeds Sargassum sp. and Padina sp.. The outer reef flat is dominated by Montipora digitata, Seriatopora hystrix, and Favia chinensis, while the upper reef slopes are typically dominated by Acropora humilis and A. hyacinthus. In general, the percentage coral cover on the reef slope increases with depth and attains its maximum at 5 to 10 meters. At depths of more than 10 metres, coral cover is observed to decline rapidly and corals are scarce at depths of 25 metres. Live coral cover varies between sites, and is largely dependent upon the degree of exposure. Reef slopes are dominated by foliose corals such as Pachyseris speciosa and Echinophora sp. The degree of exposure also influences the dominant coral species on reef slopes, with the massive corals such as Porites lutea and Porites lobata more typically observed on sheltered reefs to the west of the islands. A total of 182 species from 63 genera of hard corals have been recorded in the area of the Natuna Islands. A total of 190 species of coral reef fish from 30 families, and 71 pelagic fish species from 16 families, were during surveys using visual census techniques at the island group. These surveys identified that fish diversity and abundance at the Natuna Island group remains high, with a diversity of size ranges of fish present on the reefs. Barelang (Batam-Rempang –Galang) - Bintan The reef flat in this area varies, but is mostly wide and covered by seagrass. The coral species observed on the reef flats and upper reef slopes include massive corals such as Goniastrea retiformis and Porites lutea and branching coral such as Porites cylindrica and Porites nigrescens. Coral reefs are not observed at depths greater than 7 metres in this area. The reef slopes in the area are gently sloping and dominated by massive corals and encrusting coral species. Branching coral species are observed on the upper reef slopes. Percentage coral cover ranges between 20-69% at different sites. The exposed reefs to the east of the island group exhibit great percentage coral cover than the reefs on the sheltered western coasts of the islands. Percentage coral cover exhibited distinct trends of greater percentage coral cover occurring at the exposed eastern reef and lower percentage coral cover on the sheltered western reefs. A total of 169 species of stony corals belonging to 62 genera have been observed on reefs of this group of islands. Senayang - Lingga The Senayang-Lingga Island area is located approximately 130km southeast of Singapore, consisting of 453 islands and covering an area of 129.411km2. Lingga Island is the largest island, with a land area of 81,669km2. The coastal waters of the area are comprised of patch reefs, fringing reef, and extensive mangrove forests (9.158km2). The bathymetry of coastal waters at the Senayang - Lingga Islands is very complex, with most corals occurring at depths of less than 10m. The physical environment of Senayang - Lingga consists of a high level of suspended sediments in the water column. Strong water currents and shallow waters in the area strongly influence the composition of the reef edge benthos. The reefs in the area are dominated by mushroom corals Fungia spp, Polyphyllia talpina, Ctenactis crassa, and non-Acropora species adapted to living in the turbid environment. Reef flats are typically wide and dominated by seagrass species such as Thallasia sp.and Enhalus sp.. The reef slopes in the area are gently sloping, and there is an abundance of corals on the upper reef slopes (<7m) of most sites. The dominant species are the foliose corals including Pectinia lactuca, Pachyseris
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 26 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – INDONESIA
speciosa and Turbinaria sp. Areas of soft sediments are dominated by species adapted to turbid water conditions, including Trachyphyllia geoforyi and Goniopora sp. Percentage live coral cover ranges between 19 and 67% at individual sites, and Acropora contributes to less than 7% of coral cover at most sites. A total of 217 species of stony corals belonging to 64 genera have been observed at coral reef sites in this area. An underwater visual census conducted at 102 stations within 12 locations in the area identified 117 species of coral reef fish belonging to 31 families. The dominant species were fusiler fish (Caesionids), followed by Pomacentrids, Chaetodontidae, Lutjannidae, Serranidae, Labridae, Pomacanthidae, and Scaridae.
Belitung Coral reef ecosystems observed in the western waters of Belitung Island are categorised as being in good condition (Wouthuyzen, personal communication). Reefs have significant potential for supporting a variety of uses, both direct and indirect, that benefit the coastal community. The coral reef fishery in the area is highly productive, supporting yields of 5 tonnes/km2. The reefs adjacent to the small islands west of Belitung Island, such as Mendanau Island and Batu Dinding Island, are characterised by extensive gentling sloping reefs on sandy substrate. Coral communities develop near the reef slope down to a depth of 7 m, and are dominated by sub-massive types such as Porites rus, Galaxea fascicularis and Acropora palifera. Altogether 30 coral reef sites in the area have been surveyed, with an average coral cover of less than 25% observed in the area. This value indicates that the coral colonies of the Belitung area are in poor condition. Of the 30 sites surveyed, 20 sites were characterised by a percentage cover of less than 25%. Five sites had a percentage live coral cover between 25-50%, whilst 3 sites had a percentage cover greater than 50% (excellent condition). Two sites had zero percentage cover, since the sites were dominated by dead corals covered with algae Research conducyed by the Research Centre for Oceanography in 2002 (P2O-LIPI, 2002a) identified 187 species of corals belonging to 74 genera and 14 families at Belitung Islands. Observations of coral fish identified 218 species belonging to 85 genera and 36 families, 105 species of molluscs, 35 species of crustaceans, 36 species of echinoderms, 20 species of mangroves, 8 species of seagrass, and 3 endangered species. Fisheries resources in this region are still productive, although action is required to ensure the prevention of over-fishing. Fishermen report a gradual decline in the size of economically important species harvested from Belitung’s coral reefs, suggesting that stocks of these species may be over-fished. Anambas The Anambas Island group, including several small islands, is located in the south westernmost part of Natuna islands. The typical reef flats in these islands are narrow and steeply sloping. The depth contours of the fringing reef range between 1–30m with an average cross sectional slope of 30o. A survey conducted in several small islands indicates that the reef flat is covered by seagrass and algae, as well as some corals including Montipora digitata and Serriatopora hystrix. The percentage live coral cover ranges between 21.72 – 82.72% at different sites. A total of 206 species of hard corals from 62 genera have been recorded in the area (P2O-LIPI, 2002b). Surveys in the area have also identified 26 species of algae from 17 genera. With regard to macro-benthic fauna at the sites, 85 species of 53 genera of molluscs, 24 species of 14 genera of crustacean, and 25 species of 18 genera of echinoderm have been recorded. Visual census surveys conducted at six islands of the island group identified a total of 128 species of fish from 54 genera. Fish diversity and abundance is relatively high at this group. Karimata The Karimata Islands are located in the southeasternmost part of the Natuna Sea, adjacent to West Kalimantan Province. A Marine Nature Reserve (209.635ha) has been established for the conservation of corals and associated organisms at the islands. The two main islands in the area are Karimata and Serutu Island, as well as a number of smaller islands. The reef flats of the small islands are considerably wider than those of the two large islands. The clear water in the area is favourable for coral development. Large colonies of Acropora spp. dominate the reef flats in the area. The gently sloping reef of Busung Island is covered with large colonies of Acropora hyacinthus down to depths of 20m (P2O-LIPI, 2002a). In comparison, no Acropora was observed during surveys conducted at Tanjung Barat Island. Reefs at this island are dominated by non-Acropora coral species, including Diploastrea heliopora (with diameters up to 380cm) and the soft coral Sarcophyton spp. The
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percentage live coral cover ranges from 31.28-76.2%. The total number of hard coral species observed at the group is 192 species from 42 genera. Alga is dominated by Sargassum sp. with a total percentage cover of algae ranging betwen 30.38– 44%. Macro-benthic fauna at the group is comprised of 60 species of 42 genera of molluscs, 15 species of 11 genera of crustacean, and 15 species of 12 genera of echinoderm. A total of 200 species belonging to 75 genera of reef fishes were recorded during fish visual census surveys conducted on reefs in the area. Bangka Bangka Island is located in Klabat Bay and faces the Natuna Sea, and the area is characterised by moderately turbid waters. Coral reefs observed on outer parts of the island are generally in good condition, whilst those inshore are deteriorating rapidly due to highly turbid water conditions. A total of 126 species of hard coral from 37 genera have been recorded in the survey area. Tabulate Acropora dominates reef flats down to the slope. Other dominant species include Porites lutea, Diploastrea heliopora, and Gonipora columna. The percentage cover of hard coral ranges from 28 to 52% between different coral reef sites in the area.
The percent cover of alga ranges between 6.67-52.57% and is dominated by Laurencia sp. Surveys of macro-benthic fauna in the area have identified 60 species of molluscs from 43 genera, 25 species of crustaceans from 19 genera, and 23 species of echinoderm from 19 genera. A total of 169 species of coral reef fish from 67 genera have been observed to utilise the coral reefs of the area.
THREATS
Destructive fishing methods A large number of the practices used by Indonesian fishers may be regarded as destructive either through the damage they do to the environment, particularly corals, or through indiscriminate targeting and over-fishing. The practices and their effects have been widely described (e.g. Cesar, 1996; Pet- Soede et al. 1999). Many of the methods have been used for at least 50 years and are firmly entrenched in the practices of the region. Some are are regarded locally as ‘traditional’ fishing methods. Destructive fishing methods are more commonly employed in remote areas of Indonesia’s EEZ, and have been observed in protected areas such as the Komodo Islands (Pet and Djohani, 1999). Fishing methods regarded as destructive include blast fishing, poison fishing, muroami, fish trap, gill net, weir, beam trawl, gleaning and collecting. Blast Fishing Bombs, originally made from World War II explosives, are now made with artificial fertiliser (ammonium or potassium nitrate). This fertiliser is typically used by palm plantations. Schooling reef fish (fusilers, surgeon fish, rabbit fish and snappers) are targeted. Divers often use “hookah” equipment for collecting dead and stunned fishes after blasts. Given that blast fishing is illegal, fishermen often bribe officials or detonate bombs when aircraft are landing or taking off to avoid detection (Cesar, 1996). Blast fishing is popular amongst fishers from Bugis, Bajau, Makassarese, and Maduran. Fish landings per blast fishing event is estimated to be 30kg from productive, previously “unbombed” reefs, and 7.5kg on regularly bombed areas (Cesar, 1996). Fish harvested by blast fishing method are often damaged, with average per kilogram prices for fish caught by this methods being one third lower than fish caught by other methods. As such, fish caught by this method are almost all sold only on the local market. In East Nusa Tenggara, and probably elsewhere, the practice is most common during the inter-monsoon seasons (April - May, and October - November) with records of 20 to 30 explosions heard daily in this area. Individual boats may explode 1 to 3 bombs a day, but larger vessels may stay at sea for up to 10 days and return with two tonnes of fish caught by the blast fishing method (Pet-Soede et al., 2000). Damage to coral reefs by this fishing method is catastrophic. A single beer bottle bomb can destroy an area of 5m2, a larger ‘gallon’ container up to 20m2. Coral mortality may be 50% to 80% on regularly bombed reefs. Poison Fishing The use of poisons to stun or kill fish is common in Indonesia. The early Dutch Naturalist, Rumphius, commented on this practice in the seventeenth century when crushed roots and stems containing rotenone were used (Cesar, 1996). However, since the 1960s the use of sodium or potassium cyanide has become very common, as it has throughout the ASEAN region (Johannes and Riepen, 1995). This technique is used on coral reefs for the:
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• Live fish food industry, almost entirely developed since 1990; • Ornamental aquarium fish industry; and, • Collection of rock lobsters (Panulirus sp.).
The effects of cyanide fishing are multiple. Corals are broken during retrieving fish, and the poisons contribute to significant mortalities of larvae and juvenile fish. Corals are also bleached by the use of cyanide, at concentrations far below those used. Pocillopora damicornis exposed to 4% of cyanide for only 10 minutes bleached within four hours and nine out of 10 specimens died within four days (Johannes and Riepen, 1995).
The economic loss to Indonesia of this damage is high, quantified at US$46 million with the industry collapsing within 4 years by the maintenance of current catch levels. Conversely a sustainable hook and line fisheries option could create net benefits of US$321.8 million (Llewellyn, unpublished). However, with prices in Hong Kong for live Napolean wrasse reaching US$60 to US$80 per kg, the incentives are high to maintain this destructive fishing practice. Demand from Hong Kong, mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore continues to control supply, even as catches decline in size and quality.
Muroami Muroami is a fishing technique involving teams of people using scarelines, palm fronds, sticks, hollow metal pipes, or compressed air to drive small reef fish into traps in shallow reef flats. It is generally regarded as damaging to coral reefs because of the mechanical damage to corals by the implements and by trampling, and because there is a large discarded by-catch. This fishing method is practiced by fishers in Bugis, Bajau and Makassarese, but is much more common in waters of Riau Province and the Seribu Islands.
Fish trap (bubu) Fish traps are a static fishing gear. They are typically constructed with a wire net fixed on a rattan frame and furnished with inward-turned spikes which allow entrance but make egress impossible. Traps are set on the seafloor and on coral reefs, and are usually ballasted with blocks of corals. Fishers occasionally use live corals for trap ballast, and both dead and live corals are attached to traps as “camouflage”. The use of bamboo mesh traps known as ‘bubu’ is widespread and increasing, largely due to their effectiveness in catching large live reef fish. These traps are also often used in conjunction with cyanide tainted baits.
Trap fishing can cause physical damage to corals, particularly branching and folioise corals. The intensive deployment of heavily ballasted traps onto coral reefs from fishing vessels can lead to significant coral mortalities. Traps set by ‘hookah’ divers are less damaging that those lowered on buoyed ropes. Heavy wooden runners also cause considerable damage of reefs.
Gillnet This gear is commonly operated on and adjacent to coral reefs. The collection of live coral for use as gillnet ballast causes direct damage to reefs, and lost or discarded nets may cause large mortalities and waste of fish as a result of “ghost fishing”.
Weir (Kelong) The setting up weirs in the vicinity of coral reefs degrade nearby coral communities.
Beam trawl The use of demersal trawl gear in coral reef areas is particularly destructive of coral reef habitat. Research indicates that one tow of a beam trawl over a coral reef destroyed 66.67% of the coral community. As fishing nets are typically damaged by reefs, fishermen avoid using this fishing gear in coral reef areas where possible.
Gleaning and Collecting The gleaning and collection of marine organisms from reef flats and shallow reef fronts accessible by free diving also has a significant impact on reef communities, as many of the target species are easily collected and vulnerable to local extinction. Traditional management in the past has helped to protect such species but this is now breaking down in many areas as the result of economic and population pressures (Nikijuluw, 1998). For example, Thorburn (1998) describes the traditional management of the trochus fishery (lola or Trochus niloticus) in the Kei Islands of Maluku. This included three-year
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closures of areas to coincide with the time required for the growth of commercially mature shells, and restrictions on the types of gear used. In many islands such traditional management or sasi has broken down because of the pressures from outside fishers, such as the Bugis and Bajau, which are organised on a commercial rather than artisinal basis (Nikijuluw, 1998). Short-lived high profit in these situations may be followed by a complete collapse of the fishery as in the example of the tripang fishery in West Nusa Tenggara. Most of reef species which have are collected by gleaning are protected by law but may now be locally extinct including: • All giant clams (Tridacna spp. and Hippopus spp.) • Black lip and gold lip pearl oysters (Pinctada margaritifera and P. maxima) • Triton (Charonis tritonis) • Green snail (Turbo marmoratus) • Giant helmet shell (Cassis cornuta).
Sedimentation The rivers of Indonesia have always carried freshwater and sediments to the sea and have been at least in part responsible for the distribution of inshore coral reefs. However, human interference to the hydrological cycle, producing more rapid run-off and increased sediment yield has pushed many coastal reefs beyond thresholds at which they can survive. Deforestation, inappropriate agricultural practices, urbanisation, and construction processes along the coastline can all have serious effects on sedimentation rates. These practices may be long standing. For example, Pollnac et al. (1997) describes the many uses for which timber cut from steep hill slopes is used as part of the local subsistence economy in Banten (boat construction, firewood, fish smoking). However, with increasing population the clearing is becoming more widespread in many areas (e.g. Riau Islands), and has led to an increase in both freshwater run-off and sediment yield to the coast. Forest fires in dry El Nino years also contribute to the removal of the protective vegetation cover.
Sewage and other land-based pollutants Severe water pollution, sufficient to cause massive fish kills, harvest failure in aquaculture ponds and threats to human health is found in virtually all populated or highly industrialised areas of Indonesia (Dahuri, 1998). Point sources include rivers and discharge pipes but more widespread pollution also comes from groundwater. No sewage treatment plant is available for any major coastal city in Indonesia (Edinger et al. 1999). The problem is aggravated by recent increased intensity of rice cultivation and application of chemical fertilisers.
The effects on coral reefs are highly detrimental and include:
• The rapid growth of industries in some Indonesian territory has brought about not only positive impact on the economic development but also a negative impact in the form of increased pollution of the surrounding sea. Take for example Pancur Bay (Senayang Lingga, Riau) where there are a number of companies engaging in logging activities. Sawdust resulting from the sawing activities that entered the nearby sea caused the seawaters in the vicinity to become reddish, turbid and anoxic. Industrial growth in Batam (Riau Province) has also contributed indirectly to marine pollution in the area. Batam with an area of 1,647.83km2 (1,035.30km2 of sea and 612.53km2 of dry land) has enjoyed a vast and high investment growth. The investment that in the early years amounted to approximately US$201,350,307 has grown up to US$8,010,000,000. Even when the national economic growth was 4.8%, the economic growth of Batam was 7.6%, or an increase from the previous year of 6.38%.
• The rapid growth of industries was followed by increasing population. The rapidly increasing human population and the high rate of urbanization in Riau Province have an inevitable impact on the environment, namely in the form of increasing accumulation of domestic waste. This domestic waste, which consists of a variety of materials contribute to pollution of the marine environment. This is mainly due to the lack of awareness of the population in managing domestic waste properly.
• The clearing of forests for factory/industrial developments, human settlement and agriculture, has reduced the capability of the soil to absorb and maintain ground water. This has led to increased run-off to coastal water bodies during high rainfall events. This has led to increasingly turbid coastal waters, which are not conducive for the growth of corals and seagrass.
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Oil Production and shipping Coral reefs are highly sensitive to oil spill damage. In Indonesian waters oil pollution comes from two sources: spills at the well head and from shipping. Indonesia is one of the world’s major oil producers, producing 1.36 million barrels per day in 1997 from 8535 wells (Edinger and Browne, in press). The major oil producing area is along the coast of East Sumatra. Natuna Islands is a major producer of liquid natural gas and oil. There is chronic pollution from production facilities and oil refineries in Indonesia. Hot water discharges from the plant have killed corals adjacent to fringing reefs. The Natuna Sea and Karimata Strait are a major shipping line from Singapore, Batam and Jakarta and the area is at high risk of oil spill. Most production is exported and tanker traffic is concentrated in the Malacca and Sundra Straits. Large volumes of domestic oil are shipped through the Sunda Strait to refineries in Java. Between 1974 and 1994, 36 major tanker spills were reported in Indonesian waters, 66% of which were in the Malacca Strait.
Sand mining Sand mining in the coastal waters of the Natuna Sea and its surroundings (especially Riau Province) is taking a heavy toll on the marine environment and the people who depend on it. The majority of the demand for sand comes from Singapore. Companies, backed by Singaporean buyers, use dredges to excavate sand at a rate of 6,000 cubic meters a day. The sand is then transported to Singapore to be used in the construction industry and coastal reclamation projects. Singapore is said to require a further 1.8 billion cubic meters of sand over the next 7-8 years for these projects, which are aimed at expanding the country's land area and providing living space for its growing population. According to the Indonesian Center for Forestry Studies, some 400,000 hectares of seabed and an extensive area of coral reefs have been damaged by mining at Riau Islands. The dredging, sometimes conducted within meters of the shore, has caused coastline erosion, destruction of fishing grounds and important fisheries habitats. Illegal sand mining takes place and is allegedly controlled by a cartel of three Singaporean-backed companies. Around 400 million cubic meters of sand are illegally exported per year, with losses to the state amounting to millions of dollars in the form of uncollected taxes and royalties. Data from the Department of Industry and Trade indicates that 60% of all sea sand exported to Singapore and other countries has been dredged illegally. The economic losses associated with these illegal activities are simply calculated, but the costs to the environment are largely unknown. Regional and central government have initiated efforts to prevent the illegal dredging of sea sands, including the issuance of a decree that prohibits the activity. Efforts to stop illegal sand mining have been supported by many groups including NGO’s and environmentalists. A Joint Ministerial Decree regarding the prevention of illegal sea sand mining was signed on 14th February 2002 and has been in effect since 18th February 2002. Based on this Decree, the President instructed all Governors and city Mayors to stop the mining and export of sea sand. The President also urged provincial authorities not to issue any additional permits.
Mining of material rocks for construction The mining of coral reefs presents a significant threat to the sustainability of these ecosystems in Indonesia. In many areas, dead corals are collected for use in the manufacture of concrete for houses and roads. The removal of dead corals can increase turbidity and decrease the resilience of reefs and live corals to the effects of waves during storm events. Often live corals are removed in order to provide access to dead corals. A large number of new house constructions in the area of Senayang have used corals as raw materials. The healthy-housing campaign, which promotes the construction of houses on a soil base, has been undermined by the large-scale use of corals for several building constructions in the area.
The excavation of soil and rock from coastal catchments is also increasing in support of the rapid industrial development observed on many of the islands. This has led to an increase in the quantity of sediments entering coastal water bodies via coastal streams and rivers, and contributes to the increasingly turbid conditions of waters nearby most islands. This presents a significant risk to both coral reef and seagrass communities in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea.
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Metal mineral mining The mining of minerals from the Senayang-Lingga and Singkep areas has been conducted for many years. Mining of bauxite ore is common on the islands of Batam and Bintan. Mining takes place at some islands and around Bintan. The key threat to coral reefs from mining activities is increased sedimentation of coastal water bodies.
Tourism In some coral reef areas of the world where management plans are in place and reasonable protection is given, tourism is seen as potentially a major impact on the reefs. In Indonesia, the attraction of high species diversity of both corals and fish, easy accessibility and low prices contribute to making the archipelago an attractive destination for marine tourism. Undoubtedly, the industry is having some impact on the coral reefs. But in comparison to some of the stresses described above, the detrimental effects are minimal. Indeed, dive operators and others in the tourist industry have vested interests in monitoring reef quality and have instigated preliminary measures to minimise impacts. Further, local people may be employed and diverted from other damaging practices, such as destructive fishing.
The impacts come at two stages in the development of the industry. The early construction phase may employ damaging techniques of land clearing and even quarrying of reefs for resort construction. Following the establishment of resorts, damage may result from sewage disposal, anchor damage at dive sites (mooring facilities are not normally installed) and breakage of corals by inexperienced divers and snorkellers (but operators are not trained to give environmental advice to the tourists). There are several tourist resorts in Tanjung Pinang such as Trikora Beach, Mapor Islands, and in Batam Islands.
ECONOMIC VALUATION AND USES
Coral reefs play an important role in the ecology, economy and aesthetics of Indonesia. Ecologically this system protects the beach, and supports significant marine communities. From an economic view, coral reefs serve as a source of food and income for coastal communities. They are also an important source of foreign exchange via the international trade in live coral reef fish and tourism.
Regrettably, fishers continue to employ destructive fishing gear and practices to catch fish and other coral reef associated species. Fishing techniques including fish traps (bubu), beam trawls, weirs, gillnets, poisons, and explosives are still common in coral reef areas. The result is a continuous degradation of coral reefs. According to research conducted by the Research Center for Oceanography (LIPI), only 6.69% of Indonesian reefs were in excellent condition in 2003.
McAllister (1988, in Cesar 1996) stated that the sustainable potency of coral reefs in excellent condition is 18 tonnes/km2/year, those in good condition 13 tonnes/km2/year, and those of fair condition 8 tonnes/km2/year. Multiplying the foregoing values with the area of the Indonesian coral reefs, the total coral fish production was estimated as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Coral reef fish production estimated for Indonesia.
2 Production Total Production Category Coral Reef Area (km ) m.tonnes/km2/year (m.tonnes/year) Excellent 6.69 % x 50,000 18 60,210 Good 26,59 %x 50,000 13 172,835 Fair 37,56 % x 50,000 8 150,240
However, it should be noted that the values stated above are to be treated with caution, considering that excluded the depth factor. Cesar (1996) pointed out that at the depth of 30 m the sustainable potency of coral reefs varies between 10-20m.tonnes/km2/year or an average of 15m.tonnes/km2/year. He further stated that finfish make up two-thirds of the sustainable potency, while various invertebrates make up the rest (1/3). It should be noted, however, that the above values are used only when the area is composed of 50% reef edge and 50% reef flat. If the finding of Cesar (1996) is incorporated with that of the sustainable potency of Indonesian coral reefs, values as in Table 3 will be obtained.
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Table 3 Fisheries production estimation including depth factor. (Cesar, 1996) Excellent Area of Coral Reef Production Total production Category (km2) m.tonnes/km2/year m.tonnes/year Total Potency 6.69 % x 50,000 15 50,175 Finfish 6.69 % x 50,000 10 33,450 Invertebrates 6.69 % x 50,000 5 16,725 Assumption: All areas consists 50% of reef edge and 50% of reef flat.
Basically, the calculation of the Total Economic Value (TEV) of a given coral reef site can be approached by determining the economic value of goods and services on per hectare value. There are some techniques used in Indonesia to evaluate the economic value of coral reef ecosystems. The most common techniques used for valuing the goods and services of coral reef ecosystems are derived from three different ways: Directly to obtain information about the value of the given goods and services or of direct expenditures. Potentially applicable techniques, which use the market indirectly to obtain information about values and expenditures. Survey based methods, which use hypothetical market and situation through, for instance, questionnaire surveys such as the contingent valuation method (CVM).
An application of this approach provided a figure of economic valuation of coral reef in Barelang (Batam, Rempang, Galang) and Bintan Islands (Table 4).
Meanwhile, Cesar (1996) attempted to analyse the economic value of Indonesian coral reefs on the basis of their utilisation, which was differentiated in three aspects, i.e. fisheries, tourism and coastal protection. Information relating to fisheries aspect was further split up into 8 variables, including: Type of fish or other resources, productivity, fishing effort, fish price, cost, reef reduction, condition of reefs and recovery.
Table 4 The result of economic value calculation of coral reefs in Barelang (Batam, Rempang, Galang) and Bintan Islands. Category Value USD/ha/Year Assumption Reference Use Coral Fishery 4,464.44 Preventing erosion 34,871.75 Constant/year Hiew &Lim in Kusumastanto et al. 1998 Researches 91.08 Constant/ha Kusumastanto et al 1998 Carbon stock 240.00 Constant/year Kusumastanto et al 1998 Biodiversity 15.00 Constant/year Ruitenbeek, 1991 Total Uses 39,682.27
Budget Investment 8,320.00 Constant /10year Saragih, 1993 Operational 1,019.04 Constant/year Saragih 1993 Constant yearly 3,352.52 Constant/year Saragih 1993 Rehabilitation 5.75 Constant PKSPL-IPB, 1999 Total Budget 12,697.31 TEV Coral Reef Ecosystem: 52,379.58 Source: Dahuri, 1998.
From a tourism stand point, location, accessibility, and prospect of future development are of primary importance. For that reasoning, three types of areas are distinguished:
1) Remote and sparsely populated areas with no current tourism nor future potential 2) Less remote areas with some present tourism and /or future tourism potential 3) Areas with major tourism activities/potential
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On the basis of the valuation of the three types of areas, two scenarios are envisaged: LOW and HIGH scenarios. The LOW scenario reflects a situation representing condition between area type 1 and area type 2; while HIGH scenario represents a situation between area type 2 and area type 3. Results of calculation indicated that area type 1 has no economic value, area type 2 has a net present value of US$6,000 per km2 of coastline, area type 3 has a net present value of US$1 million per km2 of coastline. Generally, tourism areas commonly suffer various degradation due to haphazard anchoring, waste disposal, and the breaking of corals. After all these degradation factors are taken into account, a net present value of US$3,000 per km2 for the low scenario and US$503,000 per km2 of coastline for the high scenario are obtained. Similar to the case for tourism, coastal protection can likewise be distinguished by three area types and two scenarios. Calculation gives the following results: ¾ US$820/km2 coastline for remote area ¾ US$50,000/km2 coastline for less remote area ¾ US$1,000,000/km2 coastline for area with major infrastructure ¾ US$25,410/km2 coastline for low scenario ¾ US$550,000/km2 coastline for high scenario
MANAGEMENT The Indonesian Constitution contains regulations with regard to the natural wealth of the people of Indonesia. Decisions of the House of the People's Consultative Assembly and Law provide detailed guidance with regard to the use and management of Indonesia’s natural resources. This guidance is incorporated into detailed regulations that are part of Laws and Acts pertaining to natural resource management. In maintaining the system of laws and regulation it is important for each institutions to follow Presidential Decree No. 188 of 1998 (former Presidential Instruction No. 15 of 1970) containing disciplines or procedures for the establishment of Laws and other lower regulations. Each type of regulation appears in each chapter explaining the function and relevant rights and duties within the scope of that regulation. Lower regulations that are derived from higher legal instruments should reflect the substance or scope of the given instrument. Provisions beyond the scope of higher regulations may cause overlapping rights and management responsibilities.
Hierarchical legal system in Indonesia consists of: 1. The basic constitution 2. General assembly decrees 3. Laws and act. 4. Government regulations 5. Presidential decrees 6. Ministerial decrees 7. Provincial government regulations 8. District or city regulations
Indonesia has also recognised its obligations under several international environment instruments. The purpose of this section of the report is to review the basis for environmental and natural resource law in Indonesia. The main laws, Government Regulations, Presidential Decrees, Ministerial Regulations, Regional Government Decrees, City and District Decrees, and traditional fishing rights and mutual agreements relating to coral reef management along Indonesia’s South China Sea Coast will also be reviewed.
Substantive instruments for marine environment
Laws related to fisheries and coral reefs conservation 1) Law No. 31 of 2004 is related to the management and use of fish resources (Art.1 part 1). There is no regulation explicitly mentioning about coral reefs management in the provision of the Fishery Law, even with certain fish, which depend on coral reefs. With the wording “Coral Reef implant” of the authentic clarification of Art.7 part 1 it is recognised that coral reef related fishery was included in the law. This authentic clarification would be a basis for the management of related coral reefs fish.
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2) Law No.5 of 1990 concerning Conservation of Living Resources and their Ecosystem consist of three main issues: • Protection of living buffer system within protected zones (Art.6 to Art.10) • Preservation of plants and animals diversity and their ecosystems contained in Art.20 to Art.25 concerning prohibitions of protected plants and animals • Zoning system of exploitation (Art.26 to Art.28).
3) Law No. 23 of 1997 concerning Management of Living Environment does not directly link with operational activities on coral reefs. However, this law has an important function related with the procedure of management of living environment.
4) Law No. 32 of 2004 concerning Regional Government concerns right of Regional Government, containing also conservation and preservation. Art. 18 of the Regional Government stipulates that regional Government has the right to manage natural resources in their own territory and is responsible for the maintaining preservation of the marine environment according to laws and regulations.
Rights of Regional Government are in relation with the sea stipulated in article 3 consist of: exploration, exploitation, conservation, and sea resources management over relevant sea zones; establishment of administration; establishment of space settlements; law enforcement related to regional and central regulations; and security and defence support.
Ministerial regulations related to coral reefs conservation Several kinds of Ministerial regulations considering directly with coral reefs related fisheries are listed below: 1. Minister of Agriculture Decree (MAD), No.923/Kpts/Um/12/82 concerning Sea Park of island Weh. 2. Minister of Forestry Decree (MFD), No.328/Kpts-II/1986 concerning Sea Protection Park of Bunaken. 3. Minister of Forestry Decree (MFD, No.12/Kpts-II/1987 concerning the Protection of certain Coral Reefs Bio-organisms (Antiphates spp., Tridacna gigas etc). 4. Minister of Agriculture Decree (MAD), No. 700/Kpts/IK.120/10/1898, 6 October 1989 concerning export of Penaeidae shrimp from Indonesia. 5. Minister of Agriculture Decree (MAD), No.375/Kpts/IK.250/5/95, 16 July 1995 concerning prohibition to catch Napoleon Wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus). 6. Minister of Forestry Decree, No.280/Kpts-II/92, 26 February 1992 concerning National Park Taka Bone Rate (Include sea area and coral reefs).
The above-mentioned Ministerial Decrees show that regulations concerning fisheries, coral reefs organisms, or marine parks may be born by Minister of Forestry Decrees. This causes overlapping rights with fishery sector under Ministry of Agriculture. A memorandum of understanding should be made between two ministries to overcome this problem.
Analysis and discussion There are many agencies governing the use and management of marine and coastal areas in Indonesia. Their actions are typically not well co-ordinated. Many resource management issues have been addressed via ministerial decrees, which cover only part of the solution because the Ministry concerned had limited jurisdiction. Often these ministerial decrees concerning marine resources were inconsistent with one another, and as such, were difficult to implement. Institutional weaknesses and lack of political will have also failed to institutionalise the spatial planning concept in managing marine and terrestrial resources. Law enforcement and regulations is weak largely because of lack of transparency and weak institutional capability. Many resources allocation and resource use decisions were taken at high level of government without considering resource sustainability and adherence to legal provisions. Such decisions were frequently made without adequate consultation with local governments and the affected communities. Some problems exist with the legal instruments concerned with the utilisation and management of marine resources in many parts of Indonesia.
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Law Effectiveness/coverage Not all districts and towns in Indonesia are currently equipped with local regulations regarding the utilisation and management of marine resources. Law enforcement in many districts and towns has not been very effective on account that so far all local regulations still refer to the one issued by the central government. Enactment of the Act on Regional Autonomy (Act No. 32 of 2004) gives the local governments (districts and towns) the opportunity to develop regulations relating to the utilisation and management of marine resources that are in line with the existing problems faced by each local government. The Act aims to decentralise most government services and devolve the planning and management functions and responsibilities of marine and coastal resources within Indonesia’s territorial waters to the provincial and district governments. The Act provides incentives to local government for sustainable management of natural resources within their respective jurisdictions and requires a revision of some existing laws and regulations. Implementation of local regulations in combination with national regulations will therefore be more effective since they have been so designed as to match the problems faced at the provincial level. Socialisation of some other laws and regulations relevant to the utilisation and sustainability of the marine resources has not been optimally done. In some areas, there is the tendency that communities, legal officers and decision makers have limited understanding and knowledge on the regulations relevant to the utilisation and management of marine resources. Several cases of violations occur due to the fact that most coastal communities are unaware of the various prohibitions that are stipulated in the existing legal instruments. Another aspect that impedes the effectiveness of some regulations concerning the utilisation and management of marine resources is the vast expanse of the Indonesian territorial waters to be supervised. The manpower available for surveillance is far from adequate as compared to the area to be monitored. This situation leaves some violations unnoticed and unattended. Beside the limited human resources available, supporting equipment like patrol boats are also limited in terms of quantity and technology. The existing patrol boats are mostly of low capacity, hence are no match to those of the law breakers. Conflicts – Harmonization Implementation of regulations in the field quite often brings about some conflict. It can happen internally between various legal authorities, as well as between legal authorities and communities. Internal conflicts have most commonly been due to struggles for power or authority. For example in one district in Southeast Sulawesi, conflicts regarding authority occurred between Marine Police and Air Police, as well as between Sectoral Police and Gurads of the National Park. In this case, the conflict was in part due to an inadequate understanding on behalf of each legal authority regarding their primary task and function. Conflicts between legal authorities and local communities are usually triggered by inconsistent use of legal authority in the field. Resolving problems with corruption and bribery of surveillance officers and law enforcement officials is critical towards resolving such conflicts.
Compliance and enforcement To enhance law enforcement, some communication strategies that have been and will be implemented, include the socialisation and dissemination of information concerning a variety of regulations relevant to the utilisation and management of marine resources to stakeholders, namely legal authorities, decision makers, and the general public (including fishermen). The method of dissemination has depended on the stakeholders. For example, for legal authorities and policy makers, the socialisation process has been done through workshops, seminars, lobbying, advocacy, dialogues, and other informal meetings (morning tea). For the general public and fishermen, socialisation of information has been done not only using multi-media materials (film, radio, VCD, brochures, leaflets, posters, and billboards) but also by way of direct contact, e.g., through village meetings, fisherman associations, and various religious activities. With regard to the enhancement of law enforcement, various programmes and activities have been conducted. For instance, surveillance and law enforcement has been carried out in some localities, namely Taka Bonerate (Selayar District, South Sulawesi Province) and in Biak Islands (Papua Province) through COREMAP (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Programme). A moderate patrol boat has been granted to each of these provinces. Financial support for staff and the operation of the patrol boats comes from COREMAP. They are assigned to carry out surveillance activities in the Taka Bonerate and Biak waters to prevent violation against existing regulations, such as fishing with explosives or poison. In carrying out the task, the security force is supported by a number of reef
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watchers, including some local villagers and fishermen. The basic idea is to promote the participation of the local community in implementing surveillance and law enforcement.
Strength and weaknesses of present enforcement mechanisms Surveillance and law enforcement mechanisms involving local communities have some advantages. One among them is the efficiency in terms of budget and time frame. In general, illegal fishing activities are often conducted in waters that are difficult for patrol boats to reach. In such cases, involvement of local communities and reef watchers will be of great advantage. Local villagers and reef watchers should report any violation to patrolling force or may take action themselves directly. Community participation over this matter is urgently needed, taking into account the limited manpower and infrastructure currently available for carrying out the task, coupled with the great extent of the area to be monitored.
On the other hand, surveillance mechanism involving the local community is very much dependent on the level of community participation as well as on the consistency of law enforcement. In some rare cases, the local community protects the violators instead of assisting monitoring activities. Apart from that, the inconsistency in law enforcement coupled with the implementation weakness give result to apathetic attitude in the part of the community to participate in the monitoring activities. Very often the community has done their job by reporting some violations, or they may even have arrested the violators, yet no follow up action is taken by the law enforcers. The cases were not brought to justice, rather the violators were in the end freed in a trade off deal.
REFERENCES
Cesar, H. 1996. The Economic Value of Indonesian Coral reefs. Agriculture Operations Division. CDIII, East Asia and Pacific Region. Environment Department. The World Bank, 9p.
Dahuri, R. 1998. The Application of Carrying Capacity Concept for Sustainable Coastal Resources Development in Indonesia. Pesisir & Lautan 1(2): 53-65
Edinger, E.N., J. Jompa, G.V. Limmon, and W. Widjatmoko. 1999. Reef degradation, coral biodiversity, and reef management in Indonesia. Pesisir & Lautan 2(2): 1-16
Johannes, R.E. and M. Riepen. 1995. Environmental, Economic and Social Implications of live Reef Fish Trade in Asia and the Western Pacific, TNC, Hawaii
Nikijuluw, V.P.H. 1998. Identification of Indigenous Coastal Fisheries Management (IFCM) System in Sulawesi, Maluku and Irian Jaya. Pesisir & Lautan 1(2): 1-17.
Ohman, M. C. and Herman S.J. Cesar 2000. Cost and Benefit of Coral Mining. In : The economics of Coral Reefs (Cesar, HSJ. Ed). CORDIO, Sweden : 85-93.
Pet-Soede, L.; H.SJ. Cesar and J.S. Pet-Soede, 2000. Blasting away : The economics of blast fishing on Indonesia Coral Reefs. In : The economics of coral reefs (Cesar, HSJ. Ed.) CORDIO, Sweden : 77-84.
Pet-Soedo, J.S. and R.H. Djohani. 1999. Combatting destructive fishing practices in Komodo National Park: Ban the hookah compressor. Pesisir & Lautan 2(1): 21-34.
Pet-Soede, L.; H.S.J. Cesar and J.S. Pet. 1999. An Economic Analysis of Blast Fishery on Indonesian Coral Reefs. Environmental Conservation 26(2): 83-93.
Pollnac, R.B., F. Sondita, B. Crowford, E. Mantjoro, C. Rotinsulu, A. Siahaenenia 1997. Baseline assessment of socioeconomic aspects of resource use in the coastal zone of Bentenan and Tumbak. Coastal resources Center, Univ. of Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI, USA, 79p.
P2O (Pusat Penelitian Oseanografi) - LIPI, 2002a. Report on Management and Development on Marine Ecosystem Area of Bangka- Belitung and Karimata Islands), 87p. (in Indonesia).
P2O (Pusat Penelitian Oseanografi) - LIPI, 2002b. Report on Biological Feature of Anambas Waters. 56p. (in Indonesia).
Thornburn, C.C. 1998. Sasi ‘Lola’ (Trochus niloticus) in the Kei Island, Moluccas: An Endangered Coastal Resource Management Tradition. Pesisir & Lautan 1(2): 15-29.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
MALAYSIA
Mr. Abdul Rahim Bin Gor Yaman Focal Point for Coral Reefs Marine Park Section, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Level 11, Lot 4G3, Precinct 4, Federal Government Administrative Centre 62574 Putrajaya, Selangor, Malaysia
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA 37
MALAYSIA
Zahaitun Mahani Zakariah, Ainul Raihan Ahmad, Tan Kim Hooi, Mohd Nisam Barison and Nor Azlan Yusoff Maritime Institute of Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia’s coral reefs extend from the renowned “Coral Triangle” connecting it with Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Australia. Coral reef types in Malaysia are mostly shallow fringing reefs adjacent to the offshore islands. The rest are small patch reefs, atolls and barrier reefs. The United Nations Environment Programme’s World Atlas of Coral Reefs prepared by the Coral Reef Unit, estimated the size of Malaysia’s coral reef area at 3,600sq. km which is 1.27 percent of world total coverage (Spalding et al., 2001).
Coral reefs support an abundance of economically important coral fishes including groupers, parrotfishes, rabbit fishes, snappers and fusiliers. Coral fish species from Serranidae, Lutjanidae and Lethrinidae contributed between 10 to 30 percent of marine catch in Malaysia (Wan Portiah, 1990). In Sabah, coral reefs support artisanal fisheries but are adversely affected by unsustainable fishing practices, including bombing and cyanide fishing. Almost 30 percent of Sabah’s marine fish catch comes from coral reef areas (Department of Fisheries Sabah, 1997). However, landings in Sabah have declined since the 1980s due to destructive fishing, particularly, blast fishing (Cabanban, 1999).
The supply of live reef fish from Sabah to Hong Kong is dependent on wild stocks. The Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC) reported that Hong Kong is the largest importer of live reef fish, consuming 25,000 tonnes annually and re-exporting another 5,000 tonnes to mainland China (TRAFFIC, 1999). In 2001, the International Marine Life Alliance (IMA) recorded a total of 3,212kg of Napoleon wrasse imported to China from Malaysia. According to IMA, this data may represent under reporting of total catches from the area because many vessels operating in the area are from Hong Kong and do not declare their landings. Cyanide fishing, which is hazardous to coral reef ecosystems, is probably used in catching the live coral fish.
Coral reef related tourism provides revenue for the national and state governments in Malaysia. A significant work force is engaged in this tourism sub-sector and associated activities such as hotels and resorts. Marine recreational activities that consist of diving and snorkelling have great value in the coral reef tourism industry. In 2003, a informal report estimated that Conservation Charges collected for entrance to Malaysia’s Marine Parks amounted to RM1 million . The same report also revealed that the marine parks attracted 778,482 foreign and 820,116 local tourists. Realising the potential pitfalls of ecotourism, some marine parks such as the Sabah Parks applies the multiple-use concept to attract tourism in marine parks. This concept promotes different uses of the marine park depending on the environmental quality and tourist interest (Cabanban and Nais, 2003).
Fragile coral reefs are threatened by man-made and natural phenomenon. Sedimentation, pollution, indiscriminate anchoring, and destructive fishing are the major anthropogenic causes of damage in coral reef areas. In Malaysia, destructive fishing such as fish bombing and cyanide fishing are rampant in Sabah. Trawling which is equally destructive to coral reef occurs in Mersing.
Natural causes of coral reef damage are diseases, predators and global climate change. To date, no research has been carried out to determine the occurrence of coral diseases in Malaysia. However, yellow and white band diseases have been observed respectively in Langkawi and Port Dickson (The Star, 2005; Berita Harian 2005; Yang Amri, pers. com.). Another harmful biological agent is the notorious coral predator, the crown-of-thorn starfish (Acanthaster planci), which is reported to have caused significant damage to coral reefs in Pulau Redang in the late 1970s.
Global climate change has been identified as the most recent and significant threat to coral reef ecosystems. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) provides data on coral reef status linked to global climate change for research and monitoring purposes. It was reported that 16 percent of the world’s coral reefs were affected by rising sea temperature during the extreme El Niňo Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event between 1997 and 1998 (Wilkinson, 2002). Slight temperature anomalies of 1- 2◦C above or below the normal threshold can cause coral bleaching. During the 1998 ENSO, sea
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 38 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – MALAYSIA
surface temperature in the South China Sea increased by 2-3◦C above the normal threshold (Wilkinson, 2002). Consequently, coral reef areas in Pulau Payar on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, as well as coral reef areas in East Malaysia have been impacted by coral bleaching (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000).
This national coral report aims to review the status of coral conservation in Malaysia based on the national coral reef meta-database, updated information, and management perspectives.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION
Of the 3,600km2 of coral reefs area in Malaysia, important coral reefs are found in Sabah and the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Almost all of the islands in southeast, central, northeast and western Sabah have corals. Coral reefs are however limited in Sarawak where they are only found in the offshore islands northeast and southeast of Sarawak. Coral reefs in the Straits of Malacca show very poor development and are restricted to the northwest and southeast of the Peninsular. Coral diversity is relatively low here due to high turbidity and muddy substrates (Chua and Charles, 1980).
Figure 1 and 2 shows all the islands and islets (or rocks) that are located adjacent to the South China Sea where coral reefs can be found. Most of the islands within the States’ coastal waters are within the marine parks. There are also many shoals and ocean reefs in the South China Sea that are rich in corals but are not protected.
BIODIVERSITY
Coral species Surveys conducted on 64 percent of Malaysia’s coral reefs since the 1980s show an overall live coral cover of between 25 and 50 percent (Ridzwan, 1994). Veron estimated that 70 genera of coral may be found in Malaysia (Veron, 1998). The UNEP World Atlas of Coral Reefs estimated that at least 346 species of scleractinian corals may be found in Malaysian waters (Spalding et al. 2001). Data obtained in Malaysia shows the lists of 519 coral species that can be found in waters of Terengganu (Pulau Redang), Pahang (Pulau Tioman), Johor (Pulau Tinggi), Sabah (Taman Tunku Abdul Rahman, Turtle Island Park and Barvey Bay), Sarawak (Sibuti Reef and Miri Reef) and Pulau Layang Layang which were recorded between 1980 to 2000.
The acroporids are commonly found adjacent to most islands in Malaysian waters and are dominant along the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The coral species in the family Acroporidae consists of 71 species of genus Acropora, 3 species of genus Anacropora whereas massive coral species from the family Poritidae, Mussidae and Faviidae typically make-up coral reefs on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia.
Associated marine biota Estimates of number of coral reef fishes in Malaysia is 909 species (Allen, 2004). Pristine coral reefs may show a higher number of fish species. For example, research in the 1980s showed that coral fish diversity in a pristine area like Pulau Layang-Layang was higher than along Peninsular Malaysia. The number of coral reef fish species recorded in research conducted between 1980s-2000s are 210 at Redang, 219 at Tinggi, 355 at Taman Tunku Abdul Rahman, and 263 at Miri Reef (Wood, 1986; Allen, 1992; Department of Fisheries, 2003). Of all the coral reefs surveyed, Tunku Abdul Rahman Park showed the highest number of fish species.
Fish from the Chaetodonidae family are typically associated with coral reef environments. A comparative study conducted at Pulau Payar Marine Park and Pulau Singa located on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia showed that the former had high numbers of Chaetodonidae (butterflyfish). . It has been hypothesised that butterflyfish can be a bio-indicator for coral health (Reese, 1981). Hence, decreased numbers of butterflyfish could be caused by coral reef degradation (Sano et al., 1987).
Of the nine giant clam species, seven from the genera Tridacna and Hippopus, exist in waters surrounding the islands of Malaysia. A total of four species have been observed on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysian, whilst seven species have been observed in Sabah (Tan and Zulfigar, 1995; Tan and Zulfigar, 1996; Tan et al., 1998). Giant clams on the east coast Peninsular Malaysia, such as adjacent to the islands of Terengganu, Pahang and Johor, include the species of T. squamosa, T.
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maxima, T. crocea and H. hippopus. Sipadan Island has all seven species including T. derasa, T. gigas, and H. porcellanus. Despite giant clam being classified as an endangered marine species under the Fisheries (Control of Endangered Species of Fish) Regulations 1999 of the Fisheries Act 1985, giant clam populations face over-exploitation, particularly in Sabah.
Figure 1 Distribution of coral reefs in Peninsular Malaysia.
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Figure 2 Distribution of coral reefs in Sabah and Sarawak.
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Research on the distribution of other coral reef associated species is still incomplete in Malaysia. Therefore few publications exist, particularly relating to gorgonians, sponges, and nudibranchs. Hence, identification of non-coral species such as sponges is difficult due to the scarcity of taxonomic records (Zainuddin et. al., 2000) Intensive research has mainly focused on species of economic and pharmaceutical importance, such as sea cucumber. Many research projects have been carried out on sea cucumbers (Holothuridae and Stichopodidae) as they are used in traditional medicines. About 44 species of sea cucumber are recorded from coral reefs in Malaysia’s marine parks (Forbes et al., 1999).
In Malaysia, Sabah is the only state to have extensively harvested coral reef products, including coral reef fishes, sea cucumbers, and molluscs (Wood and Wood, 1978). Coral reef fish catches in Sabah made-up between 7.26 and 22.63 percent of total fisheries landings during the period of 1980 to 1990 (Cabanban and Biusing, 2000). Hong Kong is the main importer of live reef fish for food from Sabah. However, this is believed to be underestimated because of the underreporting of live reef fish capture (Lau and Parry-Jones, 1999). This happens because licensed fishing vessels and licensed live fish transporters in Hong Kong are exempted from declaring live reef food fish imports. Furthermore, the Hong Kong Marine Fish (Marketing) Ordinance (Chapter 291) does not categorise live fish as ‘marine fish’.
Marine endangered species No reliable data regarding the use of Malaysia’s coral reefs by endangered marine mammal species exists. Available information is largely from anecdotal sources and occasional sightings made by researchers.
The Leatherback, Green, Hawksbill and Olive Ridley are the four turtle species that nest along Malaysia’s coastal areas and islands (Figures 3 and 4). Of the four species, the hawksbill and green are associated with islands and reefs. The highest concentration of green turtles can be found in the islands of Pulau Redang, Pulau Perhentian, Sabah’s Turtle Island and Talang-Satang National Park (Talang-Talang Besar, Talang-Talang Kechil and Satang Besar) (Ali et al., 2004). There are also small numbers of green turtle nesting sites reported on the islands of Pulau Pinang, Pulau Telur (Kedah), and groups of islands in the Johor Marine Park consisting of Pulau Mertang, Pulau Lima, Pulau Pemanggil and Pulau Simbang (Mortimer, 1990).
Major hawksbill turtle nesting sites are located at Sabah Turtle Islands and Pulau Upeh (Malacca). In Sarawak, nesting sites were reported at Pulau Satang Besar (Bali, 1998). Although records of hawksbill turtle nesting on islands are occasional, this species has been observed to utilise waters of islands in West Johor and Terengganu (Liew, 2002). Islands and reefs are the key habitats for turtles to live and forage. Thus, turtles are regularly observed in coral reef areas around islands and coral reef associated ecosystem such as seagrass. There are also several records indicating that the Olive Ridley turtle utilise the islands of Sabah, Sarawak and Terengganu for nesting.
THREATS
Coral reefs throughout the world are facing unprecedented threats, particularly human induced threats. Despite their worth, coral reefs are continuously being impacted on by human activities such as pollution, coastal development, over-fishing, destructive fishing, and tourism related activities. Over 85% of the corals reefs in Malaysia are threatened and the type of threats facing Malaysian reefs differ by location (Burke et al., 2002). Table 1 shows the type and scale of threats to coral reefs in Malaysia.
Sedimentation Coastal development often results in the destruction of corals due to increased sedimentation or removal of coral reef substrate. Growing populations, expanding industrial economies, and emerging tourism markets are the key factors in the increasing demand for coastal space and the construction of infrastructure. The Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia (RRSEA) project estimated that 23 percent of corals in Malaysia are affected by coastal development and sedimentation from upland sources. Coral reefs that have been affected by coastal development are more prevalent along the coast of Peninsular Malaysia, rather than in Sabah or Sarawak.
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In East Malaysia, the reefs of Sarawak are at greater risk from sedimentation compared to those in Sabah. Some notable examples are the reefs near the Miri River and the reefs of the Talang-Talang Islands. According to the Miri-Suai Integrated Coastal Zone Executive Plan, sediments from the Miri and Baram rivers are threatening reefs that lie within 8-9 km of the mouth of these rivers. Sediments from the Lundu and Sematan rivers also affect the coral reefs of the Talang-Talang Islands (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000). In Sabah, coral reef degradation due to increased sediment loads associated with land clearing, mangrove destruction, and reclamation can be seen in the Tunku Abdul Rahman Park.
Table 1 Threats to coral reefs in Malaysia.
West Coast of East Coast of Threats East Malaysia Peninsular Malaysia Peninsular Malaysia Fishing Intensity 4 3 5 Fishing Damage 3 3 5 Fish Blasting 2 2 4 Gleaning 2 1 3 Boat Scouring 2 3 4 Population Pressure 4 3 4 Sedimentation 5 3 3 Domestic and Agriculture Pollution 3 2 4 Industrial Pollution 3 1 1 Oil Spill 2 1 2 Disease and Predation 2 4 3 Dredging 2 1 2 Coral Mining 1 1 3 Tourist Activities 1 2 2 Coral Bleaching 1 1 1 The Scale Values: 1 = None to Rare; 2 = Very Low Concentration; 3 = Some Damage, Some Stress; 4 = Medium to High Damage; 5 = Very High, High Stress, Very Damaging. Source: Malacca Straits Environmental Profile, 1997
The World Resource Institute Report (Burke et al., 2002) presented the percentage breakdown of reefs at risk in Malaysia ranging from low threat index (13% of total area), medium (44%), high (38%) to very high threat index (4%). The total area of reefs at medium or higher threats occupy 87% of the total coral reef area. Visitor Pressure Snorkelling is one of the most popular recreational activities among visitors to Malaysia’s marine parks or coral reefs. Seventy percent of the survey respondents on Visitor Experiences and Perceived Conditions of Tioman Island Marine Park identified snorkelling as one of the activities that they usually engaged in while visiting the island (Ahmad, 2002). Snorkelling is an anthropogenic impact that threatens corals in the shallow waters as inexperienced snorkellers tend to either trample or stand on the reefs. Corals are also subject to damage by divers. Evidence of coral breakage in areas frequently used by SCUBA divers exists, but conclusive data or case studies for Malaysian coral reef sites that correlate the two are either scarce or unavailable. Effluent Discharges The issue of effluent discharges as a result of the introduction of tourism within the marine protected areas of Malaysia and further compounded by pollution discharge from households is indeed very common. Sewage, oil and grease, and grey water are among the long-standing pollution problems affecting the corals. A threat analysis study conducted at Redang, Tioman and Sibu-Tinggi islands showed that the three islands are affected by these problems. There are many cases of hotels, resorts and chalets discharging untreated sewage directly into the ocean. In Pulau Redang for example, the majority of small chalets on the island are using sub-standard sewage systems. The houses are also equipped with the same sub-standard facility in which concrete culverts are buried in the ground to hold the wastes. A water quality study of Pulau Redang coastal waters between 1995 and 2000 indicated some sewage contamination (Law et al., 2001). The major source of contamination was from fishing settlements. The sewage treatment facility for Pulau Sibu-Tinggi in Johor and Tioman in Pahang is poorly developed and is inaccessible to most of the local population.
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Accidental leakage of oil from passenger boats or ferries is another tourism issue that is affecting the health of corals in the marine parks of Malaysia. The problem is evident at the jetties and in areas where there is heavy boat traffic. There is also the problem of cooking oil and grey water being discharged directly into the river system from the adjacent business and residential premises. Sungai Lalang in Tioman is an example of river system being heavily polluted with these discharges.
Figure 3 Distribution of turtle nesting sites in Peninsular Malaysia.
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Figure 4 Distribution of turtle nesting sites in Sabah and Sarawak.
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Destructive Fishing Corals reefs are also subjected to threats from destructive fishing techniques such as blast and poison fishing. The notable effects of these two fishing techniques are the destruction of corals reefs and the contribution towards overfishing of economically important fish and unintended exploitation of other species (Burke et al., 2002). The problems of destructive fishing practices are more prevalent in East Malaysia, particularly in Sabah. The Reefs at Risk project estimated that blast and poison fishing is affecting 68 percent of Malaysian reefs. This estimate is based on data relating to the occurrences of dynamite and cyanide fishing, and the opinion of project experts.
Blast fishing is used to maximise catch and it usually occurs over or near coral reefs where fishes congregate. It is practiced along nearly the entire coast of Sabah, particularly at Labuan, which had resulted in the destruction of coral reefs and removal of various fish species. A thirteen-year (1980- 1993) data set on coral fish landings from Sabah illustrated a drastic decline in the number of several important fish species (Figure 5). The decline is believed to be attributed to blast fishing (Figure 6) (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000).
Cyanide fishing is used to catch high priced fishes like snappers, groupers and wrasses for the lucrative live fish trade industry. Cyanide fishing occurs at Kudat, extending out of Marudu Bay in the Northeast of Sabah to Banggi Island, as well as Labuan. In Kudat, there are several holding facilities to house the fishes awaiting trans-shipment. Humphead Wrasse, Barramundi Cod, and the coral groupers are sold for US$2.4 per kg to traders in Kota Kinabalu (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000). The price soars 10 times higher for every kilo in the Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong markets.
SCENARIO
The closer the proximity of corals to human activity, the higher the likelihood of them being impacted on by human activities. Pressures can result in lower levels of biodiversity or at the extreme end – mortality. In April 2002, a resource survey was conducted at 12 locations in Pulau Tioman. At the best live coral sites, nearly 27% of dead corals were observed at Pirate Reef, 10% at Pulau Renggis, and 7.4% at Batu Malang. The three locations are close to human activities which make the corals within these areas more susceptible to pressures. Pirate Reef is located in the port area of Kampong Tekek which consists of two villages – Kg Tekek and Kg Air Batang. Kampong Tekek is known as the heart of Pulau Tioman. Among all the villages in Tioman, Kampong Tekek has the highest number of residents. In 2000, the total population of Kampong Tekek was recorded at 1,871. The community is heavily involved in tourism with 80% of the household heads engaged in it. Effluent from the villages, boats and tourism activities in the area could be contributing to the high percentage rate of dead corals in the Pirate Reef area. Pulau Renggis was ranked second and Batu Malang third with regard to coral mortality rates. Their close proximity to humans could be the reason for it. Pulau Renggis is located less than 1 km from a 5 star resort and it is frequented by tourists whereas Batu Malang is a popular dive and snorkelling site.
Note: 1. Feather duster worms on the shallow reefs of Tioman 2. Anemonefishes in Pulau Renggis Photos Source: http://www.rossum.com/tioman00/tioman1.htm, Underwater photographer: Dave Rossum
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700000
600000
500000
Caesionidae 400000 Labridae Lethrinidae 300000 Lutjanidae
Volume (MT) Serranidae 200000
100000
0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Year
Figure 5 Landings of Coral Reef Fishes from Sabah Waters. (Cabanban and Biusing, in press)
6
5
4
3
2
1 Average # of explosion/hour
0 Sipadan Mabul Ligitan Silam Kunak Kudat Mantanani Labuan
Figure 6 Average Blasts Per Hour Recorded at Various Coral Reef Sites Around Sabah. (adapted from Pilcher & Oakley, 1997)
SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUATION
Corals reefs have significant socio-economic value. They are a vital source of food and income for coastal communities of Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. Coral reefs are also effective in the prevention of shoreline erosion and the protection of mangrove and seagrass communities. They are also potentially valuable to the pharmaceutical industry for their biochemical properties. Coral reefs also contribute to the growth of the tourism industry. The coral reefs in the Malacca Straits have been valued at approximately US$563 million in terms of benefits associated with tourism, shoreline protection, fishery resources, and research potential (Burke and Spalding, 2002).
Tourism Coral reef related tourism activities, particularly in protected areas, have gained popularity in tourism marketing and amongst visitors. The protection status of the distinctive and remarkably diverse coral reef ecosystems in Malaysia has set a platform for the tourism sector to develop. Aggressive tourism
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promotions of the natural assets of coral reefs have led to annual increases in the number of visitors to Malaysia’s marine parks. Table 2 shows a high number of visitors to four coral reef sites in Malaysia from 1999-2002.
The economic importance of coral reefs to the tourism industry is indeed significant. Coral reefs are known to economically benefit more than 100 countries with their recreational values (Bryant et al., 1998). In 2002, a report on the feasibility study of the Miri-Sibuti reefs had projected the potential revenue of diving activity for the reef area4. Assuming that 11, 984 divers on a 3 days/2 nights diving package will visit the Miri-Sibuti reefs by the year 2005, it is estimated that the potential tourism value for diving activity alone will generate a potential revenue of RM15,456,244.16 (Elcee Instrumentation Sdn. Bhd., 2002). Figure 7 shows the projection curve of divers visiting the Miri-Sibuti reef. The curve is projected based on the recorded figures from 1995-2001.
Table 2 Total number of tourists to Pulau Tioman, Pulau Payar, Turtle Islands Park, and Tunku Abdul Rahman Park 1999-2002.
Turtle Islands Tunku Abdul Rahman Year Pulau Tioman Pulau Payar Park Park 1999 184,954 83,203 8,732 171,919 2000 200,527 106,784 10,131 205,852 2001 243,052 125,485 8,250 198,576 2002 213,172 133,775 8,450 147,188 Sources: Department of Fisheries and Sabah Parks
Capture Fisheries Another aspect of the socio-economic importance of coral reefs relates to their critical role in the life- cycle of many economically important fish species. Corals are known to provide sheltering habitat essential for nursing and as a breeding ground for a variety of fish species. It is believed that approximately 40 percent of the commercial fish in Malaysia caught within the 30 nautical miles from the shore originate from or make use of the coral reefs (Phang, 1999). In 1999, for example, the coral reef capture fishery value for Miri was believed to be approximately RM40,080,684 (Elcee Instrumentation Sdn. Bhd., 2002). Miri also accounted for the largest volume of fish landings for the state of Sarawak in that year, 40 percent of which were economically important coral reef fish. In terms of the value of capture fisheries production, Sabah’s coral reefs contributed to between 7.8% (RM3.3 million) of total value in 1992 to 11.5% (RM4.98 million) of total value in 1981 (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000).
Socio-Economic Benefits Recreational or tourism use of coral reefs will indirectly result in improved social conditions and commercial services in the given area. In January 2002, for instance, Pulau Tioman was accorded a duty-free island status; Malaysia’s third duty-free island after Langkawi and Labuan. The Tioman Development Authority (TDA) had received approval to begin selected infrastructure projects such as the upgrading of roads and construction of a new airport. The infrastructure development in Tioman will be done in stages and will include the construction of low cost houses, retail space in Tekek (the island’s main village), construction of a cargo jetty and several other road projects.
The ReefMap Report of Miri-Sibuti reef areas highlighted the likelihood of the villages gaining benefits if the reef area is promoted for eco-tourism. Among others are the infrastructure development, tourism amenities development, and enhancement of the hygiene system. The intangible benefits that would result from the promotion of the reef area as recreational or tourism destination are employment opportunities and/or employment security.
4 The report was prepared for the Sarawak State Government’s consideration to gazette the Miri-Sibuti reef as a marine park and to promote eco-tourism in the area.
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Projection Curve From 1995-2005
14000
12000
10000 Growth Based on Scale
8000 Growth Based on Trend
6000
No. of People Increasing Each By Factor of 2 from 2001 4000 Onw ards
2000
0
6 8 95 9 97 9 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 0 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 2 20 20 Year
Figure 7 Projection Curve for Divers Visiting Miri-Sibuti Reefs.
MANAGEMENT
National initiatives to conserve coral reefs In Malaysia, the protection, conservation and management of coral reefs and its associated fauna and flora is largely achieved through the establishment of marine protected areas (Marine Parks in Peninsular Malaysia and National Parks in Sabah and Sarawak). Malaysia has designated 136 marine protected areas (MPAs) including non-fishing areas, marine parks and marine reserves. Seven percent of these MPAs include by coral reef ecosystems (Ho, 2003). Malaysia established its first MPA in 1983 when Pulau Redang was declared the first MPA of Peninsular Malaysia under the Fisheries (Prohibited) Areas Regulations 1983. This regulation established a fisheries prohibited area in the 8km of maritime waters surrounding Pulau Redang. According to the Fisheries Act 1985, the Fisheries Department is the main government agency with direct responsibility for marine park management.
Another 21 islands were added to the list of fisheries prohibited areas under the regulation in the proceeding years. The Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) Regulations 1985 (Amendment), however, reduced the surrounding waters to 3 nautical miles (nm). The Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) 1988 (Amendment 1994) added three more islands off Sarawak (Pulau Talang Talang Besar, Pulau Talang Talang Kechil and Pulau Satang Besar) thus protecting a total of 25 islands. This regulation superseded the Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) Regulations 1983 which gazetted maritime waters within 8km off Pulau Redang. Since some fishing activities are destructive to coral reefs, all marine parks are protected from fishing activities. This regulation stated that, “No person shall collect shells, molluscs or corals within prohibited areas” and “No person shall kill or capture any fish within the fisheries prohibited area unless he holds a license issued under section 11 of the Act stating the respective location specified in column (1) of the Schedule as the fishing base.”
Since 1998, 40 offshore islands have been gazzetted as Marine Parks under the Establishment of Marine Parks Malaysia (Amendment) Order 1998. These include some of the fisheries protected areas mentioned above. Table 5 shows the list of islands that are grouped into five Marine Parks:
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1. Pulau Redang Marine Park in Terengganu; 2. Pulau Tioman Marine Park in Pahang; 3. Mersing Marine Park in Johor; 4. Pulau Payar Marine Park in Kedah; and 5. Labuan Marine Park in Federal Territory of Labuan.
The Fisheries (Establishment of Marine Parks Malaysia) Order 1994, further reduced the coverage of the marine park areas to 2nm for all the marine parks except 1 nm for Pulau Kapas. Sabah and Sarawak, which are autonomous in terms of managing their natural resources, have established their own MPAs and have State bodies for MPA management. The Sabah Parks Board of Trustees established under the National Parks Ordinance 1962 is responsible for the Sabah State Parks, including Marine Parks. The Board has been established directly under the Sabah’s Ministry of Tourism, Environment, Science and Technology. Sabah Parks legally owns the marine parks and has mandate to control both the activities on the land area and in the water column. The Sabah Parks Board of Trustees also manages the collection of entrance fees to the Sabah Parks. There are three State Parks in Sabah that have been established in the last 20 years, namely Turtle Island Park, Tuanku Abdul Rahman Park and Pulau Tiga Park. Pulau Tiga Park was gazetted in 1978 and is comprised of Pulau Tiga, Pulau Kalampunian Damit and Kalampunian Besar. The Pulau Tiga Park was established as a MPA because the area is comprises of a distinct mix of mud volcanoes, good coral reef, and sea snake nesting habitat on Pulau Kalampunian Damit (Wood and Wood, 1987). The Tunku Abdul Rahman Park located off Kota Kinabalu was established as an MPA in 1974 with the aim of conserving the diverse range of marine life at the site. Several State agencies, namely the National Parks and Wildlife Office of the Sarawak Forestry Department, Sarawak Museum, and the Department of Fisheries manage marine ecosystems and their associated fauna and flora in Sarawak (Table 3). The National Parks and Wildlife Office is responsible for the implementation of the National Parks Ordinance (1956) and the Wildlife Protection Ordinance (1958, Amendment 1990), which conserve wildlife and their habitats including marine ecosystems. Since Pulau Talang-Talang Besar, Pulau Talang-Talang Kechil, and Pulau Satang are turtle nesting beaches, these islands are designated as turtle sanctuaries by the Turtle Board Trust and the Sarawak Museum. With this designation, the coral reef ecosystems of these islands are also protected. Non-governmental organisations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Malaysia play an active role in the establishment of marine protected areas in Malaysia. For many years, WWF- Malaysia has been advising the Government to protect the vast maritime waters in the seas of northern Sabah, which borders the Sulu Sea in the East and the South China Sea in the South. In 2003, the Sabah State Cabinet endorsed the establishment of this area as the Tun Mustapha Marine Park. This will be the largest marine park in Asia, covering an area of 1,028,000 hectares and consisting of at least 50 islands off Kudat, Kota Marudu and Pitas districts. The protection measures for some of the islands in Malaysia are not, however, specifically designed for the conservation of coral reefs. For example, despite its unique atoll reef of Pulau Sipadan, it is gazetted as the Sipadan Bird Sanctuary. Under this designation, coral reef and the maritime water of Pulau Sipadan are not provided any legal protection. To protect the marine ecosystem, Sabah’s government is considering further management action and feels that the island should be listed as “World Heritage Area” under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and as a “Particularly Sensitive Areas (PSSA)” under the International Maritime Organization (IMO). In April 2004, Government issued notices evicting dive resorts by the year end. Another possible listing as UNESCO’s “world heritage area” for Sabah’s reef is the Tun Mustapha Park. Regional initiatives for coral reef conservation efforts Regional co-operation in protecting transboundary coral reef areas can be achieved through the Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) concept. Malaysia is currently involved in two such initiatives namely, the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) and the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME). Malaysia is among the eight littoral countries in the Indian Ocean participating in the Bay of Bengal Program (BOBP). Under this program, studies on resource mapping (Lee, 2000) and carrying capacity assessment (Li, 1998) have been carried out in Pulau Payar.
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Table 3 List of Islands Gazzeted as Marine Parks under the Establishment of Marine Parks Malaysia (Amendment) Order 1998.
Name of Island State (Marine Parks) 1. Pulau Redang Terengganu (Pulau Redang Marine Park) 2. Pulau Perhentian Kecil 3. Pulau Perhentian Besar 4. Pulau Lang Tengah 5. Pulau Susu Dara 6. Pulau Lima 7. Pulau Ekor Tebu 8. Pulau Pinang 9. Pulau Nyireh 10. Pulau Tenggol 11. Pulau Kapas 12. Pulau Tioman Pahang (Pulau Tioman Marine Park) 13. Pulau Labas 14. Pulau Sepoi 15. Pulau Gut 16. Pulau Tokong Bahara 17. Pulau Chebeh 18. Pulau Sembilang 19. Pulau Seri Buat Johor (Johor National Park) 20. Pulau Rawa 21. Pulau Rawa 22. Pulau Hujung 23. Pulau Tengah 24. Pulau Besar 25. Pulau Tinggi 26. Pulau Aur 27. Pulau Pemanggil 28. Pulau Harimau 29. Pulau Goal 30. Pulau Mensirip 31. Pulau Sibu 32. Pulau Sibu Hujung 33. Pulau Mentinggi 34. Pulau Kaca Kedah (Pulau Payar Marine Park) 35. Pulau Lembu 36. Pulau Payar 37. Pulau Segantang 38. Pulau Kuraman The Federal Territory of Labuan (Pulau 39. Pulau Rusukan Besar Labuan Marine Park) 40. Pulau Rusukan Kechil
The LME of Sulu-Sulawesi Sea lies between the South China Sea and the waters of the Indonesian archipelago. The initiative to conserve the SSME is to be undertaken by three countries, namely Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia through the Conservation Plan of the SSME. The coral reef triangle of the SSME has been identified as a priority conservation area. The islands of Tun Mustapha Park are also located within the SSME.
Besides the LME concept, Malaysia is also involved in a Transborder Marine Protected Area initiative known as the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area (TIHPA). This transborder marine protected area was established by a Memorandum of Understanding between Malaysia and the Philippines in 1996 as a result of initiatives of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). The Turtle Island Park in Sabah consists of Pulau Bakkungan Kechil, Pulau Gulisan and Pulau Selingan. The park was established in
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1977 to protect the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate). The Turtle Island group has coral reefs at nine islands of the Sulu Sea. The Philippine islands consist of six islands, namely Boan, Langaan, Lihiman, Great Bakungan, Taganak, and Baguan.
Research for coral reef conservation In support of coral reef management and conservation initiatives, research has also been undertaken on corals and coral reefs in the South China Sea region. These activities include: I. Malaysia participated in the Living Coastal Resources (LCR) project under the ASEAN- Australia Economic Cooporative Programme on Marine Science. This ten-year project consisted of two phases. In Phase I (1984-1989), reef surveys and fish census was conducted at selected islands in Malaysia. During Phase II (1989-1994), the project was focused on monitoring the impact of tourism and development in Pulau Redang. II. Collaborative surveys carried out by the Fisheries Department and WWF-Malaysia with financial support from Canada Fund Malaysia. This baseline data was used to prepare the Marine Park Island Management Conceptual Plan for Peninsular Malaysia (1994). III. Through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Global Environment Facility (GEF) funded field survey at Pulau Redang Marine Park, Pulau Tioman Marine Park and Pulau Tinggi Marine Park. The Malaysian government is planning to design a biodiversity conservation project on these marine parks. IV. The David Emily Packcard Foundation for the status report of coral reef in Eastern Malaysia (2000). V. With the support from World Resource Institute (WRI), the Town and Regional Planning Department (TRPD) in Sabah and the Borneo Marine Research Institute of the Universiti Malaysia Sabah carried out Reefs at Risk in Sabah. As part of the project outcome, coral reefs around the islands and along the shoreline of Sabah have been mapped and assessed for risks from threats, i.e. destructive fishing activities and sedimentation.
The above-mentioned surveys were aimed at providing information on the status, health and biodiversity of the Malaysian coral reefs, especially within the existing MPAs. The information is the basis for action to restore or to improve the existing management of the ecosystem. Decision making on the establishment of new MPAs is also supported by outcomes of research. For example, the decision of the Sarawak government to gazette the Miri-Sibuti reef as a state National Park was supported by a study on a profile of the reef through reef mapping exercises (ReefMap) and biodiversity assessments (Sarawak State Planning Unit, 2002).
More research on coral reefs will add to the knowledge-base of this important resource and assist in its protection. For example, the Scientific Expedition to the Seas of Malaysia (SESMA) of the University of Malaya’s Maritime Research Center (UMMReC) has revealed that Pulau Perak off Kedah’s coast is worthy of protection as an MPA, partly because of its unique island wall reef. However, the state government of Kedah would like to convert the island into a fishing paradise. In early 2004, there was also a proposal to partially protect Pulau Sembilan’s coral reef in Perak’s water from fishing activities. The Fisheries Research Institute of Malaysia carried out a study on the biodiversity of the island in support of the proposal but the decision on the gazettement of the reefs as MPA is still pending. It is worthwhile to note that Pulau Sembilan is considered as a rich fishing ground for Perak fishermen.
Pulau Layang-Layang, located off Labuan and within the Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone of Malaysia is not categorized as an MPA. However, the status of the island as a restricted area accords the reefs around Layang-Layang a high degree of protection. Research on baseline data of reef fauna and flora was carried out in within 20 nautical miles of the island has been carried out from the1980s until 2000. In 2003, the Department of Fisheries with cooperation from the Implementation Coordination Unit of the Prime Minister’s Department (ICU, JPM) built the Marine Research Station Pulau Layang Layang (MARSAL). Short research expeditions to collect baseline information of its reef fauna and flora have been carried out in Pulau Layang Layang. Coral mining in the island for the construction of a seawall and an air strip, however has caused adverse impact on the coral reef. In the affected areas, live coral reef has reduced to 9.5% as compared to 30.9% in 1998 (Mohamed & Abdullah, 2004).
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Many efforts have been made to restore and rehabilitate the corals, which include the artificial reef projects, coral transplantation and coral culture. Malaysian Universities, the Fisheries Research Institute and corporate bodies are involved in coral protection and propagation work. Such coral transplanting projects have been carried out in Pulau Perhentian and Pulau Tioman in 1999 and 2001, respectively. The internationally known Reefball project is another example of coral propagation using artificial reefs. This artificial reef was deployed in Pulau Talang-Talang off Sarawak. In 2004, with the help from the Department of Fisheries of Sarawak, PETRONAS, Shell and Sarawak Tourism Board, the Sarawak government has expanded its conservation effort through the “Rigs to Reef” project. Abandoned oil rigs in surrounding waters of Baram were relocated to Siwa. Here the rigs are transformed into artificial reef (Figure 8). Although this is a first in Malaysia, the project is not new because it has taken place in the Gulf of Mexico and Brunei since 1980s.
113o 45’E 113o 50’E 113o 55’E 114o 00’E North ’N Baronia Baram A BA-8 Baram B ’N S O U T H C H I N A S E A Tg. Baram 5’N Baku Kuala Baram
0’N West Lutong SBM 3 SBM 1 Lutong SBM 5
5’N Tukau Tukau Shoal Miri Tg. Lobang 0’N Depth Siwa <10 m 10 - 20 m 20 - 50 m Siwa Shoal >50 m 5’N
Figure 8 Artificial reefs of the “Rigs to Reef” Project. (Source: Department of Fisheries of Sarawak)
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Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
PHILIPPINES
Dr. Porfirio Aliño Focal Point for Coral Reefs Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines (MSI/UP) Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES 55
PHILIPPINES
Porfirio M. Aliño Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines
INTRODUCTION
The South China Sea (SCS) is one of the six major marine biogeographic regions in the Philippines (Figure 1). The western part of the Luzon Islands facing the South China Sea biogeographic region are composed of the Batanes province, and the Babuyan Islands, Cagayan province as the northernmost portion of this region. Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Pangasinan, Zambales, Bataan, Cavite, Batangas, Mindoro Oriental and Occidental, form the midwestern sector of the region in Luzon. The island province of Palawan composes the southwestern-most sector of the Philippine’s section of the South China Sea.
Figure 1 South China Sea (SCS) as one of the six major marine biogeographic regions in the Philippines. (Nañola et al. 2004)
In the more recent past, the terrestrial and social conditions in Palawan have been referred to as one of the last frontiers - mainly in relation to the extent of the forest and marine ecosystems and high degree conservation consciousness of its stakeholders. The rich marine ecosystems of Palawan, especially coral reefs, are facing numerous threats from human activities. This appears to be a great obstacle to protection and conservation challenges. It is no surprise therefore that the Philippine reefs especially its South China Sea sector has been identified as one of the hottest of the hotspots in the marine realm (Roberts et al. 2002).
The coral reefs in this marine biogeographic region compose approximately one-fourth of the total area of the coral reefs in the country. Municipal coral reef fisheries contribute to around 10-20% of the total municipal fisheries production in the Philippines (Murdy and Ferraris 1980). The provinces of Palawan, Mindoro (Oriental and Occidental), and Batangas, contribute the largest coastal tourism revenues associated with coral reefs. Important priority marine biodiversity areas are exemplified by at least three major marine corridors: the Batanes-Babuyan marine corridor which straddles the South China Sea and the North Philippine Pacific Seaboard; the Batangas-Mindoro-Palawan marine corridor straddles the South China Sea, Sulu Sea and Visayan Seas; and the Balabac Strait marine corridor in Southern Palawan situated in the southern transition of the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea.
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As with the rest of the country, overfishing and siltation are the most predominant threats (Gomez et al. 1994a, 1994b). Concerns related to population pressures have also been highlighted and may lead to food security deficits in the next decade (Bernascek 1996, ArcDev 2004). Some reefs experience marine coastal development concerns such as offshore oil drilling, port development and tourism establishments.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
The South China Sea marine biogeographic region experiences mixed tidal regime, wherein the northwestern Luzon sector primarily experiences a diurnal tidal regime with the rest of the other sectors having mixed – mainly diurnal tides. This is primarily influenced by the major currents that spill over from the major Pacific region.
The geological development of the Luzon archipelago circumscribes the marine biogeographic realm which straddles the: 1) the Northern Philippine Sea (NPS) portion of the Pacific Seaboard; 2) the Western Side of the Luzon Archipelago is referred to as the South China Sea (SCS); and 3) the Southern Luzon Area facing the Visayan Seas (e.g. in the Burias and Ticao Pass and San Bernardino Strait). Past geotectonic movement of the Luzon archipelago into the Northern/Western Pacific Ocean and the subsequent coalescence of the Visayan islands in the south and the Palawan archipelago have influenced the circulation of the adjoining seas (Hall 2002). On the Eastern Side, the northerly movement of the Kuroshio currents bifurcates westward hitting the Batanes-Babuyan Islands Marine Corridor (Wyrtki 1961). This western movement into the SCS forms a northern gyre movement with a west to east flow (from Viet Nam to the Western Philippines) affecting the connectivity of the marine populations of this region (Shaw and Chao 1994). The sill overflow in the Mindoro Strait affects the Sulu Sea region and the seas facing the Southern Luzon archipelago. The bays and gulf of the Luzon archipelago have been formed by geological faults influencing the extent of the coastal shelf and bathymetric slope inclination.
The coastal and marine habitats of the Palawan archipelago have undergone an extensive range of evolutionary and ecological processes. Palawan’s incursion into the southwestern sector of the Luzon archipelago about 3 million years ago produced wedged sill between the SCS and Sulu Sea basins (Hall 2002). The development of the coastal habitats (e.g. fringing reefs and mangroves) is greatly influenced by the geologic process of plate tectonics and sea level rise producing extensive shelves - adjacent deep basins (having oceanic atolls in the Kalayaan Islands Group (KIG) and Tubbataha Reefs).
On a broad-scale, western Philippine reefs are greatly influenced by the predominant current patterns and hydrodynamic regimes of the South China Sea. However, there are areas where reefs are constantly exposed to the exchange of water masses via the straits. For example, the Luzon Strait links the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean while the Mindoro, Linapacan and Balabac Straits are major corridors for the exchange of water masses between the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea as well as to other adjacent seas (e.g. Sibuyan Sea in Romblon province).
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION
The coral reefs west of the Philippines, based on geographic location, can be categorised into two types namely: nearshore fringing reefs lining the coastlines of the islands and the more developed and extensive offshore reef areas like those in the Kalayaan Islands Group. The distribution of reef areas in this area is far ranging. With Manila as the reference point, reefs can be found far north such as the Batanes group of islands and along the western coastlines of Luzon Island (including the Scarborough shoal). Towards the south, reef areas fringe the bays of Batangas and Mindoro provinces. Apo reef, the second largest marine park in the country is situated along the Mindoro Strait. Southwest of Manila, reef areas can also be found in the Calamianes Group of Islands, along the main island of Palawan, and all the way to the Balabac islands. However, the most extensive and least explored reef areas can be found west of Palawan – the Kalayaan Islands Group (Figure 2).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – PHILIPPINES 57
Figure 2 Coral reefs sites in the South China Sea biogeographic region of the Philippines.
Most of the largest extent of the reefs is found in the northern Palawan region. Some offshore ocean reefs are situated in the Kalayaan Islands and the Scarborough Shoals, Zambales. Many of the embayed areas that have headland areas having more extensive reef development and reef community structure are influenced by the embayment principle (Licuanan and Gomez 1988, Hilomen and Gomez 1988). Nañola et al. (2004) provides the most recent update on the state and conditions of the coral reefs of the country and shows that the SCS is second to the Sulu Sea area where over 30% of the coral reef areas remain at the highest level of fish biomass. Unfortunately, the SCS also shows one of the areas with the lowest fish abundance in the country especially that of Lingayen Gulf (Deocadez et al. 2003, Nañola et al. 2004). The offshore reefs in the Kalayaan Islands show the contrasting pattern and high variability in the condition of the diversity and state of its resources (Aliño and Quibilan 2003). Here, the most extensive reef areas can be found with high species richness but also exhibit low abundance and impoverished reef conditions.
Characteristics of relevant coral reef sites Davila is a coral reef site in the municipality of Pasuquin in the province of Ilocos Norte. The coral reefs are of the fringing type. The bay has low coral cover in the relatively exposed transect sites and good coral cover in the bay area. Its total coral reef area is 164.64 hectares and mostly dominated by Acropora.
Lingayen Gulf (including Bolinao, Anda, Alaminos) is located in northwestern Philippines. It is a large embayment (2,100km2) surrounded by 15 municipalities and 3 cities, in the provinces of Pangasinan and La Union. The Gulf has been classified into three sectors according to dominant coastal features (Talaue-McManus and Chua 1998). The western section (Sector I) is dominated by fringing coral reefs. The southern section (Sector II) is mainly soft bottom areas where majority of the river systems of the Gulf drain off. The eastern section (Sector III) is lined mainly by sandy beaches with patchy coral reefs (i.e., fringing and shoal) on the northern portion.
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San Salvador is an island barangay (village) under the jurisdiction of the municipality of Masinloc, Zambales, in northwestern Luzon. The reefs in the northeastern part of the island are fringing, characterized by a vast reef flat with sudden drop-offs in the crest. Spur and groove formations are common along the reef crest, particularly in the area facing the South China Sea.
The diverse and abundant reefs in the Mabini - Tingloy area in the Province of Batangas, and Balayan Bay are known for their wealth of marine life. Bordering the Calumpan Peninsula containing Mabini municipality and Maricaban and Caban Islands of Tingloy municipality are many excellent fringing and patchy coral reefs. These reefs are famous for their natural productivity that supplies tons of fish to local communities. In addition, their color and diversity attract thousands of scuba divers and swimmers to the area every month of the year.
Puerto Galera is a small northern peninsula north of the island of Mindoro, with coordinates between 13o 23’ and 13o 32’ N latitude, 120o 50’ and 121o 50’ E longitude. It is acknowledged as one of the most highly diverse coastal areas in the Philippines (Campos 2002). Coral reefs occur in shallow water, ranging from surface down to depths between 10 and 40m (Fortes 1997). Three sites monitored from 1991 to 1993 by the Phase II of the LCRP are considered in this report. These are First Plateau (13o 30.683’N, 120o 57.317’E), Third Plateau (13o 32.033’N, 120o 57.100’E), and Escarceo Point (13o 31.450’N, 120o 59.433’E). The coral reef flats in these areas appear to be poor although the sloping portions with depths ranging from 7 to 15 m are rich with reef-building corals. First and Third Plateaus are characterized by pocilloporids, poritids and Seriatopora, while Escarceo Pt. and the deeper site of Third Plateau are dominated by soft corals (Atrigenio 1995). Of the sites surveyed, Third Plateau had the highest mean percentage of live coral at 33% (Campos 2002).
Port Barton Marine Park (San Vincente) is a 74,483-ha marine reserve that stretches from the south shore of Albaguen Island to the rest of the inner bay. It includes reefs fringing many islands as well as patch reefs. Underwater visibility is generally very good.
BIODIVERSITY
The rich diversity of the South China Sea derives itself from its evolutionary history. It is situated in the Indo - West Pacific region where the coral reefs show the reefs at its zenith for both fish and coral species richness (Veron and Fenner 2002, Carpenter and Springer 2005). The eastern section of the South China Sea interphases with the Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea marine biogeographic regions (DeVantier et al. 2004). Aliño (1994) and Aliño and Gomez (1994) discuss the significance of the Philippines’ SCS in the overall global marine biodiversity conservation efforts. The Philippine National Biodiversity Priority Setting workshops further reinforce the importance of coral reefs vis-à-vis the other marine habitats and resources in the country. Below (Table 1) is a summary of the various characteristics of biodiversity in several sites of the SCS region and their relevant conservation and management responses.
Table 1 Summary of some of the noteworthy marine biodiversity features in the South China Sea and their conservation and management responses.
Sector or Area Cluster within Noteworthy Fauna Responses the South China Sea region Northern Batanes - Babuyan Humpback whales, turtles and Protected Seascape and Landscape of Corridor manta rays approach the fringes of the Batanes Islands and the Babuyan the reef areas Islands are proposed priority protected areas through a marine corridor approach from NGOs like WWF and Conservation International Northwestern Luzon (SCS) Nesting areas are reported in the National Integrated Protected Areas areas of Bataan and Zambales; System (NIPAS) sites such as Masinloc the Scarborough Shoals together and Subic in Zambales are looking at with the KIG show similarities in complementary cooperation between local coral reef community fish and national initiatives through Integrated composition that indicate the Coastal Management and Watershed connectivity of these ecosystems Approaches
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Table 1cont. Summary of some of the noteworthy marine biodiversity features in the South China Sea and their conservation and management responses.
Sector or Area Cluster within Noteworthy Fauna Responses the South China Sea region Batangas-Mindoro-Calamianes Dugongs and turtles foraging on The Calamianes and Balabac marine Marine Corridor seagrass and coral reef areas; corridors are part of the highest priority coral reefs in this area show one areas for marine biodiversity conservation of the highest diversity indices in through a marine corridor approach this region Western Palawan Irrawady dolphin, dugong and Many coral reef areas are being marine turtle nesting and feeding incorporated as part of the NIPAS system areas especially from Malampaya in addition to the Strategic Environmental to Bacuit Bay and most of the Plan (SEP) of Palawan; noteworthy of coastline of the Western Palawan these areas are Malampaya and El Nido mainland; new species of corals which have considerable coral reef such as Leptoseris kalayaanensis components (Licuanan 2003) are being discovered in the adjacent oceanic atolls of the KIG Balabac Marine Corridor Aside from the presence of A potential transboundary agreement can endangered species like the be forged between Sabah and Palawan dugong and marine turtles, these for the conservation and cooperative areas are important migratory research to sustainably manage the area - routes of commercially important should be pursued reef associated fishes
Aliño and Dantis (1999) summarises the insights derived from coral reef research as applied to marine biodiversity conservation in the following areas: 1) conservation biology in relation to marine protected areas; 2) resiliency to disturbances both from natural (e.g. storms and thermal anomalies) and human induced pressures (e.g. fishing pressure); and 3) recovery and susceptibility of different coral reefs vis-à-vis the other ecosystems as affected by various threats (e.g. siltation).
THREATS
Time series data on corals and reef fish in the South China Sea biogeographic region (PhilReefs 2005) show the trends for hard coral cover, reef fish abundance and biomass from 11 municipalities in seven provinces. Overall, hard coral cover for majority of the reefs (44%) are in stable condition while 39% are decreasing and only 17% are increasing. In terms of reef fish abundance, more than half (53%) are decreasing; whereas 27% are increasing and 20% are in stable condition or no net change. The same trend can be observed for fish biomass, where 45% are decreasing, 36% are increasing and 18% are in stable condition. However, it should be noted that not all municipalities or transect sites have a one on one correspondence of coral cover and fish abundance and biomass data in any year. As a result, totals for each category (i.e. hard coral cover, fish abundance and biomass) are not the same. Thus, percentages presented above are derived separately for each category and based only on available data.
Reef sites along the SCS biogeographic region were affected by the coral bleaching event in 1998 and are in various stages of recovery. Chronic disturbances such as siltation and overfishing are commonplace, and need to be addressed by local governments in all three provinces: Pangasinan, Zambales and Palawan. Illegal fishing activities (e.g. use of dynamite and fine-meshed nets) remain rampant in Pangasinan. There are reports of poaching inside MPAs like in Anda and Bugor Island, which are attributed to poor law enforcement activities (e.g. patrolling). This may also mean that there is a need to heighten local communities’ environmental awareness as well as encourage active participation in coastal management efforts. Commercial fishers encroach in the municipal waters of Bani, Pangasinan, while coral reef fishes are excessively collected for the aquarium trade in San Salvador Island. In Port Barton, the establishment of seaweed farms seemed to have affected the water circulation within the bay. Natural disturbances such as the crown-of-thorns (COTS) outbreak that happened in May 2004 hampered reef recovery in El Nido. Abesamis (2003) demonstrates the differential vulnerability of offshore reefs to pa-aling (a more efficient substitute for muro-ami, Miclat et al. 1991) in the Spratlys area vis-à-vis the marine corridor areas of the Calamianes and the Balabac areas. Perhaps this implies that despite the relative inaccessibility of the KIG areas they are quite
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vulnerable to commercial scale reef fisheries. Destructive and illegal fishing still remain the most prevalent threats as the result of what has been referred to as Malthusian overfishing (Pauly et al. 1989, Alino et al. 2004).
Threats at the site level In Nagabugan Bay, Davila, coral bleaching has been observed. Blast fishing has stopped since the implementation of the Coastal Environmental Project (CEP) program. Sporadic cyanide fishing still occurs. Pollution is still a problem. Overfishing is not a problem in the area due to some established alternative livelihood projects like aquaculture, livestock raising and farming. Based on the 2000 survey, large areas with encrusting and massive corals were observed near the transect stations. However, deterioration on the condition of the corals sampled was observed. Possible reason for the decrease in live coral cover was the strong typhoons that hit Northern Luzon in the previous years that caused siltation in the area.
Overfishing, illegal fishing, siltation and pollution are the major issues and threats in the Lingayen Gulf. Capture fisheries with 23,000 fishermen exert very intense pressure in the Gulf. The number of fishers translates to about 7 fishers per meter of coastline or about 23 fishers per sq. km of municipal fishing ground. High fishing pressure is attributed to the steady increase of municipal fishers since 1976. Encroachment by commercial fishers (e.g. commercial trawl) is perceived as a major factor that caused the reduction in fishery production. Hence, small-scale capture fisheries has become the prevalent marginal occupation in the Gulf. The use of destructive fishing methods (e.g. dynamite, cyanide fishing and the use of fine mesh net fishing gear) has resulted in rapid habitat degradation and decline of the fishery stocks. Pollution in relation to mariculture activities (e.g. fishpens, fishcages and fishponds), and siltation from mine tailings, quarrying activities and erosion of agriculture lands have both affected water quality and productivity. Bolinao, at the western side of the gulf was adversely affected by the 1998 bleaching event (Arceo et al. 2001).
Severe coral bleaching was observed in San Salvador in 1998. High exposure to storms is another natural threat to the reefs. Heavy siltation from river and agricultural run-off is also a major threat. Blast fishing is still occurring. Recently, aquarium fishers have gradually returned to fish in the reefs of San Salvador even though it is prohibited. In fact, several violators were observed while biophysical monitoring was going on. The extent of exploitation of aquarium fishes is a growing concern. Catch often includes juvenile fishes, and no limit in number or size has been set. Lastly, the presence of the National Power Corporation (NPC) coal power plant has always been of some concern due mainly to the increased seawater temperature brought about by the facility.
In Maricaban Strait, signs of destructive fishing activities are not as serious as in the past. Storm damaged corals in the late 1980s are being replaced with new developing corals although a storm in 2000 substantially overturned some coral heads at Sombrero, Arthur’s and White Sand Reefs. Further, for the reefs to improve through increased coral growth, human-caused damage from anchors, fishing and careless scuba divers must be addressed. Tourism activity is high and increasing. The number of local boats used for diving and traveling by visitors has increased dramatically over the past ten years. Anchor damage is apparent on all the reefs except where the buoys are routinely used.
The total lack of solid waste management is very evident in the area. At every site, the survey encountered floating debris. Plastics are more common than jellyfish! Sediment deposited from heavy rainfall events was evident on the reefs bordering the Calumpan Peninsula especially at Twin Rocks and at White Sand Reef. This reflects deforestation and building constructions on land. The increasing construction activity along the shoreline is having negative impacts on the reefs in general. Most structures are constructed less than 20 m from the high tide line as stipulated in the Land Management Act.
A major threat to the reefs in Puerto Galera is sedimentation associated with the development of coastal settlements, marble mining and goldpanning, and eutrophication brought about by sewage effluents from resorts and coastal settlements (Fortes 1997). Water pollution may also have been brought about by discharges of watercrafts plying the area. The lack of enforcement of existing laws and ordinances as well as weak community participation in conservation efforts further aggravates the situation.
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In Port Barton, the area still has good coral cover and much fish but it is having difficulty recovering from a storm that followed right after a mass bleaching event in 1998. Hard corals were devastated after a storm (Typhoon Norming) and this was followed by a mass bleaching event (April-May) in 1998. Hard coral cover percentage both inside and adjacent to the fishery reserve has since become generally stable but target fish species abundance (inside and adjacent to the reserve) appears to drop from 1999 to 2001. This decrease is also reflected in the major fish carnivores (groupers, snappers, emperors and sweetlips) and is more evident in adjacent areas compared to areas inside the reserve.
ECONOMIC VALUATION AND USES
Previous socio-economic resource valuation studies related to reefs in the Philippines Past economic/resource valuation studies on coral reefs in the Philippines along the South China Sea basin has been done for provinces like Pangasinan, Palawan and Batangas. Studies have focused on these themes: socio-economic impacts of coral bleaching (Cesar et al. 2001, Mamiit and Francisco 2001), cost-benefit analyses of impacts of logging versus tourism and fisheries (Hogdson and Dixon 1988, 2000), economic valuation of biodiverisity (UPMSI-MERF 2002), determination of user fees (WWF-Philippines 2001, ENRAP-PAWB-PPSO 1999), economic benefits of protection and small- scale tourism (White et al. 2000a), and recreational benefits (Ahmed et al. unpublished). Other studies undertaken in the Philippines were in Olango, Cebu (White et al. 2000b) and Apo Islands (Vogt 1997).
There has been initial work on estimating the socio-economic impacts by coral bleaching in the Philippines. Most recent is the work by Cesar et al. (2001). In their study, the economic impact of coral bleaching to fisheries and tourism was determined for Bolinao, Pangasinan and El Nido, Palawan. A large percentage of corals bleached during the second half of 1998. Significant economic losses to tourism due to the coral bleaching event in El Nido was estimated at US$30 million (i.e. with the assumption that these losses were permanent at 9% discount rate). Losses to the fishery in Bolinao, Pangasinan, were more difficult to determine because of the confounding effect of overfishing and the nature of the fishery. There was, however, some indication of fish recruitment failure for rabbitfishes a year after the bleaching event. The study by Mamiit and Francisco (2001), determined that on the average around PhP3,756.67 (~US$70 @ PhP53: US$1), was the amount domestic (or local) recreational SCUBA divers were willing to pay for the restoration of bleached or damaged coral reefs in the Philippines. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was used.
Cost-benefit analyses on the impacts of siltation (i.e. derived from logging activities) on the fisheries and tourism in El Nido, Palawan (Hodgson and Dixon 1988) revealed that logging would severely limit the viability and income that would be generated from tourism and fishery. A follow-up study (Hogdson and Dixon 2000) showed that indeed tourism flourished after 10 years following the preservation of the unique forest ecosystem. However, there are now indications of increased fishing pressure that have resulted in overfishing. Populations of high-value species of fish and shellfish are significantly reduced.
An economic valuation was carried out for the period of 1986 – 1987. There were two options, i.e. (1) logging is banned; and (2) logging to continue. In Option 1, forest cutting was totally banned, tourism and fisheries kept on going, but there was one thing to be considered, i.e. compensation for logging owner. In Option 2, forest cutting continued, doubtlessly fisheries would keep on declining, so would be tourism. Results of calculation of the economic value of the three aspects (including Option 2-1) are given in Table 2.
An on-going project entitled “The economic value of coral reef biodiversity: Examples from Southeast Asia” aims to determine the estimated value of coral reefs specifically due to biodiversity. TOTAL FINA ELF Corporate Foundation funds this two-year project. This project is currently being implemented by the Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines through the Marine Environment and Resources Foundation Inc. (MERF, Inc.) with collaborators from Viet Nam. Areas considered in this study are: Maricaban, Batangas, Hundred Islands, Pangasinan (both in the Philippines) and Hon Mun Island in Viet Nam.
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Table 2 Tourism, fisheries and logging industries: ten-year sum of gross revenue and its present value (x $1,000) using 10% and 15% discount rates. Option 1 Option 2 Option 2 - 1 Gross Revenue Tourism 47,415 8,178 39,237 Fisheries 28,070 12,844 15,226 (with tuna) 46,070 21,471 24,599 Logging 0 12,884 -12,844 TOTAL 75,485 33,906 41,579 Present Value 10 % Tourism 25,481 6,216 19,265 Fisheries 17,248 9,108 8,140 (with tuna) 28,308 15,125 13,183 Logging 0 9,769 -9,769 TOTAL 47,729 25,093 17,636 Present Value 15 % Tourism 19,511 5,591 13,920 Fisheries 14,088 7,895 6,193 (with tuna) 28,308 13,083 10,039 Logging 0 8,639 -8.639 TOTAL 32,599 22,125 11,474 Source: Hodgson & Dixon, 1988.
Coral reef resource valuation from the UNEP SCS project Samonte-Tan and Armedilla (2005) reviews the economic value (use and preservation values) of Philippine coral reefs in the South China Sea biogeographic region. The approach for estimating the economic value of coral reefs used the valuation framework agreed by the UNEP’s Regional Task Force on valuation. The concept of total economic valuation highlights the significant economic values that can be accrued from use values and non-use values. Adding the above market (direct) and non- market values (indirect and option values) gives an estimate of the total quantifiable economic value of PhP2,901 million (US$53 million). Fisheries, tourism and research values account for about 27 percent of the total net economic value. Calculated over 20 years, with a discount rate of 10%, the net present value of benefits of Philippine coral reefs in the South China Sea basin is estimated at PhP24,700 million (US$449 million) that translates to approximately PhP5.3 million/km2 net present value, or PhP 266,112/km2/yr on an annualized basis. This is based on an estimated Philippine coral reef area within the South China Sea basin of 4,640.94km2. Samonte and Armedilla (2005) shows that 1km2 of coral reef can generate US$11,366 direct and indirect values. Philippine coral reefs have an estimated value of PhP1,064 million/year (US$19.3 million) and the value of coral reefs for the South China Sea biogeographic region is estimated at PhP52.7 million/year as indicated in Table 3 (Samonte-Tan and Armedilla 2005).
Table 3 Potential annual net economic benefit. (Samonte-Tan and Armedilla, 2005) Resource Use Philippinesa Philippines-South China Sea (Direct and Indirect) ($ million) Basin ($ million) Fisheries 620.0 11.3 Tourism 108.0 2.3 Carbon Sequestration 8.4 Coastal Protection 326.0 23.2 Biodiversity 10.0 7.0 Research 0.7 Total Net Annual Benefits 1,064.0 52.7 Net Present Valueb 9,063.0 449.1 Reef Area (km2) 27,000.0 4,640.9 aBurke et al. 2002 bStream of annual benefits over 20 years at 10% discount rate
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Coral reef areas in the Philippines are major fishery resources and popular recreational attractions for domestic and foreign tourists. Current financing of coral reef management is insufficient considering the threats of land-based and marine-based human activities that cause irreversible damage to the coral reef resources. The results of Samonte-Tan and Armedilla (2005) study may help guide policy makers in evaluating/updating pricing policies (user fees, general tax revenues, fines, etc.) and in developing appropriate financing mechanisms.
MANAGEMENT The specific national legislation, which updates the particular and fragmented marine related concerns are embodied in Republic Act 8550 known as the Philippine Fisheries Code. Previous to this (ca. 1991) more general laws such as the Local Government Code delineates the jurisdiction of municipal waters within 15 kilometers. The significant decline of marine resources in the Philippines led various government institutions, provincial and local governments, non-government organizations (NGOs), people’s organizations (POs), stakeholders and managers together with the local communities to spearhead the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs), marine fishery reserves, sanctuaries and protected seascapes and landscapes. The coral reef and mangrove areas have been the primary focal areas where many of these targeted management efforts are directed. The management of these areas is regarded as the most appropriate approach in the management of fisheries because traditional fishery management efforts (e.g. regulating catch and fishing effort) are difficult to apply (Bohnsack 1996; Arceo et al. 2002). Marine protected areas also became popular with coastal managers because they offer simple win-win solutions. This approach is based on the assumption that an area closed to fishing will benefit adjacent areas through: 1) spillover of adult fish resulting from increased fish density; 2) export of larvae that could recruit elsewhere resulting from increased spawning stock; and 3) regulation of fishing effort if matched with the management of areas outside no-take areas. Proliferation of marine reserves and sanctuaries in the late 1990s was due to the availability of funds from both foreign and local donors (i.e. International Grants, national and provincial governments). Other funding agencies supported efforts to sustain the management and protection of the marine biodiversity (e.g., Conservation International and the World Wide Fund for Nature). To date, more than 500 protected areas have been established in the Philippines (Aliño et al. 2000, AFMA-MFR database, http://www.msi.upd.edu.ph/midas/). Majority of these MPAs were proclaimed under Presidential Proclamation No. 1801. Some MPAs are managed by the local government units (LGUs) together with the POs and local communities while others are managed by non-government organizations (NGO) with the support of LGUs, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) regional offices, POs and the local communities. A number of MPAs were established under the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 and are being managed by the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) in coordination with the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). Protected areas that are managed by the community are sometimes considered to be very effective and exist continuously even with the change in local administration. However, these are successfully implemented in very small areas. Management efforts by local government (including coastal law enforcement) continue to rapidly gain ground, although its conservation effectiveness is not yet evident in the collected data. Initiatives such as the Integrated Coastal Resources Management Project (ICRMP), Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP), and Participatory Coastal Resource Appraisal (PCRA) were organized through partnerships between LGUs, NGOs and POs with the support of government institutions such as Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DA- BFAR), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and DENR. Other programs such as Fisheries Resources Management Program (FRMP) and Pacific Seaboard Research and Development Program were funded by the DA-BFAR and DOST, respectively, to assess and manage some of the priority areas for protection and conservation. Sustainability of funds for the operation and maintenance of these protected areas is the most common problem in the Philippines. Many MPAs collect users fees from tourists (e.g. Apo Reserve and Tubbataha National Marine Park) that are kept as trust funds to sustain their operations. Resource use conflicts among local stakeholders, in addition to weak enforcement of ordinances and policies by the concerned agencies are the next most common problems (e.g. Visayan Seas region).
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Based on submitted reports, from an initial list of 10 marine protected areas (MPAs) in 2003 (Philreefs 2003), five small MPAs, mostly from Pangasinan, and two proposed are now included. There are now 17 marine protected areas in the region, roughly covering a total area of 152,644ha. or 1,576km2. Assuming that total coral reef area along the SCS biogeographic region is about 4,641km2; the total area protected so far would be about 34%. This is an overestimate considering that not all marine protected areas are established on reef areas, some would include mangrove areas, seagrass beds or deep sandy areas.
Another source of information that was released recently is the MPA database 2004 by the Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation, Inc. (CCEF, Inc. 2004) (PhilReefs 2005). At present, there are 331 MPAs described in this database from all over the country. From this database, a total of 19 MPAs from the SCS was generated from it (Table 4). This list includes the large marine protected landscapes and seascapes, marine reserves and very small (i.e. ~2ha.) fish sanctuaries.
Management efforts, big and small, are continually geared towards setting aside areas for protection and conservation. However, it seems that despite these efforts, it may not be enough to save reefs on time. In the Philippine marine sanctuary strategy, the urgent call is to improve management effectiveness and sustain efforts within and outside marine protected areas (Aliño 2004). The sense of urgency stems from the fact that more than 50% of the reef areas monitored so far have shown decline in the reef condition (Philreefs 2003, Philreefs 2005), and that these areas are continually being exposed to varying degrees of exploitation and disturbances (human and natural). Greater challenges remain and questions need to be answered like: If we were to improve municipal fisheries by 10%, how many more MPAs do we need to establish? Do we increase the size of existing MPAs and by how much? How do we improve management effectiveness? How will we network these MPAs? What is the strategy or framework? Aliño et al. (2004) suggests that if a minimum of 20 hectares should be pursued in many of the existing areas, perhaps the projected 100-year period would be reduced by half (i.e. 50 years), and if, on the average, this will be increased to at least 40 hectares then perhaps it will reach a reasonable strategic period of 20 years.
Within the SCS bio-geographic region, only one MPA is declared a national marine park (i.e. Apo Reef Marine Reserve) while some are relatively small marine protected areas or fish sanctuaries (Table 4). Establishment of fish sanctuaries such as those in Bolinao and Anda, Pangasinan; Masinloc, Zambales; and Mabini-Tingloy, Batangas were made possible by passing municipal ordinances. However, the greatest challenge is how to manage reefs located in relatively larger areas such as Bacuit Bay, Lingayen Gulf and the Kalayaan Islands Group. Managing reef areas covered by more than one province and/or municipality or a number of barangays may be more difficult as it will need a more comprehensive management plan and regulations enforced by the various stakeholders in the area. How to manage offshore reefs in the Kalayaan Islands Group is a totally different story as it is claimed in part or whole by six countries. Based on ecological considerations, it is proposed that it be declared as the “Spratly Islands Marine Park” to benefit the whole region (McManus and Meñez 1997).
Table 4 List of marine protected areas/reserves and/or fish sanctuaries along the SCS biogeographic region generated from the MPA Database 2004 (PhilReefs 2005). Year of Municipal ordinance (MO) MPA/Fish sanctuary Size (ha) establishment and/or existing laws Batanes Protected Landscape and 1994 213,578 Pres. Proc. No. 355 Feb 28 1994 Seascape Republic Act No. 8991-2001 Agoo-Damortis Protected 2000 10,649 Pres. Proc. No. 277 April 23, 2000 Lndscape and Seascape Republic Act No. 7160 Agoo, Sto. Tomas, La Union Hundred Islands National Park 1940 1,630 Alaminos, Pangasinan Masinloc Oyon Bay Marine Reserve, 1993 7,568 Pres. Proc. No. 231 Aug 18, 1993 Masinloc, Zambales Nalayag Point Fishery Refuge and 2002 1 MO # 13 Series of 2002 Sanctuary, Nalayag, San Agustin Kanluran, Isla Verde, Batangas City Pulong Bato Fishery Refuge and 2002 2 MO # 13 Series of 2002 Sanctuary, San Agapito, Isla Verde, Batangas City
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Table 4 cont. List of marine protected areas/reserves and/or fish sanctuaries along the SCS biogeographic region generated from the MPA Database 2004 (PhilReefs 2005). Year of Municipal ordinance (MO) MPA/Fish sanctuary Size (ha) establishment and/or existing laws Dive & Trek Fish Sanctuary 1995 ? MO # 3 Series of 1995 San Pablo, Bauan, Batangas Bagong Silang Marine Sanctuary 1999 5 MO # 92 Series of 2003 Bagon Silang, Calatagan, Batangas Carretunan Marine Sanctuary 2003 2 MO # 3 Series of 2003 Caretulan, Calatagan, Batangas Pagapas Bay Marine Reserve 1998 2 Tanagan and Sta. Ana, Calatagan Batangas Sta. Ana Marine Sanctuary 1998 2 Resolution No. 89-1998 Sta. Ana, Calatagan, Batangas Tanagan Marine Sanctuary 2002 2 Tanagan, Calatagan Batangas Brgy. Biga Marine Sanctuary 2002 10 Biga, Lobo, Batangas Malabrigo Fish Refuge and Sanctuary, 2002 3 Resolution No. 60-2002 Malabrigo, Lobo, Batangas Sawang/Olo-olo Fish Sanctuary 2001 9 MO # 59 Series of 2001 Sawang and Olo-olo, Lobo, Batangas Batalang-Bato Fish Sanctuary 2002 2.5 MO # 1 Series of 2002 Sto. Tomas and Talahib, Batangas Malampaya Sound Protected Landscape 2000 200,115 Pres. Proc. No. 342 July 11, 2000 and Seascape, Malampaya, Palawan Manalo Fish Sancturay 2000 74 MO # 144 Series of 2000 Manalo, Puerto Princesa, Palawan Manyukos Island marine Sanctuary 2003 232 MO # 246 Series of 2003 Buenavista, Puerto Princesa, Palawan Part of St. Paul, Subterranean River National Park; IPRA Law TOTAL AREA PROTECTED IN THE SCS 413,564 NOTE: The 193,255 ha for BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGION Batanes was included in the computation.
In the Philippine Marine Sanctuary Strategy a proposal for a network of MPAs to be supported by a multisectoral body is espoused under the co-chair coordination of the Department of Agriculture – Bureau of Aquatic Resources (DA-BFAR) and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). It has been proposed that beyond MPAs, an Archipelagic Development Strategy provides an overarching framework for all strategies within an ecosystem-based framework. ArcDev (2004) integrates the various habitat-based and project-based efforts into area-based –catchment “watershed” management approach linked to integrated coastal management. To date, no formal legitimized document provides this institutional framework. Existing legislative instruments should be utilized to incorporate improve implementing mechanisms for achieving targets of various action plans.
Though it has been legislated that municipal development plans should provide the basis for each local government’s strategic action plans, only a handful (in the mid 1990s) has developed their coastal development plans with their appropriate zoning schemes. In the last 5 years coastal management plans have been initiated in an increasing number of LGUs found in the South China Sea region (e.g. in Batanes, Lingayen Gulf, Bataan, Batangas and Palawan). Budgetary allocations reaching at least around US$5,000 annually for coral reef management are often related to marine sanctuaries established in coral reefs. Perhaps due to the recognition of the gap in the coordination among local governments, which should function cooperatively, and share in the management of municipal waters, provincial and/or baywide management bodies have been established. The Strategic Environmental Plan legislated for the province of the Palawan (1992) and the National Integrated Protected Areas (NIPAS) declaration of Batanes as a Protected Seascape and Landscape are some of the provincial exemplary models for provincial initiatives engraved in national law. Other local provincial ordinances and executive issuances have been promulgated through the provincial governments as seen by the initiatives in Batangas and Bataan. On-going efforts among provinces to revive the baywide management arrangements (as espoused by the RA 8550) in Lingayen Gulf is
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being undertaken between the Provincial Governments of Pangasinan and La Union together with the support of other national government agencies like the DA-BFAR, DENR and the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA).
Despite the need for better inter-hierarchical coordination at the local and national levels, hope springs forth as seen in on-the-ground efforts, which have borne fruit in recognition of good practices in MPA management (e.g. Masinloc, Zambales winning the “Galing Pook” national award) and the CRM regional working group in Lingayen Gulf winning an award for its coastal zone management.
REFERENCES
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Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
THAILAND
Dr. Thamasak Yemin Focal Point for Coral Reefs Marine Biodiversity Research Group, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science Ramkhamhaeng University Huamark, Bangkok 10240, Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND 69
THAILAND
Thamasak Yemin Marine Biodiversity Research Group, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ramkhamhaeng University
INTRODUCTION
Thailand’s coastal areas, located between 6°N and 13°N, offer suitable environmental conditions for coral reef development. The total coastline of Thailand, in the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, is approximately 2,614 kilometres. The Gulf of Thailand, a major area in Southeast Asia, immediately to the west of the South China Sea is bordered by several nations, i.e. Viet Nam, Cambodia, Thailand and Malaysia. Thailand has historically profited from the wealth of living and mineral resources in the Gulf. Several millions of people derive their livelihoods from fisheries and mineral resources produced from the Gulf of Thailand, however, several millions more are affected by changes in the environment including coral reef habitat, whether these changes are physical or political. The Gulf of Thailand is a semi-enclosed sea, as defined by the Law of the Sea that measures approximately 400 km by 800 km, covering an area of about 320,000 square kilometres. The Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong rivers enter the gulf. There are also many small rivers that flow along the coast. The Gulf of Thailand harbours a large area of coral reefs, seagrasses beds, and mangroves. Coral reefs represent an important part of the ecosystem that is in danger of becoming dangerously depleted. Coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand are a home of many species of fish and other benthic organisms. These coral reefs are very sensitive to pollution, and are under threat from certain fishing and tourism activities.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Climate The majority of the Gulf coastline belonging to Thailand has a tropical climate dominated by the monsoons. The climate is characterised in general by four seasons: a dry season from January to February; a hot season from March to May; a wet season from June to October; and a cool season from November to December. Approximately 90 percent of rainfall occurs during the wet season. Annual precipitation varies from 1,000mm to 2,030mm depending on the region. In Bangkok, the average temperature ranges from 20°C in December to 35°C in April.
Geology The Gulf of Thailand is part of the Sunda Shelf and is relatively shallow. The mean depth is 45m, and the maximum depth is 80m.
Hydrology The Gulf of Thailand receives water mainly from the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong and Bang Pakong rivers. Among these rivers, the Chao Phraya has the largest catchment area (162,000km2), which is a one third of the whole area of Thailand.
An in-depth and systematic study of the oceanographic conditions of the Gulf was undertaken by the NAGA Expedition, which lasted from 1959-61, and was sponsored by Thailand, South Viet Nam and the United States of America. The results showed several physical properties of the Gulf of Thailand. The Gulf is a two layered, shallow-water estuary. The upper layer has low salinity due to rain and freshwater runoff from rivers. The deeper layer has high salinity due to cool water flowing into the Gulf from the South China Sea at the mouth. Monsoons, tidal currents and precipitation drive the Gulf’s circulation and influence its salinity and turbidity. Monsoons also have a significant influence on the surface currents. During the southwest monsoon season, the surface current moves clockwise and during the northeast monsoon season it moves counterclockwise.
Water Quality Water quality along the coastal areas and tourist beaches is mostly fair, except for some locations at the mouth of Thailand’s four major rivers. Primary productivity in the Gulf of Thailand is boosted by increased nutrients from rivers, shrimp farms and household sewage. Many cities have no sewage treatment and discharge directly into the Gulf. More fertilizers are being used on agricultural lands. They eventually reach the Gulf and contribute to the deterioration of water quality. The increase in
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 70 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
inputs of nitrate, phosphate and silicate are causing occasional algal blooms and oxygen depletion. Summary seawater temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen and suspended solids data at coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand are given in Table 1, while concentrations of nutrient components in the coral reef sites are presented in Table 2.
Table 1 Important environmental factors at coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand.
Temperature Salinity Dissolved oxygen Suspended Solid (°C) (ppt) (mg/L) (mg/L) Coral Reef Sites Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry season season season season season season season season Chumphon Group, 29-31 31-35 27-36 27-36 6-8 4-8 0-681 0-100 Chumphon Province Koh Chang, Kud and 27-31 31-33 9-27 27-36 6-10 6-8 50-681 50-150 Mark, Trat Province Ang Thong Group, Surat 27-31 29-33 27-36 27-36 6-87 4-8 0-100 0-100 Thani Province Samui and Phangan 29-31 29-35 27-36 27-36 6-8 4-8 0-50 0-100 Group, Surat Thani Province Samet Group, Rayong 29-33 31-33 27-36 18-36 4-8 4-8 0-100 0-100 Province Sichang Group, 29-31 29-33 18-36 18-27 4-8 6-8 50-861 0-50 Chonburi Province Sattaheep and 29-31 31-33 27-36 27-36 4-8 6-8 0-50 0-50 Samaesarn Group, Chonburi Province Lan and Phai Group, 29-31 29-33 18-36 27-36 2-8 2-8 0-400 0-100 Chonburi Province Chao Lao, Chanthaburi 29-31 31-33 9-36 27-36 6-8 6-8 100- 50-915 Province 861 Prachaub Khiri Khan 29-38 29-35 18-36 27-36 6-10 6-8 200- 0-915 Group, Prachaub Khiri 861 Khan Province Tao Group, Surat Thani 29-31 31-33 27-36 27-36 6-8 6-8 0-50 0-50 Province Koh Nhu and Maew, 29-31 31-33 27-36 27-36 6-8 6-8 0-100 0-100 Song Khla Province Koh Kra, Nakorn, 29-31 31-33 27-36 8-27 4-6 4-6 0-50 0-100 Srithamarat Province Koh Losin, Narathiwat 29-31 29-31 27-36 27-36 6-8 6-8 0-50 0-50 Province Source: Department of Pollution Control, 2004.
Sedimentation The average rate of sedimentation in the Gulf of Thailand during July to December was 2.004g/cm2/mo, while that from December to June was 5.632g/cm2/mo. The sedimentation rate in the deeper area during June to December was 3.036g/cm2/mo and during December to June was 4.178g/cm2/mo. In the northern part of Koh Sak island (Rayong Province), the rate of sedimentation in shallow and deep areas was low during both July to December and December to June. In general, the rate of sedimentation was higher in the shallow than in the deeper areas. Sedimentation was usually found highest at the southern part of the island, particularly during December to June, but lowest in the shallow water from July to December (Sudara et. al., 1992).
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION
The coral communities in the Gulf of Thailand could be categorised into three distinct areas with different oceanographic conditions (Figure 1), i.e., the inner part of the Gulf of Thailand (Chonburi), the east coast of the Gulf of Thailand (Rayong, Chanthaburi and Trad) and the west coast of the Gulf of Thailand (Prachuab Kirikhan, Chumporn, Surathani, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Songkhla, Pattani and Narathiwat).
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND 71
Table 2 Major nutrient components in coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand.
Nitrate-Nitrogen Nitrite-Nitrogen Ammonia- Phosphate- (mg/L) (mg/L) Nitrogen (mg/L) Phosphorus (mg/L) Coral Reef Sites Wet Dry Wet Wet Dry Dry Wet Dry season season season season season season season season Chumphon Group, 0-200 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-600 0-200 Chumphon Province Koh Chang, Kud and 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Mark, Trat Province Ang Thong Group, 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Surat Thani Province Samui and Phangan 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Group, Surat Thani Province Samet Group, Rayong 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-400 Province Sichang Group, 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-150 0-25 0-200 0-400 Chonburi Province Sattaheep and 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Samaesarn Group, Chonburi Province Lan and Phai Group, 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Chonburi Province Chao Lao, Chanthaburi 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Province Prachaub Khiri Khan 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Group, Prachaub Khiri Khan Province Tao Group, Surat 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Thani Province Koh Nhu and Maew, 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Song Khla Province Koh Kra, Nakorn, 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Srithamarat Province Koh Losin, Narathiwat 0-100 0-100 0-25 0-50 0-50 0-25 0-200 0-200 Province Source: Department of Pollution Control, 2004.
Three types of coral communities in the Gulf of Thailand are obviously recognised i.e., coral communities, developing fringing reefs and early formation of fringing reefs. Since there are four major rivers, which flow into the inner part of the Gulf of Thailand, most of these coastal areas are dominated by mangrove forests. However, scleractinian coral communities can be found around several islands in the inner part of the Gulf Thailand. The most inner islands, Koh Sichang, have a unique type of coral community. Eighty-five species of hermatypic corals were found (Sakai et al., 1986). Porites lutea is the most abundant species and grows on the widest vertical range. Other abundant species are Montipora hispida, Acropora formosa, Pavona frondifera, Platygyra daedalea and Pseudosiderastrea tayamai. Sediment is considered as a significant factor, among others, that inhibits coral growth. After Koh Sichang, there is the Pattaya group, which consists of several islands. The coral reefs around the islands in South of Pataya have been used for tourism and the area of Sattaheep is controlled by the Navy. The coral communities are in relatively good condition (Chou et al., 1991). On certain islands within this area, turtle conservation and coral rehabilitation projects have been undertaken.
In waters of the eastern Gulf of Thailand, coral communities around small islands in Rayong Province once had very good live coral cover, but due to illegal dynamite fishing and increased tourism, the coral communities of several islands have now deteriorated. Farther along the east coast to Chanthaburi, most of the coastal areas are mangroves. However, coral reefs are found in patchy distribution along the shore where there is no river runoff and around a few small islands. There are many islands with coral reefs in Trat Province. The coral reefs in this area are well developed and in very good condition before the coral bleaching phenomenon in 1998.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 72 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
In waters of the western Gulf of Thailand, a few small islands exit with newly formed fringing reefs in Prachuab Kirikhan. The branching growth form of Acropora spp. was the most dominant species before the severe coral bleaching in 1998. In Chumphon Province, coral reefs are best developed on the eastern side of islands. Fresh water and sediment from land inhibit reef growth on the western sides of these islands. There are many islands with corals in good condition. Farther south to Surathani, there are several islands which harbor well developed coral reefs. Koh Samui, Koh Pha- Ngan and Koh Tao Islands are popular coral reef tourism destinations (Chankong, 2000).
A comprehensive reef survey programme was conducted between 1995 and 1998 at 251 sites in the Gulf of Thailand and 169 sites in the Andaman Sea (Department of Fisheries, 2000). The condition of reefs in the Gulf of Thailand was: 16.4% excellent, 29% good, 30.8% fair, and 23.8% poor. However, the figure of poor condition was considerably increasing after the severe coral bleaching event in 1998. For instance, certain areas of Trat Province showed reduction in live coral cover of 80-90%.
Only a small number of monitoring of reef fish was carried out in Thai waters. It is very difficult to provide a clear figure of reef fish status because of high temporal variations. However, reef fish communities on reef slopes were more abundant than on reef flats. There was also a gradient of reef fish abundance from nearshore to offshore locations that was a result of reef types and certain environmental factors. No statistics of coral reef fish harvested from Thai’s coral reefs are collected. Practically, most coral reefs in Thailand are used in fisheries. Many coral reefs, which locate in rural areas are used by small-scale fishermen, and shell and ornamental fish collection. They provide fishery products as important sources of both food and income.
The coral reef conditions in the Gulf of Thailand were worse after the coral bleaching in 1998. However, there are signs of recovery in many islands, depending on mainly coral recruitment.
Important Coral Reef Sites in the Gulf of Thailand
1. Sichang Group Chonburi Province 2. Lan and Phai Group Chonburi Province 3. Sattaheep Group Chonburi Province 4. Samet Group Rayong Province 5. Chao Lao Chanthaburi Province 6. Mu Koh Chang Trat Province 7. Prachaub Khiri Khan Group Prachaub Khiri Khan Province 8. Chumporn Group Chumporn Province 9. Tao Group Surat Thani Province 10. Ang Thong Group Surat Thani Province 11. Samui and Phangan Group Surat Thani Province 12. Koh Nhu and Maew Song Khla Province 13. Koh Kra Nakorn Srithamarat Province 14. Koh Lao Pee Pattani Province 15. Koh Losin Narathiwat Province
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND 73
Figure 1 Distribution of coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 74 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
BIODIVERSITY
Diversity of certain major groups of coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand, including stony corals, sponges, crustaceans, echinoderms, reef fishes, algae and threatened species is summarized in Table 3. Moreover, species lists of reef building corals, reef fishes, echinoderms and endangered and threatened species are developed based on previous surveys (Jivarat, 1985, Satapoomin, 2000) and unpublished documents as seen in Annex 1.
THREATS
Natural impacts The first extensive coral bleaching phenomenon in the Gulf of Thailand occurred in April - June, 1998. The results from field observations obviously showed spatial variation of coral bleaching. The observed corals exhibited a variety degree of bleaching. Coral bleaching was widespread on shallow reefs. However, certain coral communities on deeper pinnacles, such as Hin Luk Bat in Trat Province, approximately 10-15m in depth, there were no signs of coral bleaching. According to the long-term studies, Acropora spp. and Pocillopora damicornis were severely affected. Several species of Acropora showed local extinction in certain locations. On the other hand, Goniopora spp. showed complete recovery after the bleaching event. Coral recovery in the inner Gulf of Thailand needs longer period of time due to low coral recruitment. However, there are large numbers of coral recruits observed in the east and the west coasts of the Gulf of Thailand. Most of them are Pocillopora damicornis, Acropora spp., Fungia spp. and faviid corals. Coral bleaching appeared in different degrees. Generally, most of impacted areas are now in the processes of recovery.
Table 3 Summary of biodiversity of coral reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand. (NR: no report)
Coral Reef Hard Coral Crusta- Echino- Reef Threatened Algae Sponges Sites corals cover (%) ceans derms fishes species Chumphon >120 55% >35 NR >304 >187 >106 5 Group Koh Chang, >130 40% >69 >29 >250 >178 >113 8 Kud and Mark Ang Thong >110 55% >45 >36 >136 >187 >122 7 Group Samui and >40 40% >35 NR >136 >187 >106 11 Phangan Group Samet Group >41 35% >38 >23 >134 >98 >74 11 Sichang Group >90 20% >40 >66 >304 >107 >86 11 Sattaheep & >90 33% >40 >29 >304 >134 >75 11 Samaesarn Group Lan and Phai >72 18% >40 >33 >304 >134 >75 5 Group Chao Lao >80 30% >33 >19 >123 >107 >105 4
Prachaub Khiri >74 30% >35 NR >106 >142 >162 7 Khan Group Tao Group >79 45% >30 NR >136 >187 >106 7
Koh Nhu & >80 40% >5 NR >90 >134 >90 2 Maew Koh Kra, >80 70% >5 NR >90 >134 >90 2 Nakorn Koh Losin >90 60% >5 NR >90 >134 >90 2 Koh Lao Pee NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
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There were significant effects on coral reefs from the outbreaks of Acanthaster planci in the Andaman Sea in the past. High population densities of A. planci were also reported in certain areas of the Gulf of Thailand. However coral reef degradation in Thailand caused by A. planci is limited in small areas. There are no clear signs of coral damage from predation of any gastropods. Low population densities of Duprella sp. were observed in certain coral communities. Extreme low tides and freshwater are additional natural disturbances, which cause severe damage to coral reefs in certain areas but in small scales. Storms and monsoons are the important causes of coral reef damage by uprooting and breaking coral colonies. For instance, the typhoons Gay and Linda hit Thailand in 1989 and 1997, respectively. These resulted in significant damage to terrestrial environment as well as coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand. Anthropogenic impacts The coral reefs in Thailand support a variety of human activities that can be categorised into three main groups, i.e., tourism and recreation, fisheries-related uses and other uses. There has been a clear pattern of change in reef uses, as small-scale or traditional fisheries have gradually been replaced by tourism activities. Local fishermen have converted their boats into tour boats and collected shell for souvenir trade. This evidence can be seen in several provinces, such as Trat and Surat Thani. Tourism and recreation activities include diving, underwater photography, glass-bottom vessels, sea walkers, and sport fishing. Tourism can result in several problems to coral reefs such as anchoring of boats on corals, accumulation of garbage, coral damaged by divers, wastewater from hotels and resorts. Living coral coverage on Nang-Yuan Island in Surat Thani, one of the most popular snorkeling sites, declined about 17% within the period of five years. Coral reefs close to beach resorts are usually used intensively for tourism-related activities. Chonburi, Rayong, Trat, Chumporn and Surat Thani are the major provinces for recreation on coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand. Coral reefs in several localities have received very heavy tourism activities such as Pattaya, Koh Larn, Koh Samet, Koh Tao and Koh Samui. Many localities are also experiencing a rapid and steady growth in tourism, with obvious increases in coral reef-related activities. The buoy mooring projects were implemented in several areas and showed reduction of coral reef damages by anchoring. Shell and ornamental fish collection by using chemicals are among serious problems of coral reef degradation in the Gulf of Thailand. Using of dynamite fishing was seldom observed at remote islands. Sedimentation and wastewater pollution associated with rapid coastal development are recent and increasing severe problems in many provinces along the coastline (Sudara et al., 1991). Jetty constructions in several locations, especially in the west coast of the Gulf of Thailand, resulted in coral reef and seagrass degradation. Threat levels to coral reefs in different sites are presented in Table 4.
Table 4 Threats on coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand. Threats Coral Reef Sites Fishing Development Tourism and Land-based Natural impact impact recreation activities pollution impact Sichang Group High High Medium High Medium Lan and Phai Group Medium High High High High Sattaheep Group Medium Medium Low Medium Medium Samet Group Medium High High Medium High Chao Lao, Chanthaburi Medium Medium Low Medium Medium Province Koh Chang Medium High High High High Prachaub Khiri Khan High High Low Medium High Group Chumphon Group Medium Medium Medium Medium High Tao Group Medium Medium High Low High Ang Thong Group Medium Low Medium Low High Samui and Phangan Medium Low High Low High Group Koh Nhu and Maew Medium High Low High Medium Koh Kra Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Koh Losin Medium Low Medium Low Medium
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ECONOMICS VALUATION AND USES
Uses of coral reefs Socio-economic data of certain important reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand summarized in Tables 5-6 indicate that coral reefs are used extensively in Thailand, mainly for tourist development and fisheries.
Table 5 Socio-economic data of certain important reef sites in the Gulf of Thailand.
Coral Reef No. of No. of Fishing Fishery Coral Reef Site No. of Tourist Area (Km2) Population BoatS Product (ton) Mu Koh Chumporn 6.497 532.166 378,851 2,314 61,328 Mu Koh Samui 32.492 961,804 53,279 555 18,616 Mu Koh Angthong 4.259 54,323 575 - - Mu Koh Chang 15.558 384,733 4,773 290 95,228 Source: Provincial Statistics, 2003.
Table 6 Quantity of marine fishes landed at major landing places in 2000. (Unit: Ton)
Fish Crustaceans Squids& Shell Province Total Sub- Food Trash Shrimp Lobster Crab Cuttlefishes fishes Total fish fish & Fish Prawn Trat 95,228 88,773 64,324 24,449 2,162 18 503 3,771 1 Chanthaburi 2,931 2,431 1,501 930 223 - 19 258 - Rayong 78,501 75,000 57,404 17,596 108 - 102 3,291 - Chonburi 25,657 14,440 7,800 6,640 6,630 13 492 4,082 - Prachuap 43,936 41,507 31,978 9,529 2,315 - 11 103 - Kirikhan Chumporn 61,328 56,049 39,884 16,165 3,189 0 278 1,809 3 Suratthani 18,616 4,581 525 4,056 5,829 - 661 1,417 6,128 Nakhon 170,695 144,147 83,624 60,523 6,623 1,014 1,590 17,321 - Srithammarat Songkhla 296,733 258,688 196,276 62,412 1,882 1,015 1,081 33,898 169 Pattani 280,108 268,717 198,655 70,062 1,245 343 458 9,345 - Narathiwat 3,764 3,250 1,708 1,542 356 1 44 113 - Source: Department of Fisheries, 2003.
Case studies on economic valuation A case study on economic valuation carried out in Mu Koh Chumphon Marine National Park (Royal Forestry Department, 2003) provided values of coral reefs, including direct and indirect uses, and ecosystem service (Table 7). Total values of coral reefs of the park are 18,192,974baht/year.
Other case study used both the travel cost method and contingent valuation method to estimate the benefits of tourism on Phi Phi’s coral reefs. Table 8 shows coral reef benefits based on the travel cost method. The survey found that the total benefits of the recreational services offered by Phi Phi were about 69.9 million Baht (US$1.75 million) a year for domestic visitors and 8,146.4 million Baht (US$203.66 million) a year for international visitors. Adding these two numbers up gives a figure of 8,216.4 million Baht (US$205.41 million) a year for the total recreational benefit that Phi Phi provides. Therefore, the value of Phi Phi is about 249,720 Baht (US$6,243) per ha per year (the reef area at Phi Phi is approximately 32,900ha). Loss of the site usually means loss of all future recreational opportunities, not just the current annual value. The entire future stream of annual recreational values must therefore be included. Economic theory suggests this stream of benefits, because they would occur in the future, should be discounted to make them comparable with the present. Assuming the real value of the recreational value of 8,216.4 million Baht (US$205.41 million) a year remains the same over 30 years and using a real interest rate of 5%, the present value of Phi Phi’s recreational benefits is 126,280 million Baht (US$3,157 million). It is apparent from this analysis that the local and national government in Thailand can justify larger annual budget allocations for the management of coral reefs.
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Table 7 Valuation of coral reefs in Mu Koh Chumphon Marine National Park.
Coral reef utilization Resources Price/unit Value/year (Baht) Fisheries products 72,476kg 50 Baht/kg. 3,623,800 (local community consumption) Fisheries products 2,719.3kg. 100 Baht/kg. 271,930 (commercial species) Tourism revenue (long stay) 4,815.15 people 732.39 Baht/people 3,526,567.71 Tourism revenue (one day trip) 8,059.58 people 127.72 Baht/people 1,029,369.56 Indirect value from resources 12,808.54 624.67 Baht/people 8,001,110.68 satisfaction people Coastal protection 3.6239km2 480,000 Baht/km2 1,739,472 Ecological service 3.6239km2 2 00.00 Baht/km2 724.78 Total 18,192,974.73
Table 8 Coral reef benefits based on the travel cost method. (Note: US$1 = 40 Baht Sample size CS per visit Number of visitors (1998) Total benefits Domestic 3,403.55 Baht (US$85) 20,540 69.9 million Baht (n=630) (US$1.75 million) International 59,760 Baht (US$1,494) 136,277 8,146.4 million Baht (n=128) (US$203.66 million)
Table 9 shows coral reef benefits based on the contingent valuation method. The valued derived by this method differs from the values previously present, as only the coral sites were evaluated and not the entire Phi Phi Islands as in the travel cost measures. It was found that the mean maximum willingness to pay for domestic visitors was 287 Baht (US$7.17) per visit. For international visitors the figure was 286 Baht (US$7.15) per visit. From this it was calculated that the total value of Phi Phi’s coral reefs were 5.89 million Baht (US$0.147 million) a year for domestic visitors and 49.6 million Baht (US$1.24 million) a year for international visitors. This study also used CVM to calculate the mean willingness to pay of domestic vicarious users (people who value the reef without visiting it) – 634 Baht (US$15.85) per person – and from this the total value (use and non-use) of the reefs. This was estimated to be 19,840 million Baht (US$496 million) a year. Therefore, the benefit values (use and non-use) of Phi Phi’s coral reefs were estimated to be 19,895 million Baht (US$497.38 million) a year, averaging 604,720 Baht (US$15,118) per ha per year.
The study also found that the reefs studied could generate large economic returns through leisure pursuits and that tourists were willing to pay for conservation measures. It suggests a number of levies and charges that could help remove tourist pressure from the reefs and help pay for their conservation.
Table 9 Coral reef benefits based on the contingent valuation method.
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Regarding willingness to pay the utilization of coral reef resource on tourism, a case study was implemented in Ko Chang National Park, Trat Province. The purpose of this research was to study the Willingness to Pay (WTP) factors that affect the utilization of coral resource by tourism. Derived results might present appropriate guidelines to determine admission fees for the utilization of the resource. A Survey Research method was employed in this study. The study sample comprised of 103 tourists who viewed the coral reef resource, and 109 tourists that did not, 22 businesses that supplied equipment for coral viewing as well as 24 businesses that did not, and 206 local residents. The WTP study was achieved by using travel cost method and contingent valuation method. All variable factors such as age, average monthly income, travel cost with time value, etc., were analyzed using multiple regression analysis.
The WTP for use values of coral resource utilizing for tourism under travel cost and contingent valuation methods were 219,808,391 baht/year and 1,026,027,000 baht/year respectively. The total economic value was 7,185,500,182 baht/year. Average monthly income, attitude toward coral resource and presentation WTP had significant positive effects on WTP for the use value. However, age of tourists as another significant independent variable showed an opposite outcome. The WTP for option value had significant positive relationship with age, average monthly income, travel cost with time value, knowledge and attitude. Average monthly income, frequency of visits, knowledge, attitude, and information received had positive but level of education had negative relationship with the WTP for existence value. All variable were evaluated at α = 0.05.
The guidelines for admission fees for coral resource utilization for tourism at Ko Chang National Park, as developed based on this study indicate that the government might need to set up admission fees about 52.92 baht/time for a tourist who visit coral resource, and about 3,398.28 baht/year for businesses that supply equipment for such activities.
MANAGEMENT
Overview of Coral Reef Management Coral reef management in Thailand rests on laws and regulations that apply to all coral reefs and additional measures applicable only to marine protected areas. In recent years, central agencies, provincial governments and the private sectors have undertaken non-regulatory actions aimed at improving coral reef conditions through restoration, preventive measures and education.
Several laws are used to protect coral reefs in Thailand, e.g. the Fisheries Law of 1947, the National Park Act of 1961, the Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act (NEQA) of 1975, etc. These regulations are mainly enforced by the Department of Fisheries (DOF) and Marine National Parks. There have been problems in enforcing coral reef protection regulations. For example, the language of the law and the subsequent regulations are often unclear or incomplete. Marine National Parks in Thailand include significant reef areas. Most of the parks containing reefs have been designated in the Andaman Sea, which only a few sites designated in the Gulf of Thailand. Together with the Fisheries Protected Areas, approximately 60% of Thailand’s significant coral reefs are included a protected area.
Several institutional and operational constraints have, however, limited the effectiveness of Thailand’s network of protected areas in preserving coral reef habitat. These include:
- The size of the areas designated and the boundaries have been too broad or have not corresponded to resource protection priorities; - There have been serious conflicts between park designation and traditional uses of marine resources, particularly fisheries; - Local economic and social priorities have been overlooked in the park management and development process; - Jurisdiction over marine resources is unclear and there have been apparent conflicts with fisheries regulations; and - The emphasis of marine park management has been on accommodating visitor use rather than on resource protection, marine interpretation and enforcement.
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Non-regulatory measures Public support for coral reef management increased dramatically the late 1980’s. This support has come in part form the extensive media coverage of both the beauty and degradation of Kingdom’s coral reefs. Commitment to coral reef conservation has also grown in response to direct action taken at both national and local levels to reverse trends in coral reef degradation. These actions have largely been voluntary. They depend on individuals, businesses and government agencies working together to solve problems. Such voluntary efforts are called “non-regulatory measures” Non-regulatory measures can include education and scientific activities as well as direct management actions such as mooring buoy installation. Several organisations have led the effort to increase public awareness about importance of coral reefs The human activities that are leading to their degradation and actions can be taken to conservation this valuable habitat. This campaign has reached most of Thailand’s mass media. The Tourism Authority of Thailand and volunteer associations of divers and tour boat operators have cooperated to educate pilots and escort guides in coral reef ecology and ways to avoid damaging reefs. The results of such efforts have been impressive in terms of change of behavior and increase of commitment to conservation. The Nation Park Division is beginning to include coral reefs in its park interpretive programs; and the Department of Fisheries, through its extension program, has offered conservation education to reef fishermen. Cooperation among coral reef scientists in Thailand has been extensive and is essential to the national strategy formulation process. Researchers have worked together to document reef conditions in Thailand through the ASEAN-Australian baseline study and the coral reefs project of Department of Fisheries.
Management Models and Marine National Parks There are only a few case studies of community-based management on coral communities in Thailand such as Had Chaolao in Chantaburi Province where local people manage coral communities for tourism. There are currently 7 Marine National Parks in the Gulf of Thailand (Figure 2) which play a major role on coral reef management in Thailand, harboring about 38% of the total area of coral reefs in the gulf (Table 10). Based on the report by Department of Fisheries in 1999, conditions of coral reefs in the marine parks are classified mostly as fair to excellent (Table 11). The general organisation chart of marine national parks are showed in Figure 3. There are also several fisheries sanctuaries, which are controlled by Department of Fisheries. Many islands, especially in Chonburi Province, are managed by Thai Royal Navy. Other islands, mostly in Chumporn Province, assigned for bird nest concession have been recognised as areas with the good reefs.
Coral Reef Zoning All major coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand are previously assigned to one of four management categories as follows: - General Use Zone - Intensive Tourism Zone - Ecotourism Zone - Ecosystem Reserved Zone
A total of 290 coral reef sites is classified by using the above criteria. The majority of coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand is classified as ecotourism zone (Table 12).
Table 10. Coral reefs in national parks in the Gulf of Thailand. Coral reef Coral reef area in national parks Province 2 National park area (km ) (km2) (%) Trat 15.89 4.84 30.46 Mu Koh Chang Chantaburi 0.72 - - None Rayong 3.50 2.71 77.4 Khao Laem Ya - Mu Koh Samet Chonburi 7.59 - - None Prachuap Khirikhan 2.04 0.22 10.80 Had Warakorn Khao Sam Roi Yod Chumporn 6.50 6.14 94.50 Mu Koh Chumporn Surat Thani 38.67 14.35 37.11 Mu Koh Angthong Tarnsadej Total 74.91 28.26 37.72 7 national parks Source: Marine National Park Division (excluding marine national parks at Had Khanom- Mu Koh Talay Tai and Ao Manao).
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Figure 2 Map of Marine National Parks in Thailand.
Table 11 Coral reef conditions in Marine National Parks in the Gulf of Thailand. Coral reef conditions Coral reef Marine National Park area (km2) Excellent Good Fair Poor Very poor (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Mu Koh Chang 4.84 23.50 31.21 25.67 9.75 9.87 Mu Koh Samet 2.71 12.57 36.73 29.66 2.30 18.74 Khao Sam Roi Yod 0.14 30.00 - - - 70.00 Had Warakorn 0.08 60.00 40.00 - - - Mu Koh Chumporn 6.14 41.17 22.38 29.30 3.09 4.06 Mu Koh Angthong 3.31 31.66 36.43 20.69 5.33 5.89 Tarnsaej 11.04 5.20 56.10 33.70 2.5 2.50 Source: Department of Fisheries, 1999.
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Table 12 Coral reef zoning in the Gulf of Thailand. Coral Reef Zoning (Number of island/site) Province General Use Intensive Ecotourism Ecosystem Total Zone Tourism Zone Zone Reserved Zone Chonburi 6 2 33 5 46 Rayong 2 4 12 0 18 Chantaburi 0 0 1 3 4 Trad 3 0 34 5 42 Prachuap 9 0 6 4 19 Khirikhan Chumporn 18 0 44 2 64 Surat Thani 10 4 71 2 87 Nakhon 0 0 1 0 1 Sithamamarat Songkhla 4 0 2 0 6 Pattani 2 0 0 0 2 Naratiwwat 0 0 1 0 1 Total 54 10 205 21 290
Management Capacity for Coral Reefs
There are many institutions involved in coral reef management in Thailand, including: • Office of Environment Policy and Planning • Pollution Control Department • Chulalongkorn University (Department of Marine Science and Aquatic Resources Research Institute) • Ramkhamhaeng University (Marine Biodiversity Research Group) • Kasetsart University (Faculty of Fisheries) • Burapha University (Department of Aquatic Science and Marine Science Institute) • Prince of Songkla University (Department of Biology) • Department of Fisheries • Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (Marine and Coastal Resources Research Center, Center Gulf of Thailand, Research, Marine and Coastal Resources Research Center, Eastern Gulf of Thailand and Phuket Marine Biological Center) • Marine National Park Division (21 Marine National Parks) • Royal Thai Navy • Chulabhorn Research Institute • Reef Check Thailand
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Marine National Park
Administration Protection and Resource Services and Development Academics Management
• Correspondence • Patrol and law enforcement • Park signs • Survey and monitoring
• Accounting and budget • Permission • Visitor services • Park management
• Material and equipment • Indigenous people • Statistics • National conservation project management • Vehicles and building • Training • Research • Survey and construction • Planning • Volunteer • Public hearing, complaint • Assessment
Figure 3 General organisation chart of marine national park in Thailand.
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REFERENCES
Chankong, A. 2000. Assessment of coral reefs in the western part of the Gulf of Thailand in 1998. Abstract of the 9th International Coral Reef Symposium. Bali, Indonesia.
Chou, L. M., S. Sudara, V. Manthachitra, R. Moordee, A. Snidvongs and T. Yeemin. 1991. Temporal variation in a coral reef community at Pattaya Bay, Gulf of Thailand. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 19: 295-307.
Department of Fisheries. 2000. Fisheries Statistics of Thailand. Information Center. Department of Fisheries. 91pp.
EMECS. 2003. Environmental Guidebook on the Enclosed Coastal Seas of the World. International EMECS Center, Kobe, Japan. 133pp.
Jiravat, V. 1985. Taxonomic study of stony corals collected from the Gulf of Thailand. M.Sc. Thesis, Chulalongkorn University (in Thai).
Lewmanomon, K. 1986. Marine algae of coral reef areas. Paper presented at 3rd National Conference on Marine Science: Marine Biology and Fisheries. 6-8 August 1986. National Research Council of Thailand. 10pp.
Sakai, K., A. Snidvongs, T. Yeemin, M. Nishihira and K. Yamazato. 1986. Distribution and community structure of hermatypic corals in the Sichang Islands, inner part of the Gulf of Thailand. Galaxea 5: 27-74.
Satapoomin, U. 2000. A preliminary checklist of coral reef fishes of the Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea. Raffles Bull. Zool. 48: (1) 31-53.
Sudara, S., A. Sanitwongs, T. Yeemin, R. Moordee, S. Panutrakune, P. Suthanaluk and S. Nateekanjanaparp. 1991. Study of the impact of sediment on growth of the coral Porites lutea in the Gulf of Thailand. Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Living Resources in Coastal Areas, Manila, 107-112.
Sudara, S., T. Yeemin, S. Satumanatpun, S. Nateekanjanalarp and C. Sookchanulak. 1992. Qualitative assessment of impacts from siltation on the coral communities around Koh Sak, Rayong Province. Proceedings of the 3rd ASEAN Science and Technology Week Vol.6. Marine Science: Living Coastal Resources, edited by L. M. Chou, and C. R. Wilkinson, pp. 95-111. Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore and National Science and Technology Board of Singapore, Singapore.
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ANNEX 1 List of Coral Reef Species Recorded in the Gulf of Thailand
Table 1 Common hard corals found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family Scientific name Common name Astrocoeniidae Stylocoeniella armata Thom coral Pocilloporidae Pocillopora damocornis Cauliflower coral Pocillopora verucosa Cauliflower coral Acroporidae Acropora humilis Staghorn coral Acropora cf. digitifera Staghorn coral Acropora formosa Staghorn coral Acropora muricata Staghorn coral Acropora nobilis Staghorn coral Acropora micropthalma Staghorn coral Acropora millepora Staghorn coral Acropora pulchra Staghorn coral Acropora hyacinthus Staghorn coral Acropora nasuta Staghorn coral Acropora cytherea Staghorn coral Acropora florida Staghorn coral Acropora valida Staghorn coral Astreopora gracilis Starflower coral Astreopora myriopthalma Starflower coral Astreopora ocellata Starflower coral Montipora aequituberculata Pore coral Montipora grisea Pore coral Montipora foliosa Pore coral Montipora efflorescens Pore coral Montipora hispida Pore coral Montipora cebuensis Pore coral Montipora danae Pore coral Montipora digitata Pore coral Montipora informis Pore coral Montipora millepora Pore coral Montipora monasteriata Pore coral Montipora peltiformis Pore coral Montipora tuberculosa Pore coral Acroporidae Montipora hoffmeisteri Pore coral Montipora spongodes Pore coral Fungiidae Diaseris sp. Fungia fungites Mushroom coral Fungia echinata Mushroom coral Fungia surpulosa Mushroom coral Fungia scaraba Mushroom coral Fungia granulose Mushroom coral Fungia concinna Mushroom coral Fungia repanda Mushroom coral Fungia poumotensis Mushroom coral Fungia corona Mushroom coral Herpetoglossa simplex Coarse boomerang coral Herpolitha limax Striate boomerang coral Polyphyllia talpina Joker’s boomerang coral
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Table 1cont. Common hard corals found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family Scientific name Common name Sandalolitha robusta Podabacia cf. crustacean Bracket coral Lithophyllon edwardsi Stone-leaf coral Poritidae Porites australiaensis Porites labata Porites lutea Mountain coral Porites cylindrical Finger coral Porites lichen Hump coral Porites rus Wrinkle coral Porites solida Hump coral Goniopora djiboutiensis Anemone coral Goniopora columna Anemone coral Goniopora fructicosa Anemone coral Goniopora lobata Anemone coral Goniopora somaliensis Anemone coral Goniopora tenuidens Anemone coral Agariciidae Oulastrea crispapa Intermediate valley coral Oulastrea heliopora Intermediate valley coral Leptoseris scabra Porcelain coral Agariciidae Coeloseris mayeri Pachyseris speciosa Serpent coral Pavona cactus Flower coral Pavona decussate Flower coral Pavona frondifera Flower coral Pavona varians Flower coral Siderstreidae Pseudosiderastrea tayamai Psammocora contiqua Petal-like coral Psammocora nierstraszi Petal-like coral Psammocora profundacella Petal-like coral Psammocora digitata Petal-like coral Oculinidae Galaxea astreata Galaxy coral Galaxea fascicularis Octopus coral Faviidae Barabattoia amicorum Knob coral Favia pallida Ring coral Favia favus Ring coral Favia speciosa Ring coral Favia matthaii Ring coral Favia maxima Ring coral Favia rotumana Ring coral Favites abdita Larger star coral Favites chinensis Larger star coral Favites complanata Larger star coral Favites flexuosal Larger star coral Favites halicora Larger star coral Favites pentagona Larger star coral Favites russelli Larger star coral Goniastrea aspera Honey comb coral Goniastrea australiaensis Honey comb coral Goniastrea edwardsi Honey comb coral Goniastrea favulus Honey comb coral
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Table 1cont. Common hard corals found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family Scientific name Common name Goniastrea palauensis Honey comb coral Goniastrea retiformis Honey comb coral Goniastrea pectinata Honey comb coral Faviidae Platygyra daedalea Brain coral Platygyra lamellina Brain coral Platygyra sinensis Brain coral Leptoria phrygia Brain coral Montastrea curta Montastrea magnistellata Montastrea valenciennesi Leptastrea purpurca Crust coral Leptastrea tranversa Crust coral Cyphastrea serailia Small star coral Cyphastrea chalcidicum Small star coral Cyphastrea microphthalma Small star coral Echinopora lamellosa Spiny pored coral Diploastrea heliopora Double star coral Merulinidae Hydnophora exesa Jack-fruit spined coral Hydnophora microconos Jack-fruit spined coral Merulina ampliata Spiny cabbage coral Mussidae Acanthastrea hillae Starry cup coral Lobophyllia hemprichii Lobed cup coral Lobophyllia hattai Lobed cup coral Symphyllia recta Brain coral Symphyllia radians Brain coral Pectinidae Pectinia lactuca Lettuce coral Pectinia paeonia Lettuce coral Echinophyllia aspera Spiny encrusting coral Oxypora lacera Spiny plate coral Dendrophylliidae Turbinaria peltata Disc coral Turbinaria frondens Disc coral Dendrophyllia micranthus Tree coral Caryophylliidae Plerogyra sinuosa Rounded bubblegum coral Total 130
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Table 2 Common reef fish found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family Scientific name Common name Rhincodontidae Rhincodon typus Whale shark Dastidae Taenidae lymna Blue spotted ribbon tail ray Atherinidae Atherinomonus sp. Silverside Kyphosidae Kyphosus cinerascens Highfin rudderfish Apogonidae Archamia fucata Orange-line cardinalfish Archamia goni cardinalfish Apogon cyanosoma Yellow-striped cardinalfish Apogon taeniophorus Bandfin cardinalfish Cheilodipterus artus Lined cardinalfish Cheilodipterus macrodon Large-toothed cardinalfish Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus Five-lined cardinalfish Caesionidae Caesio caerulaurea Scissor-tailed fusilier Caesio cunning Deep-bodied fusilier Pterocaesio chrysozoma Goldband fusilier Chaetodontidae Chaetodon octofasciatus Eight-banded butterflyfish Chaetodon weibeli Weibeli’s butterflyfish Chelmon rostratus Beaked butterflyfish Hemiochus acuminatus Longfin bannerfish Diodontidae Diodon histrix Porcupinefish Diodon liturosus Blach-blotch porcupinefish Ephippidae Platax teira Longfin spadefish Gobiosocidae Diademichthys lineatus Urchin clingfish Gobiidae Amblygobius nocturnes Nocturn goby Cryptocentrus cinctus Yellow prawn-goby Cryptocentrus fasciatus Barred prawn-goby Cryptocentrus leptocephalus Leptocephalus prawn-goby Cryptocentrus strigilliceps Target prawn-goby Cryptocentrus sp.1 Goby Cryptocentrus sp.2 Goby Ctenogobiops pomastictus Gold-specked prawn-goby Istigobius ornatus Ornate goby Mahidolia mystacina Flagfin prawn-goby Gobiidae Valenciennea mularis Mural goby Grammistidae Diploprion bifasciatum Two-banded soapfish Haemulidae Diagramma pictum Slatey sweetlips Plectorhinchus albovittatus Giant sweetlips Plectorhinchus gibbosus Gibbus sweetlips Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides Harlequin sweetlips Plectorhynchus picus Spotted sweetlips Holocentridae Myripristis hexagona Doubletooth soldierfish Sargocentrum rubrum Redcoat Kyhposidae Kyphosus vaigiensis Lowfin rudderfish Labridae Cheilinus chlorourus Floral wrasse Cheilinus fasciatus Red-banded wrasse Cheilinus trilobatus Tripletail wrasse Choerodon schoenleinii Blackspot wrasse Diproctacanthus xanthurus Wandering cleaner wrasse Epibulus insidiator Slingjaw wrasse Halichoeres argus Argus wrasse Halichoeres chloropterus Postel-green wrasse
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Table 2cont. Common reef fish found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family Scientific name Common name Halichoeres hortulanus Checkerboard wrasse Halichoeres margaritarceus Weedy surge wrasse Halichoeres marginatus Dusky wrasse Halichoeres melanulus Pin striped wrasse Halichoeres nebulosus Nebulosus wrasse Halichoeres nigrescen Diamond wrasse Halichoeres purpurescen Purple striped wrasse Hemigymnus fasciatus Barred thicklip Hemigymnus melapterus Blackedge thicklip Labroides dimidiatus Cleaner wrasse Novaculichthys taeniourus Dragon wrasse Oxycheilinus digrammus Bandcheek wrasse Stethojulis interrupta Cutribbon wrasse Stethojulis trilineata Three-blue line wrasse Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus River snapper Lutjanus decussatus Checkered snapper Lutjanus fulviflamma Flame tail snapper Lutjanidae Lutjanus lemniscatus Snapper Lutjanus monostigma Onespot snapper Lutjanus russelli Russel’s snapper Lutjanus vitta One-lined snapper Microdesmidae Pteriotris microlepsis Mullidae Parupeneus indicus Indian goatfish Upeneus tragula Blackstriped goatfish Muraenidae Gymnothorax sp. Moray Siderea thyrsoidea Moray Nemipteridae Scolopsis bilineatus Twoline spinecheek Scolopsis ciliatus Saw-jawed spinecheek Scolopsis magaritifer Pearly spinecheek Scolopsis monogramma Monogrammed monocle bream Ostraciidae Ostracion cubicus Yellow boxfish Pempheridae Pempheris oualensis Copper sweeper Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus annularis Bluering anglefish Pomacentridae Abudefduf bengalesis Bengal sergeant Abudefduf notatus Yellow-tail sergeant Abudefduf sexfasciatus Scissor-tail sergeant Abudefduf sordidus Black-spot sergeant Abudefduf vaigiensis Indo-pacific sergeant Amblyglyphidodon curacao Staghorn damsel Amphiprion peridarion Pink anemone fish Cheiloprion labiatus Big-lip damsel Chromis atripectoralis Black-axil chromis Chromis cinerascens Green chromis Chrysiptera unimaculata One spotted chromis Dacyllus reticulatus Reticulated dascyllus Dacylluss trimaculatus Three-spotted dascyllus Neoglyphidodon melas Black damsel Neopomacentrus cyanomos Regal damoiselle Neopomacentrus filamentosus Brown damoiselle
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND 89
Table 2cont. Common reef fish found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Family Scientific name Common name Plectoglyphidodon lacrymatus Jewel damsel Pomacentrus alexanderae Alexander’s damsel Pomacentridae Pomacentrus chrysurus Whitetail damsel Pomacentrus coelestis Neon damsel Pomacentrus cuneatus Wedge spotted damsel Pomacentrua moluccensis Lemon damsel Scaridae Scarus frenatus Bridled parrotfish Scarus ghobban Bluebarred parrotfish Scarus niger Swarthy parrotfish Scarus prasiognathos Greenthroat parrotfish Scarus rivulatus Surf parrotfish Serranidae Anyperodon leucogrammicus Slender grouper Cephalopholis argus Peacock grouper Cephalopholis boenak Chocolate hind Cephalopholis cyanostigma Bluespotted hind Cephalopholis formosa Bluelined hind Cephalopholis sp. Grouper Epinephelus rivulatus Halfmoon grouper Epinephelus fasciatus Blacktip grouper Epinephelus quoyanus Longfin grouper Plectopomus maculatus Spotted coral grouper Siganidae Siganus corallinus Coral rabbitfish Siganus guttatus Yellow spotted rabbitfish Siganus javus Java rabbitfish Siganus punctatus Goldspotted rabbitfish Siganus vermiculatus Vermiculate rabbitfish Siganus virgatus Virgate rabbitfish Sphyraenidae Sphyraena baracuda Great barracuda Sphyraena genie Blackfin barracuda Sphyraena obtusata Barracuda Total 113
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 90 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – THAILAND
Table 3 Echinoderms found in the Gulf of Thailand.
CRINOIDEA Order SPINULOSIDA Order COMATULIDA Echinasteridae Mariametridae 41. Echinaster luzonica (Gray, 1840) 1. Dichrometra bimaculata (Carpenter,1881) OPHIUROIDEA 2. Dichrometra tenuicirra A.H. Clark, 1912 Order PHRYNOPHIURIDA 3. Lamprometra palmata (Müller, 1841) Ophiomyxidae 4. Liparometra articulata (Müller, 1849) 42. Ophiomyxa irregularis Koehler, 1898 5. Stephanometra oxycantha (Hartluab, 1890) Euryalidae 6. Stephanometra spicata (Carpenter, 1881) 43. Euryale aspera Lamarck, 1816 ASTEROIDEA Asteronychidae Order PAXILLOSIDA 44. Asteronyx loveni Müller & Troschel, 1842 Luidiidae Order OPHIURIDA 7. Luidia maculata Müller & Troschel, 1842 Amphiuridae 8. Luidia penangensis de Loriol, 1891 45. Amphilycus scripta (Koehler, 1904) Astropectinidae 46. Amphioplus relictus (Koehler, 1905) 9. Astropecten granulatus Müller & Troschel, 1842 47. Amphioplus (Amphichilus) cesareus (Koehler, 1905) 10. Astropecten fasciatus Döderlein, 1926 48. Amphioplus (Lymanella) depressa (Ljungman, 1867)12 11. Astropecten indicus Döderlein, 1888 49. Amphipholis misera (Koehler, 1899) 12. Astropecten hartmeyeri Döderlein, 19174 50. Amphipholis squamata (Delle Chiaje, 1829) 13. Astropecten monacanthus Sladen, 1883 51. Amphiura (Amphiura) abbreviata Koehler, 1905 14. Astropecten polyacanthus Müller & Troschel, 1842 52. Amphiura (Amphiura) sexradiata Koehler, 1930 15. Astropecten vappa Müller & Troschel, 18434 53. Amphiura (Felleria) heptacantha (Mortensen, 1940) 16. Astropecten velitaris von Martens, 1865 54. Dougaloplus acanthinus (H.L. Clark, 1911) 17. Astropecten zebra Sladen, 1883 Ophiactidae 18. Craspidaster hesperus Müller & Troschel, 1840 55. Ophiactis affinis Duncan, 1879 19. Psilaster andromeda Sladen1885 56. Ophiactis helmitiles H.L. Clark, 1915 Order VALVATIDA 57. Ophiactis modesta Brock, 1888 Goniasteridae 58. Ophiactis savignyi (Müller & Troschel, 1842) 20. Stellaster equestris (Retzius, 1805)5 59. Ophiosphaera insignis Brock, 1888 21. Stellaster incei Gray, 18475 Ophiotrichidae 22. Stellaster princeps Sladen, 1889 60. Macrophiothrix aspidota (Müller & Troschel, 1842) Oreasteridae 61. Macrophiothrix bedoti (de Loriol, 1893) 23. Anthenea chinensis Gray, 18406 62. Macrophiothrix galateae (Lütken, 1872) 24. Anthenea pentagonula (Lamarck, 1816)6 63. Macrophiothrix hirsuta (Müller & Troschel, 1842) 25. Anthenea regalis Koehler, 1910 64. Macrophiothrix longipeda (Lamarck, 1816) 26. Culcita novaeguineae Müller & Troschel, 1842 65. Macrophiothrix martensi (Lyman, 1874)15 27. Goniodiscaster forficulatus (Perrier, 1875)7 66. Macrophiothrix nereidina (Lamarck, 1816)15 28. Goniodiscaster scaber (Möbius, 1859)7 67. Macrophiothrix striolata (Grube, 1868)14 29. Pentaceraster alveolatus (Perrier, 1875) 68. Macrophiothrix variabilis (Duncan, 1887) 30. Pentaceraster australis (Lütken, 1871)8 69. Ophiocnemis marmorata (Lamarck, 1816) 31. Pentaceraster gracilis (Lütken, 1871) 70. Ophiogymna elegans Ljungman, 1866 32. Pentaceraster regulus (Müller & Troschel, 1842) 71. Ophiogymna pellicula (Duncan, 1876) 33. Pentaceraster sibogae Döderlein, 1916 72. Ophiopsammium semperi Lyman, 1874 34. Pentaceraster westermanni (Lütken, 1871) 73. Ophiopsammium rugosum Koehler, 1905 35. Poraster indicus (Koehler, 1910)10 74. Ophiopteron elegans Ludwig, 1888 36. Protoreaster nodosus (Linnaeus, 1758) 75. Ophiopteron vitense Koehler, 1927 Asterinidae 76. Ophiopteron punctocoeruleum Koehler, 1922 37. Asterina sarasini (de Loriol, 1897) 77. Ophiothela danae Verrill, 1869 Asteropseidae 78. Ophiothrix (Acanthophiothrix) armata Koehler, 1905 38. Asteropsis caranifera (Lamarck, 1816) 79. Ophiothrix (Acanthophiothrix) spinosissima Koehler, 1905 Acanthasteridae 80. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) abstinens Koehler, 1930 39. Acanthaster planci (Linnaeus, 1758) 81. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) exigua Lyman, 1874 Order VELATIDA 82. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) plana Lyman, 1874 Pterasteridae 83. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) prostrata Koehler, 1922 40. Euretaster cribosus (von Martens, 1867) 84. Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) stelligera Lyman, 1874
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Table 3cont. Echinoderms found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Ophiocomidae Laganidae 85. Ophiocoma lineolata Müller & Troschel, 1842 125. Laganum decagonale (de Blainville, 1827) 86. Ophiocomella sexradia (Duncan, 1887)19 126. Laganum depressum Lesson, 1841 87. Ophiomastix sexradiata A.H. Clark, 195219 127. Peronella orbicularis (leske, 1778) 90. Ophiarachnella gorgonia (Müller & Troschel, 1842) Astriclypeidae 91. Ophiarachnella infernalis (Müller & Troschel, 1842) 128. Echinodiscus auritus Leske, 1778 92. Ophiochasma stellatum (Ljungman, 1867) 129. Echinodiscus bisperforatus Leske, 1778 Ophiuridae Order SPATANGOIDA 93. Ophiolepis cincta Müller & Troschel, 1842 Spatangidae 94. Ophioplocus japonicus H.L. Clark, 1911 130. Maretia planulata (Lamarck, 1816)22 95. Ophiura kinbergi (Lyman, 1867) 131. Maretia ovata (Leske, 1778)22 96. Stegophiura sterilis Koehler, 1922 Loveniidae ECHINOIDEA 132. Lovenia elongata (Gray, 1845) Order CIDAROIDA 133. Lovenia subcarinata (Gray, 1845) Cidaridae Schizasteridae 97. Prionocidaris bispinosa (Lamarck, 1816) 134. Schizaster (Schizaster) lacunosus (Linnaeus, 1758) Order DIADEMATOIDA Brissidae Diadematidae 135. Anametalia sternaroides (Bolao, 1874) 98. Astropyga radiata (Leske,1778) 136. Brissopsis luzonica (Gray, 1851) 99. Chaetodiadema granulatum Mortensen, 1903 137. Brissus (Brissus) latecarinatus (Leske, 1778) 100. Diadema saxatile (Linnaeus, 1758)21 138. Metalia sternalis (Lamarck, 1816) 101. Diadema setosum (Leske, 1778)21 139. Rhynobrisus pyramidalis A. Agassiz, 1872 102. Echinothrix calamaris (Pallas, 1774) HOLOTHUROIDEA Order TEMNOPLEUROIDA Order ASPIDOCHIROTIDA Temnopleuridae Holothuriidae 103. Paratrema doederleini (Mortensen, 1904) 140. Actinopyga echinites (Jaeger, 1833) 104. Salmaciella dussumieri (L. Agassiz, 1846) 141. Actinopyga sp. 2 105. Salmacis bicolor L. Agassiz, 1846 142. Bohadschia marmorata (Jaeger, 1833)23 106. Salmacis sphaeroides (Linnaeus, 1758) 143. Bohadschia vitiensis (Semper, 1868)23 107. Salmacis virgulata L. Agassiz, 1846 144. Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) coluber (Semper, 1868) 108. Temnopleurus alexandri (Bell, 1884) 145. Holothuria (Cystipus) rigida Selenka, 1867 109. Temnopleurus reevesi (Gray, 1855) 146. Holothuria (Halodeima) atra Jaeger, 1833 110. Temnopleurus toreumaticus (Leske, 1778) 147. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis Lesson, 1830 111. Temnotrema siamensis (Mortensen, 1904) 148. Holothuria (Lessonothuria) pardalis Selenka, 1867 Order ECHINOIDA 149. Holothuria (Lessonothuria) verrucosa Selenka, 1867 Toxopneustidae 150. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota (Brandt, 1835) 112. Gymnechinus pulchellus Mortensen, 1904 151. Holothuria (Metriatyla) albiventer Semper, 1868 113. Pseudoboletia maculata Troschel, 1869 152. Holothuria (Metriatyla) martensi Semper, 1868 114. Toxopneustes pileolus (Lamarck, 1816) 153. Holothuria (Metriatyla) ocellata Jaeger, 1833 115. Tripneustes sp. 154. Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra Jaeger, 1833 Echinometridae 155. Holothuria (Platyperona) difficilis Semper, 1868 116. Heliocidaris sp. 156. Holothuria (Semperothuria) flavomaculata Semper, 1868 117. Heterocentrotus mammillatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 33. Holothuria (Stauropora) fuscocinerea Jaeger, 183325 Parasaleneiidae 157. Holothuria (Theelothuria) notabilis Ludwig, 1875 118. Parasalenia gratiosa A. Agassiz, 1863 158. Holothuria (Theelothuria) spinifera Théel, 1886 Strongylocentrotidae 159. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens Forskål, 1775 119. Strongylocentrotus echinoides A. Agassiz, 1863 160. Pearsonothuria graeffei (Semper, 1868) Order CLYPEASTERIDAE Stichopodidae Clypeasteridae 161. Stichopus chloronotus Brandt, 1835 120. Clypeaster (Coronanthus) latissimus (Lamarck, 1816) 162. Stichopus hermanni Semper, 1868 121. Clypeaster (Rhaphidoclypus) recticulatus (Linnaeus, 163. Stichopus horrens Selenka, 1867 Arachnoididae18) 164. Stichopus japonicus Semper, 1868 122. Arachnoides placentra (Linnaeus, 1758) 165. Stichopus naso Semper, 1868 Fibulariidae 166. Stichopus variegatus Semper, 186827 123. Fibularia acuta Yoshiwara, 1898 Order DENDROCHIROTIDA 124. Fibularia angulipora Mortensen, 1948 Cucumariidae
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Table 3cont. Echinoderms found in the Gulf of Thailand.
167. Cercodemas anceps (Selenka, 1867)28 182. Stolus buccalis (Stimpson, 1855) 168. Colochirus quadrangularis Troschel, 184329 183. Stolus conjugens (Semper, 1868) 169. Cucumaria frondosa (Gunner, 1767)30 184. Thyone okeni Bell, 1884 170. Mensamaria bicolumnata (Dendy & Hindle, 1907) Caudinidae 171. Mensamaria intercedens (Lampert, 1885) 185. Acaudina leucoprocta (H.L. Clark, 1938) 172. Plesiocolochirus australis (Ludwig, 1875) 186. Acaudina sp.1 173. Pseudocolochirus sp. 187. Acaudina sp.2 Sclerodactylidae 188. Paracaudina chilensis ransonnettii (Müller, 1850) 174. Cladolabes schmeltzii (Ludwig, 1875) Molpadiidae Phyllophoridae 189. Molpadia roretzi (von Marrenzeller,1877) 175. Havelockia versicolor (Semper, 1868) Synaptidae 176. Phyllophorus (Phyllophorella) kohkutiensis Heding & Panning, 1954 190. Opheodesoma australensis Heding, 1931 177. Phyllophorus (Phyllophorella) robusta Heding & Panning, 1954 191. Opheodesoma grisea (Semper, 1868) 178. Phyllophorus (Phyllothuria) cebuensis Heding & Panning, 1954 192. Opheodesoma lineata Heding, 1928 179. Phyllophorus sp. 193. Synaptula recta (Semper, 1868) 180. Selenkiella malayense Heding & Panning, 1954 194. Synaptula aff. virgata (Sluiter, 1901) 181. Selenkiella siamense Heding & Panning, 1954 Total: 194 species
Table 4 Endangered and threatened species found in the Gulf of Thailand.
Common name Scientific name Status Sittang whale Balaenoptera edeni CR Irawaddy dolphin Orcaella brevirostris CR Humpbacked dolphin Sousa chinensis CR Bottlenose dolphin Tursiops aduncus CR Common dolphin Delphinus capensis CR Rough-toothed dolphin Steno bredanensis CR Spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata CR Malonheaded whale Peponcephalus electra CR Shortfined pilot whale Globicephala macrorhynchus CR Killer whale Orcinus orca CR False killer whale Pseuorca crassidens CR Finless porpoise Neophocoena phocoenoides CR Dugong Dugong dugong EN Whale shark Rhincodon typus EN Hawkbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata EN Green sea turtle Chelonia mydas EN Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta EN Giant clam Tridacna spp. EN Total 18 Note: CR = Critically endangered, EN = Endangered, VU = Vulnerable
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
VIETNAM
Mr. Nguyen Van Long Focal Point for Coral Reefs Department of Marine Living Resources Institute of Oceanography 01 Cau Da Street Nha Trang City, Viet Nam
NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM 93
VIET NAM
Vo Si Tuan1, Nguyen Huy Yet2, Nguyen Van Long1 1Institute of Oceanography, 2Viet Nam Natural Museum
INTRODUCTION
Viet Nam has a large marine area with more than 3200km of coastline and more than 3000 islands. Marine resources are significant in terms of livelihoods of coastal communities and development of the country. Located in the tropical monsoon area of South East Asia, marine waters of Viet Nam are characterised by high biodiversity of fauna and flora and high abundance of tropical ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds. Among them, coral reefs are an important habitat in a large number of coastal areas, as well as offshore islands.
Many surveys of coral reefs in the South China Sea have been carried out since the establishment of the Institute of Oceanography of Viet Nam in 1922. Surveys were carried out from aboard De Lanessan’s ship at Spratly and Paracel Islands from 1920-30. Results of these studies were published in scientific papers of Chevey (1926, 1928, 1931, 1935) and Krempf (1930). Subsequent surveys recorded the species composition of hard corals, and the structure and distribution of several coral reefs in Ha Long Bay, the Gulf of Thailand, Con Dao Island, the and coastal areas of central Viet Nam (Serene, 1937; Dawydoff, 1952). Most scientific studies during the first half of the 20th century were conducted by foreign scientists and published in French.
From 1955 to 1975, few studies on coral reefs were conducted. Significantly, there were two studies at Nha Trang Bay: the first described the coral reef communities of the Bay (see Tran Ngoc Loi 1962); and the second resulted in the production of a document on the taxonomy of soft corals in the area (see Tixier-Durivault 1970).
Many government-funded research programmes were conducted in collaboration with the Soviet Union during the period 1975 to 1990. Basic studies on coral reef distribution, structure, and species composition were undertaken as part of these collaborative research initiatives. Documentation of this work published in the scientific literature provide basic information regarding coral distribution, coral reef communities, reef-building coral species composition, and the status of coral reefs in Viet Nam’s coastal areas and at the Spratly Islands (see Latypov 1982, 1987, 1990, 1992, 1995; Nguyen Huy Yet 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996; and Vo Si Tuan and Nguyen Huy Yet, 1995, Vo Si Tuan & Phan Kim Hoang, 1996, Vo Si Tuan, 1998).
From 1991 to date, coral reef studies have focused on the collection of data and information to enable sound decision making with regard to isues such as biodiversity conservation, determination of sustainable resource use levels, and the establishment of marine protected areas. Results of surveys conducted by the Worldwide Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the Institute of Oceanography during the 1990s provided a basis for the identification of seven highly biodiverse coral reef sites for inclusion in a system of marine protected areas in Viet Nam. Other studies funded by the Government of Viet Nam’s and conducted by the National Center for Natural Science and Technology developed baseline information for an additional 8 MPA sites. At the time of writing, Government was considering a system of 15 coral reef MPAs. Coral reef management in Viet Nam has achieved some preliminary successes, particularly at the Con Dao and Nui Chua National Parks, and the Hon Mun Protected Area
The abovementioned research has also assisted in improving understanding of geozoology and in biodiversity zoning based on reef-building corals (Malioutin & Latypov 1991; Vo Si Tuan 1998). Results of studies on coral reef degradation and threats have been summarised in some publications (Vo Si Tuan, 2000a, b; Nguyen Huy Yet et al., 2000). Coral reef monitoring has been implemented since 1998, and at the time of writing 11 sites were involved in the monitoring network with financial support from the Government of Viet Nam, UNEP, WWF, and Total Foundation (Vo Si Tuan, 2002a, Vo Si Tuan et al. 2005). There has been much recent interest in coral reef rehabilitation, and related activities have received some support from the government.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 94 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
The “Doi Moi” process has encouraged a high rate of economic growth in Viet Nam, but has also caused threats to the marine environment and resources. Recent decades have seen increased degradation of coral reef ecosystems and over-exploitation of associated resources. As such there has been a strong recent emphasis on biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of resources in Viet Nam over the past decade.
PHYSICAL FEATURES Temperature Spanning through 8 degrees of latitude from approximately 8 N-16 N, water temperature generally increases from the north to the south. Oceanographic surveys indicate that there are three different water masses in the coastal waters of Viet Nam, including the Tonkin Gulf, the South central and South eastern areas, and the Gulf of Thailand, with two boundaries, namely Ca Mau Cape and Varella Point (approximately 13oN). There is a sharp reduction in water temperature during winter in the waters of north Varelle Point. In general, the temperature of Vietnamese coastal waters is favorable for coral reef development, except in areas of the Tonkin Gulf where winter temperatures reach 18oC. The wide range of temperatures between water masses has resulted in significant differences in the species richness of hard corals from the north to the south. River influence and sedimentation Along the coastline of Viet Nam, there are two large river mouths: (1) the Red River mouth; and (b) the Mekong river mouth. The coastal areas in the general vicinitity of these river mouths are devoid of coral reefs due to high quantities of sediments entering the coastal water bodies. Smaller rivers also influence nearshore waters, especially during the rainy season. Turbidity surveys indicate that the South central area has the highest transparency in both seasons (La Van Bai, 1991). The influence of rivers and associated sediment loads is the main factor limiting the distribution in Viet Nam. Circulation The surface water circulation of the South China Sea depends on the monsoon regime, and generally flows southwest in summer and northeast in winter. In the offshore areas of Viet Nam, currents change direction according to the wind regime. At the basin scale, water circulation in the central South China Sea supports the exchange of water between the western and eastern boundaries. Coastal water currents are very complicated, and largely depend on the coastline, seabed topography, and river influence. There is permanent North-South current in central Viet Nam, which starts at approximately 17o North. Current systems in Tonkin Gulf are complex with minimal exchange with southern water masses is limited (Vo Van Lanh, unpublished information).
Coastline change in geological history Following existing approach, recent coral communities depend on geological process happening during recent 18,000 years with change of sea level. Geological surveys highlighted an old coastline at depths of approximately 100m in Vietnamese waters of the South China Sea (Saurin, 1962). With this depth, a large area of the west South China Sea was mainland in that period, including Tonkin Gulf, southeastern shelf and Gulf of Thailand. Development of coral reefs has changed a lot during increase and decrease of sea levels with change of coastline and depth. In parallel, diversity of coral communities at present time also depends on survival and dispersal again sea level change during history.
Seabed topography Viet Nam’s coastal waters are characterised by an abundance of small islands. There are approximately 2,000 islands in the Tonkin Gulf, which provide favourable conditions for coral reef development. Central and southern waters have a number of large, offshore islands, which are almost all surrounded by coral reefs. There are also many submerged banks along the continental shelf of Viet Nam’s central and southern regions where coral reef could develop.
CORAL REEF DISTRIBUTION AND MORPHOLOGY Distribution and characteristics of coral reefs The geographic location and environmental conditions of Vietnamese coastal waters are generally highly suitable for the growth of coral reef building species, except in some areas affected strongly by river inputs with low salinity and high turbidity. Coral reefs are normally located in shallow, coastal waters, particularly adjacent to islands with hard substrates (Figure 1). However, the morphology and diversity of coral reefs in Viet Nam vary significantly by location.
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM 95
Figure 1 Locations of Known Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of Viet Nam. (including monitoring sites and Marine Protected Areas)
In terms of the environmental conditions suitable for the growth of reef-building coral species, the coastal areas of western Tonkin Gulf are less favorable for reef development. This is largely due to low water temperatures during the winter months, and large contributions of freshwater and sediments to this part of the Gulf from adjacent river systems. Corals are mainly observed in areas of Ha Long Bay, Bai Tu Long, the Co To Archipelago, and Long Chau Islands, which are mostly surrounded by shallow and muddy bottoms. The coral reefs that have developed in the western Tonkin Gulf are typically narrow and extend to a depth of only 5-7m. Coral reefs have developed at depths of 10 m in areas adjacent to Bach Long Vi Island.
Conditions for coral reef development are favourable in the coastal waters of the south-central region, as well as adjacent to the islands offshore southeastern region. Water temperatures in these areas are normally higher than 200C, with predomoninantly offshore influences. The coastline in these areas is comprised of a diverse range of small bays and islands, which contributes significantly to the diversity of coral reef areas in these regions. Coral reefs are a dominant coastal habitat around
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 96 NATIONAL REPORT ON CORAL REEF IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA – VIET NAM
islands such as Cu Lao Cham to Con Dao, and extend along the coastline from Danang to Binh Thuan Province. Fringing coral reefs are very diverse in their morphology and range in width from 50 to 800 metres. Many reefs have developed on submersed banks, which are common on the continental shelf.
Coastal waters of southwestern Viet Nam in the Gulf of Thailand are not ideal for coral growth because of muddy bottoms and highly turbid waters. Coral reefs have developed in areas adjacent to the offshore islands of Phu Quoc, Nam Du, and Tho Chu. The reefs of these islands are relatively similar in terms of morphology as there are minimal fluctuations in the hydrological regime and hydro- dynamics of the area. These reefs are normall 50-100m wide and spread to a depth of 10-13m.
Coral reef morphologic types Two types of coral reefs are located in the continental shelf waters of Viet Nam, namely fringing and platform reefs. Coral assemblages are also observed in some areas. Offshore coral reefs are usually atoll and platform reefs.
Fringing reefs Coastal fringing reefs have developed in coastal water areas from Quang Tri Province to Ca Na Bay (Binh Thuan Province). This reef type is not observed along the coast of Tonkin Gulf or in southeastern and southwestern waters, mainly due to large freshwater and sediment contributions to these areas as noted above. Island fringing reefs are the most common coral reef type in Viet Nam. Islands on the continental shelf such as Ha Long, Cat Ba, Cu Lao Cham, Ly Son, Phu Quy, Con Dao, Phu Quoc, Tho Chu, Nam Du, and small islands in Khanh Hoa Province are known as highly diverse coral reef areas.
In terms of morphology, fringing reef generally belongs to two different types: typical fringing reefs and untypical fringing reefs. Typical fringing reefs are characterised by a completed stage of coral reef establishment process. Such reefs are usually made up of a fringing lagoon, reef flat, and slope. Fringing lagoons are observed at some reefs with channels running along the shoreline. Lagoon substrate is typically sand and dead corals, with a low number of coral species thinly distributed across the lagoon floor.
Most reef flats on the typical fringing reefs of Viet Nam are comprised of dead corals, and are subject to exposure during low tides. Live coral coverage is very low, with most live coral found in submerged caves. Boulder corals such as Goniastrea and Porites can form “micro atolls”. These are formed by such corals growing outward rather than up, largely in response to the shallow water environments on reef flats. Often the core of the boulder corals sinks and dies, leading to the development of the micro atoll like structure. These structures are present on reefs of Ninh Thuan Province and along the northern coast of Binh Thuan Province in Viet Nam. Live coral coverage and species diversity increases with reef flat depth.
In some areas, single species grow extensively to create mono-specific stands on reef flats. Montipora aequitubeculata dominates areas subjected to low wave energy to the west of Cu Lao Cau Island. Panova decussata dominates the low wave energy reef flats of An Thoi at Phu Quoc Island, whilst Acropora hyacinthus dominates strong wave energy reef flats at Cu Lao Cham and Con Dao Islands. The staghorn coral Motipora digitata dominates strong wave energy reef flats at My Hoa (Ninh Hai) of Ninh Thuan ProvinceNinh Thuan. Steeply sloping reef slopes characterise most fringing reefs systems, extenging from the reef flat in a seaward direction. The composition of coral species is more highly diverse on reef slopes, and are characterised by large numbers of hard and soft coral species. Most reef slopes of typical fringing reefs in Viet Nam end at depths between 5-8m.
Seagrass and mangrove communities are common at the edges and landward sides of typical fringing reefs. The effects of typical fringing reefs in reducing the effects of wave action on the coastline, creates an environment suitable for seagrass and mangrove community development. Bay Canh Island, Ben Dam Bay at Con Dao is characterised by a large mangrove forest on the landward side of the fringing reefs in the area. A similar mix of coral reefs and seagrass beds can be observed at the Southeastern Bay of Con Dao Island, in Binh Thuan Province along the Vinh Hao coast, and along the Ninh Hai coast in the Ninh Thuan Province.
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Untypical fringing reefs are characterised by an incomplete stage of coral reef development (Sudara and Thamrongnawasawat, 1991). They are called coral gardens by Vo and Hodgson (1997). Such reefs are usually divided into three zones from the shore to deeper water areas. The zone closest to the shore is typically characterised by poorly developed coral communities and sometimes no coral. The next zone, described as the “continuous zone”, is a partially developed reef flat with high coral coverage (occasionally reaching 100%). The third zone, or “the slope” is characterised by a gentler slope than a typical fringing reef and low coral coverage and diversity. Detailed investigations conducted at the Nam Du Islands (Latypov, 1986) indicated that such reefs are normally those less affected by wind and waves. Small colonies of staghorn corals Acropora and massive corals Porites, Goniastrea, and Platygyra are observed in nearshore zones. On the partially developed reef flats, staghorn corals Acropora dominate, often with mono-specific stands several hundreds metres wide. Reef slope are typified by massive corals Favia, Cyphastrea and Physogira, cup-sharp Turbinaria (southern Tho Chu Island), or foliate corals Pachyseris (southern Bay Canh Island of the Con Dao Island group). The morphological structure of untypical fringing reefs is highly influenced coastal hydrodynamics. Closed reefs are observed in the near-shore bays of Viet Nam. Low wave energy conditions enable the development of corals to depths of 5-7 metres. Reefs may extend up to a width of 150m, but are usually characterised by a low number of species of mostly massive corals and thin staghorns. Big staghorn Porites dominates such reefs in Dam Bay (Nha Trang Bay) and in other areas such as Co Co Canal (Van Phong - Ben Goi Bay). Because there is typically no reef flat to prevent sedimentation on the reefs, very few coral species are adapted to survive under such conditions (Grigg and Dollar, 1990). Exposed reef exist in areas of high wave energy. Drains normally divide seafloor terrain in such areas, and the substrate is normally rock and some sands, and dead corals in the channels of deep drains. Reef-building corals may distribute down to 15m deep but account for a small proportion of overall coverage. Zone division at such sites is not obvious, but are typically dominated by Acropora, Pocillopora, or soft corals. Staghorn corals are normally observed at the ends of such reefs. Semi-enclosed reefs represent those reefs that are partly encolsed by edges, islands, or submerged rocks. Such sites are usually characterised by well-developed formations of large reef-building corals. They can also be highly diverse in terms of both species composition and colony morphology. Overall coral reef coverage on these reefs is high, and is normally comprised of foliate coral Montipora and staghorn corals Acropora in the shallow water areas, to massive corals Porites and Diploastrea, foliate corals Pachyseris and Echinopora, and cup-sharp Turbinaria in deeper waters. The above-analyzed results showed that the untypical fringing reef had much more complicated morphology to compare with typical fringing reef. In qualitative, untypical reef had higher ratio in most of the study areas (table 1). Typical fringing reef just had relatively high number in Con Dao, Ninh Thuan and northern Binh Thuan province.
Table 1 Percentage of Typical and Untypical Fringing Reefs at the Study Sites.
No. of Typical Ringing Untypical Fringing Study Areas Studied Reefs Reef (%) Reef (%) Quang Nam - Da Nang 16 19.8 81.2 Khanh Hoa 13 0 100 Ninh Thuan 7 57.1 42.9 Northern Binh Thuan 12 50 50 Con Dao 17 58.8 41.2 Kien Giang 11 0 100
Platform reefs Platform or patch reef is that which develops on submerged banks or hills (Stoddard, 1978; Veron, 1986). Bathymetric maps highlight many submerged banks and hills in the coastal waters of Viet Nam, although these areas have been understudied and there is currently a paucity of information relating to this reef type in Viet Nam. Coral specimens collected from several banks provide some insight into platform reef morphology in some areas.
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The Grand Bank of Nha Trang Bay is based on macmatic rocks formed during the Tertiary Period (Pham Van Thom, unpublised). The area of the bank is approximately 10km2 and rises to depths of 20m. Reef-building corals grow mainly on the northeastern side of the bank and account for a significantly large proportion of coral coverage in the area. Coral species composition consists mainly of Seriatopira histrix, Porites lutea, P. rus, Galaxea fascicularis, Lobophyllia corymbosa, and Acropora valida. The top of the bank is characterised by lower diversity of coral species, with coral cover being made up of colonies of small size Acropora and some massive coral species (Favia, Favites, and Goniastrea). The seaweed Sargassum is also abundant in this area, reaching lengths of 3-4m.
The Thuy Trieu Bank on seaward side of Cam Ranh Bay is two times larger than the Grand Bank, and extends in a northwest-southeast direction. It rises from a depth of 40m to a water depth of 3m. It Is comprised predominantly of carbonate sedimentation stones from the Tertiary Period (Pham Van Thom, 1992). On the seaward side of the bank, the substrate is mostly boulder rocks and pebbles at the depth of 25-40m and hard rock base at the depth of 10-25m. Coral coverage on this bank is very poor, and is comprised of few species like Scolymia vitiensis which attach to rocky boulders and dead corals. Dead corals were observed on the top of the bank flat, along with several live soft and hard coral colonies of small-sized Acropora and Favites.
There are many shallow areas with depths less than 20m in the waters of Northern Binh Thuan. The Breda Bank is the largest with a size of 22km2 and rises to depths ranging between 4-10m. The bank is comprised of carbonate-enriched sedimentation rocks from the Tertiary Period, as well as bioclastic sediments and some phosphated rocks on the surface (Pham Van Thom, 1980; 1985). This site is mainly composed of soft corals Sarcophyton and the massive corals Goniastra, Porites, and Platygyra. Sargassum is also present in shallower areas. Generally, corals are observed to develop poorly on submersed banks in Vietnamese waters.
Coral assemblages In addition to fringing and platform reefs there are additional areas in Viet Nam where corals are observed without reef formation. Such areas are referred to as coral assemblages, and such areas are understudied in Viet Nam. Preliminary observations suggest that such areas can be classified into two types of coral assemblages.
In some shallow and low wave energy areas, coral assemblages are composed of one or two species., including Acropora (thin branch colonies) or Porites (massive colonies). Such coral assemblages are present in Ben Goi Bay (Khanh Hoa Province) and on the northeast coast of Phu Quoc islands (Kien Giang Province). Sandy and mud substrates were observed to be disadvantagous for coral assemblage development in the areas investigated to date.
The second type of coral assemblage occurs on rocky bottoms in areas exposed to high wave energy conditions. Such assemblages can be observed at the Son Tra Peninsular (Da Nang City) and north of Hon Tre Island in Nha Trang Bay. Massive or encrusting corals (Goniastrea, Merulina, and Porites) and branch corals Acropora and Pocillopora are small in size and attached directly to the rocky substrate in a scattered distribution.
BIODIVERSITY
Composition of hard corals and hermatypic corals Based on the taxonomic system of Veron and Stafford-Smith (2000), and after amending the results of Vietnamese coral taxonomy of many authors up to date, a list more than 400 hard coral species belonging to 79 genera was established. As such, Viet Nam’s coral fauna can be compared with the most diverse coral areas of the world. From the 400 known species, 380 are hermatypic species and the remainder are ahermatypic species. From the 79 identified hard coral genera, 72 genera5 belonged to hermatypic corals (Table 2).
5 Following an inventory from all taxonomic publications, 74 hermatypic genera are lised by Vo Si Tuan et al (2005). Off that list, two genera namely Australogyra & Wellsophyllia published by Latypov (1995) were not re-recorded by the extensive surveys during 2002-2004. These two genera were removed from this list, indicating a total of 72 genera of hermatypic corals.
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Five main distinct coral reef regions in Viet Nam are include: (1) the Western Tonkin Gulf (from the Northern border with China to Con Co Island); (2) central Viet Nam (from Con Co Island to Varella Cape); (3) South central Viet Nam (from Varella Cape to Phu Quy Island); (4) South eastern Viet Nam (Con Dao Islands); and (5) South western Viet Nam (Tho Chu, Nam Du, and Phu Quoc Islands).
* Tonkin Gulf: Corals are mainly distributed around islands on the seaward of the Gulf toward Ha Long and Bai Tu Long Bays, Co To Islands, the north-eastern part of Cat Ba Islands, Long Chau Islands, Bach Long Vi, Hon Me, Hon Son Duong, and Con Co Islands. Nearly 200 species belonging to 56 genera of hard corals (186 species of 53 genera of hermatypic corals) have been recorded from the region.
* Central Viet Nam: This region is characterised by a sinuous shoreline, few large rivers, and a predominantly oceanic environment. Corals are not only located adjacent to the region’s many islands (Cu Lao Cham and Ly Son), but also along the shoreline. Approximately 250 species of hard corals belonging to 64 genera have been observed in this region, and about 230 of them belong to 61 genera of hermatypic species.
* South-Central Viet Nam: This is a highly diverse area in terms of both coral reef types and environmental conditions suitable for coral growth. As such, this region contains the highest recorded number of coral species in Viet Nam. Approximately 400 species belonging to 77 genera can be observed in the region, of which 350 species belong to 71 genera hermatypic reef species.
* Southeastern Viet Nam: The Con Dao Island group is not a large area, which is a limiting factor in the size of fringing reefs at the islands. Despite this, 350 species belonging to 63 genera of hard corals have been recorded with more than 300 species from 61 genera being of the hermatypic type. The many submersed banks in the region have not yet been surveyed and the numbers of species presented here likely under-estimates.
* Southwestern Viet Nam: Nearly all corals in this region occur adjacent to islands that are located sufficiently far from the coastline to enable coral development in the more turbid waters of the Gulf of Thailand. Large reef areas have developed at Tho Chu, Nam Du, and Phu Quoc Islands. Nearly 270 species belonging to 64 genera of hard corals have been recorded at these sites from the limited survey work conducted to date. More than 250 of the species of 61 genera recorded are of the hermatypic type.
Biodiversity zoning based on hermatypic corals The total of 72 hermatypic coral genera recorded at the site indicate that the coastal waters of Viet Nam are characterised by a highly diverse coral fauna. This is most likely due to geographical location of Viet Nam, which is in close proximity to the coral dispersal centre in the Philippines and Indonesia. There is also significant inter-regional variations in the types of coral reefs and associated communities which have developed along Viet Nam’s coast. This is due to Viet Nam’s coastline crossing many latitudes and the related gradients in physical and chemical environments. These are main factors affecting the biodiversity of corals (Veron, 1998).
Surveys of coral fauna characteristics (seeVo Si Tuan, 1998) showed a clear differentiation in generic richness of hermatypic corals in the coastal waters of Viet Nam. Supplementary analysis improved this hypothesis with some minor changes. South central waters might be assumed as the most diverse area in the number of recorded genera (71) and also species number with nearly 350 in Nha Trang bay (Vo Si Tuan et al., 2004), more than 300 in Ninh Hai reefs (DeVantier, unpublished). The number of recorded genera at southeastern and middle central waters is relatively diverse (61 genera). Detailed surveys at Con Dao Islands showed a high species richness of hermatypic corals with more than 300 species recorded (DeVantier, unpublished). Records of 60 hermatypic genera in southwestern waters indicate that coral fauna there is more diverse than that at the Tonkin Gulf (53 hermatypic genera recorded).
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Table 2 List of hard coral genera and their distribution in Viet Nam.
West Tonkin Midle South South- South- Offshor No. Genera Gulf central central eastern western e reefs 1 Stylocoeniella + - + + - + 2 Pocillopora + + + + + + 3 Seriatopora - + + + + + 4 Stylophora + + + + + + 5 Palauastrea - - - - - + 6 Madracis + + + + + + 7 Montipora + + + + + + 8 Anacropora - + + + - + 9 Acropora + + + + + + 10 Astreopora + + + + + + 11 Porites + + + + + + 12 Goniopora + + + + + + 13 Alveopora + + + + + + 14 Pseudosiderastrea + + + + + + 15 Psammocora + + + + + + 16 Coscinarea + + + + + + 17 Pavona + + + + + + 18 Leptoceris + + + + + + 19 Gardineroseris - + + + + + 20 Coeloseris - + + - + + 21 Pachyseris + + + + + + 22 Cycloseris - + + + + + 23 Diaseris - + + + + + 24 Cantharellus - - + + + - 25 Heliofungia - - + - - + 26 Fungia + + + + + + 27 Ctenactis - + + + + + 28 Herpolitha + + + + + + 29 Polyphyllia + + + + + + 30 Halomitra + - + + - + 31 Sandalolitha + + + + + + 32 Lithophyllon + + + + + + 33 Podobacia + + + + + + 34 Galaxea + + + + + + 35 Acrhelia + 36 Echinophyllia + + + + + + 37 Oxypora + + + + - + 38 Mycedium + + + + + + 39 Pectinia + + + + + + 40 Blastomussa - - + - - + 41 Micromussa + - 42 Cynarina + + + - - - 43 Scolymia - + + + + - 44 Australomussa - - + - - + 45 Acanthastrea - + + + + + 46 Lobophyllia + + + + + + 47 Symphyllia + + + + + + 48 Hydnophora + + + + + + 49 Merulina + + + + + + 50 Caulastrea - + + + + + 51 Favia + + + + + + 52 Barabatoia + + + + + + 53 Favites + + + + + + 54 Goniastrea + + + + + + 55 Platygyra + + + + + + 56 Leptoria + + + + + + 57 Oulophyllia + + + + + +
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Table 2cont. List of hard coral genera and their distribution in Viet Nam.
West Tonkin Midle South South- South- Offshor No. Genera Gulf central central eastern western e reefs 58 Oulastrea + + + + + + 59 Montastrea + + + + + + 60 Plesiastrea + + + + + + 61 Diploastrea - + + + + + 62 Leptastrea + + + + + + 63 Cyphastrea + + + + + + 64 Echinopora + + + + + + 65 Moseleya - - - - + - 66 Trachyphyllia + + + + + - 67 Euphyllia + + + + + + 68 Catalaphyllia - - + - - - 69 Plerogyra + + + + + + 70 Physogyra + - + + - - 71 Heterocyathus * - + + - + - 72 Turbinaria + + + + + + 73 Duncanopsammia - - + - + - 74 Heteropsammia + - + + + - 75 Dendrophyllia * + + + + + - 76 Tubastrea * + + + + + - 77 Balanophyllia * + - + - + - 78 Culicia * - - + - - - 79 Flabellum * - - + - - - Note: - *: Ahermatypic corals.
Water temperature is a key factor limiting coral growth and the formation of reefs. The number of coral species observed on reefs usually increases from high to low latitudes (Veron, 1998). This suggests that Viet Nam’s coastal waters may have greater coral diversity than countries which coastlines extend across few degrees of latitude. However, according to the documents of Krempf (1930) and Vo Van Lanh (unpublished), Viet Nam’s coastal waters can be classified into three temperature regimes. There is a clear decline in surface temperatures of Tonkin Gulf and middle central waters in winter. This decline in termperature is not prevalent in South central and Southeastern waters. The intersection point of these two zones is Varella Cape according to Krempf (1930) or 13oN according to La Van Bai (1991). The Gulf of Thailand is isolated by Ca Mau Cape and has a cooler temperature in the summer and warmer temperature in the winter when compared with Tonkin Gulf (La Van Bai, 1991). The clear differences between the three temperature zones results in significantly diverse coral communities at the demarcation fronts.
Water currents of the South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand play an important role in the dispersal of larvae from areas of the Philippines and Indonesia. The interactions of the highly diverse coral hot spots in the Philippines and Indonesia with the Western Pacific Ocean and Kalimantan channel are also significant. Water is exchanged with the Western Pacific during the winter and via the Kalimantan channel during the summer. These exchanges are critical for the exchange of coral larvae between coral biodiversity center with Central and Southeastern waters of Viet Nam.
Another important factor influencing the biodiversity of coral reefs in Viet Nam is sea level change. Geological surveys highlighted an old coastline at depth of approximately 100m in the South China Sea at 18 000 years ago (Saurin, 1962). At that period, coastal line in the North of the Philippine, in the East of Indonesia and in the North of Papua New Guinea was as similar as that nowadays. These were shelters for coral communities to be existing even affected by disasters of seawater surface changes. Days by days, the seawater level has been increasing and submerging the areas in the western, northern and southern parts of those areas became new home for corals (Well, 1988). In accordance to this logicality, reef-building corals in the Viet Nam central part has longer development history and more advantage to receive coral seedlings dispersed from coral biodiversity center in the Pacific-Indian waters thanks to a little changeable shores. Other waters all (such as Tonkin Gulf, Southwestern and Southwestern) were mainland in the period of 18 000 years ago, so had shorter duration of coral dispersion.
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Moreover, another less significant and more localised factor to be considered is the influence of the sedimentation regime on coral biodiversity via substrate characteristics, sediment accumulation, and illumination (Veron, 1998). In this respect, South Central waters contain more highly biodiverse coral reefs than other areas.
A synthesis of the effects of all the aforementioned factors on the reef-building biodiversity (Table 3) shows that South central waters has the most suitable condition and Tonkin Gulf is the worst area on coral biodiversity.
Table 3 Effect of main factors on hermatypic coral biodiversity. (- disadvantage, + advantage) Dispersal Coastal line Sedimentation Area Temperature level change regime Tonkin Gulf - - - - Middle central - + + - South central + + + + Southeastern + + - - Southwestern + - - -
Based on the studies and analysis of natural conditions influencing reef-building coral distribution, it can be assumed to separate four zones of reef-building coral distribution. South central and Southeastern waters have similar biomes due to being locating in areas with similar temperature regimes and relative proximity to areas of coral dispersal in the Philippines and Indonesia. Information and data on environmental conditions and the distribution of coral genera in Vietnamese waters enabled the adjustment of the isopangeneric contours of reef-building corals established by Veron (1993) for the South China Sea (Figure 2). The isopangeneric contour of 60 genera originates from Con Co Island (17o North). The Tonkin Gulf area is characterised by less than 60 genera of hermatypic corals. Waters of midlle central Viet Nam are located to the south of this where the number of genera ranges from 60-70. The isopangeneric contour of 70 genera originates from Varella Cape (approximately 13O North), encompassing the Paracel and Spratly archipelagos. Studies of population inter-dependence in the South China Sea, based on the genetic structure of fish Dascyllus trimaculatus (Ablan et al., 2002), support the establishment of a boundary at Varella Cape. Areas having more than 70 genera include South central waters, Paracel and Spratly. Although only 61 genera of hermatypic corals have been observed at Con Dao Island, it has been proposed that Con Dao be included within the 70+ genera isopangeneric contour. Southwestern waters of Viet Nam belong to the distribution zone with less than 70 genera. The isopangeneric contour of 70 genera covers all the Gulf of Thailand, although does not seem to be compatible with findings of small-scale studies, which indicate that there are fewer genera in this area. Surveys conducted at Phu Quoc Island in Viet Nam (WWF-IOC team, 1994) and at Mu Koh Chang in Thailand (Thamasak, unpublish) identified only 34 and 44 genera of hermatypic corals, respectively. It is necessary to undertake additional surveys to enable a better understanding of coral reef fauna in the Gulf of Thailand. Species level analysis suggested establishing contours of 300 species overlapping the 70 genera contour and 200 species overlapping the 60 genera line. Nha Trang Bay, the Ninh Hai coastal reefs, and Con Dao Islands are characterised by a high level of coral species diversity, with more than 300 species recorded. They are perhaps amongst some of the most species rich coral reef areas in the world. Coral reef associated organisms Surveys of coral reef associated organisms conducted from 1993 to present identified nearly 1,000 species of invertebrates (Table 4). Molluscs were the most diverse, with nearly 500 species recorded, and where followed by the crustaceans with more than 250 species. Approximately 175 species of polychaetes and species of 100 species echinoderms were recorded. The littoral fauna was comprised of more than 200 species, whilst the rest belonged to sub-littoral organisms. The areas of Con Dao Islands and the coastal waters of Khanh Hoa Province have been studied more instensively, and more than 400 and 300 species of coral reef associated organisms were observed in these areas respectively.
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Table 4 Coral reef invertebrates in the coastal waters of Viet Nam. Taxon No. Family No. Genera No. Species Echinoderm 30 63 96 Crustacean 44 144 251 Polychaeta 38 110 176 Molluscs 78 177 446 Total 190 494 969
Figure 2 Isopangeneric and isopanspecies contours of hermatypic corals showing high biodiversity of hermatypic corals in Vietnamese waters. (dashed line – following Veron, 1993; solid line – modified from Vo Si Tuan, 1998)
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In total, some 411 species of coral reef fish, from 139 genera in 44 families, have been recorded as being present in the coastal waters of Viet Nam (Table 5). Of these, the families Pomacentridae (66 species) and Labridae (61 species) were both well represented, as was the Chaetodontidae (32 species). Locations in south-central Viet Nam, including Nha Trang Bay and Ca Na Bay, are more diverse in coral reef fish, with 222 and 211 species having been recorded at the sites, respectively. These areas may be more diverse in coral reef fish than other coastal water areas of Viet Nam.
Table 5 Composition of coral reef fish in some major locations in coastal waters of Viet Nam. No. Location Family Genera Species 1 Co To 16 27 34 2 Cat Ba 16 25 31 3 Cu Lao Cham 33 76 178 4 Nha Trang 38 102 222 5 Ninh Hai 32 81 147 6 Ca Na 37 87 211 7 Con Dao 33 84 202 8 Phu Quoc 27 60 135 Total 44 139 411
SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS FROM CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs are an important coastal habitat type in Viet Nam, playing a critical role as a reservoir of biodiversity. They are also important for fisheries and tourism development in the coastal zone. Traditionally, millions of people from different communities in the coastal zone of Viet Nam have directly depended on coral reefs for food and other benefits. In recent years, coral reefs have been used for coastal tourism development, especially when the economy is open and the interests of public communities on the marine environment are improved. Being one of the most visually impressive habitats, coral reefs are utilised for recreational activities such as snorkelling, scuba diving, and recreational fishing. Coral reefs have also contributed to the formation of islands, and protect a substantial portion of Viet Nam’s coastline from the effects of wave action and the impacts of storms. They are also considered a “live laboratory” for research and education.
Economic benefits Fisheries Although no data on the current harvests of reef fishes and invertebrates exist for most coastal provinces, fisheries are of high economic significance in Viet Nam. Many commercial species of fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms live and take shelter on coral reefs.
Coral reef fisheries are typically multi-species, multi-gear fisheries and small-scale in nature. Hookah air diving, purse seine and gill net, light fishing, drift nets, long line, trawling, and the gleaning of tidal flats are common fishing gear and practices used to target coral reef associated fish on and adjacent to coral reef areas (Table 6).
Table 6 Main fishing activities and marine resources collected from coral reefs in Viet Nam. Fishing activity Main Marine Organisms Fished Hookah air diving with or without Groupers, sweetlips, top shells, triton shells, giant clams, dynamites and poisons lobsters, ornamental fish and live corals Net (gill net, purse seine, drift net) Sweetlips, snappers, cardinalfish, coral breams, anchovies Light fishing Anchovies and cuttlefish Long line Cuttlefish and fish Fixed net Mackerel, tuna, snapper, jacks Trap net Cuttlefish and fish Gleaning on tidal flat Seaweeds, gastropods and fish
Many commercial reef fish such as groupers, snappers, sweetlips, emperors, parrotfish and triggerfish are being caught. Live groupers Epinephelus spp., Plectropomus spp. and Cephalopholis spp. have become the favoured targets and are harvested from reefs because of their high prices. Other reef fish such as grunts Plectorhynchus spp., snappers Lutjanus spp. and emperors Lethrinus spp.,
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mackerel Scomberomorus sp., tuna Auxis sp. and anchovies are also being caught. Annual catch of grouper Epinephelus sp. from coral reefs in Ninh Thuan Province occupied some 10% of a total catch of demersal fish in the whole province, with annual landings ranging from 0.6 (1995) to 1.0 tonnes (2002) (Data from Ninh Thuan Department of Fisheries, 2001). Mackerel (Scomberomorus sp.) and tuna (Auxis sp.) are the main contributors to the total fisheries production landed in Ninh Hai District, Ninh Thuan Province. These fishes are usually concentrated in front of Vinh Hy Bay where coral reefs are commonly found. In Phu Quoc, a total of mackerels and anchovies landed in 2001 was about 3,500 and 12,500 tons respectively (Data from Phu Quoc Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries). Anchovies were harvested on or close to coral reefs from April to September around the year with a total catch reaching up 5-7 tonnes per boat per day.
Cuttlefish (Sepia spp.), squid (Sepioteuthis spp). and (Loligo spp.) are fished on a commercial basis. Lobsters (Panulirus spp.) have also become an important species due to high market prices. Collecting edible sea cucumbers, gastropods and bivalves for food or for sale in souvenir shops has commonly appearred in most of the coastal provinces. Among them, abalones (Haliotis spp.), top shells (Trochus niloticus and T. maculatus), giant clam (Tridacna spp.) are considered as commercially important food and materials for souvenirs. A total production of giant clams collected around Con Dao islands reached 10 tonnes during April-July of 1994. Information collected from one of the three local sellers at My Hoa Village, Ninh Thuan Province in 2001 confirmed that there were some 4 tonnes gastropod and bivalve shells being exported to Nha Trang and Da Lat Cities during 2000-2001. Edible sea cucumbers are also collected from coral reefs in the area. According to data collected by Phu Quoc Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in 2001, as much as 3,879 tonnes of squid and cuttlefish were caught for both local uses and international export. Pearl oysters (Pinctada mertensi and P. maxima), abalone (Haliotis ovina) and scallops (Chlamys nobilis and C. Irregularis) were exploited for food and jewellery. Information collected from local fishermen indicates that the number of Pinctada maxima caught at the depth of 20 - 40m by four hookah divers reached 10-15kg per day.
The annual catch of adult lobsters harvested from the coral reefs of Ninh Thuan waters ranged between 30-50 tonnes (Data from Ninh Thuan Department of Fisheries, 2001) with the price ranging from 200,000 – 300,000 VND per kg. During the past five years, hookah divers from My Tan, My Hiep villages - Nhon Hai Commune, Ninh Thuan province collected ornate lobster (Panulirus ornatus) on the coral reefs for lobster cultured-cages. Recently, the cage culture of lobsters has develped quickly in Khanh Hoa and Ninh Thuan Provinces. There are some 15,000 cages for lobster culture with the amount of juvenilles collected from the wild totalling around a million per year in Khanh Hoa Province. Annual ornate lobster harvested from coral reefs in Ninh Thuan waters was 200,000-300,000 individuals (Data from Ninh Thuan Department of Fisheries 2001). Information from local fishemen indicates that 250-500 juvenille of ornate lobster have been collected from the coral reefs of Nhon Hai Commune in Ninh Thuan Province during the settlement season (from November-April), and this may sometimes reach up to 2,000-5,000 individuals per day during the peak season (from January to February). The price of one lobster seed was 30,000 – 60,000VND depending on the season.
The gleaning or harvesting of organisms from reefs by hand is still commonly conducted to collect certain species on the reef flats. Collecting seaweeds and reef-associated organisms such as molluscs, crustaceans, sea cucumbers, sea urchins and fish on the reef flats during the low tide period is an important income generating activity for a many coastal communities of Viet Nam. In Ninh Hai waters, Ninh Thuan Province, some 15 - 25 tonnes of seaweeds are harvested annually from coral reefs. Of which, Gracilaria eucheumoides, G. salicornia, Gelidiella acerosa and Betaphycus gelatinae are mainly harvested for food. Sargassum, Acanthophora, Hypnea, Gracilari, and Ulva.occur with a very high biomass on many reefs and are harvested for producing fertilisers for agriculture cultivation. A wet kilo of seaweed from Ninh Hai district, Ninh Thuan Province was valued at almost 2,000 VND in 2002.
The collection of ornamental fishes from coral reefs has occurred in some coastal provinces for domestic uses and international export. In the recent past, ornamental fish such as butterflyfish, angelfish, wrasse, and scorpions fish were being caught for local aquaria and the international aquarium trade. The number of ornamental fish collected from Nha Trang Bay annually for transportation to aquaria in Ho Chi Minh City was around 1,000 fish (Chu Anh Khanh, per. comm.).
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Tourism Coral reefs are a major draw for snorkellers, scuba divers, recreational fishers and those seeking a vacation in the sun. Nha Trang City is considered as a major center of marine tourism development in Viet Nam, and the coral reefs surrounding nearby islands are very diverse and abundant. The number of visitors to Nha Trang has recently increased, with an approximate value in excess of more than 300 billion VND (equivalent US$20 millions ) being recorded in 2003. The annual number of visitors to the islands of Nha Trang Bay was estimated at 30,000 people in 1995 to more than 400,000 people in 2003. About ten percent of them joined diving and snorkling on the reefs of Hon Mun MPA. These services brought benefit about US$400,000 occupied approximate 2% of total income of tourist sector in Khanh Hoa province. There was a further dramatic increase in numbers and diversification of operations. A tourism survey conducted by IUCN in 2000 revealed that many tourists would be willing to pay round US$1-2 each to visit Hon Mun Marine Protected Area.
Tourism can be expected to play an increasingly important role in the development strategies of Phu Quoc district, Kien Giang province for the next ten years. Number of tourists (mostly domestic tourists) visited the islands has been increased dramatically during the last 7 years, from 4,543 people in 1995 to 74,997 people in 2001. The total international tourists visit Phu Quoc in 1995 were 1,106 peoople, increasing to 42,748 people in 2001. The duration of international visitors spent at the islands avearged 3 - 4 days per vocation per person while this increased to 3 - 5 days to domestic tourists. The total benefits of the district collected from tourism have also increased from 1.5 billions in 1995 to 11 billions VND in 2001. At present, tourism in Phu Quoc has been mainly focused on land while marine environment was not well attractive to visitors. Tourists spent their time to visit the Naturre Forest Reserve in the norther part of Phu Quoc island and to swim at some beatiful beaches such as Bai Sao and Bai Vong beaches. The islands group in the southern part of Phu Quoc (An Thoi) with pristine coral reefs have been considered by tourist organizers during the last three years and that were emphasized as diving, snorkelling, fishing area for marine eco-tourism in the Tourism Development Plan of the district. At present, only one hotel (Sai Gon - Phu Quoc Resort) has operated diving service. It charges 20 - 110 USD/person including resort pleasure boat, guidance, mineral water, snack, insurance, life buoy and fishing equipments.
Tousit development based on coral reefs has also been considered in Con Dao islands and Cu Lao Cham Marine Protected Area (Quang Nam province).
Social Benefits With the importance of fisheries and tourism, coral reefs have ben playing an important role in the development of economy, providing jobs and benefits for society. Fishing is a major activity with about 15,000 fishermen from different communities around Nha Trang Bay depended on. Population of Phu Quoc district recorded in 2001 was 74,000, of which some 11,130 fishermen are engaged in capture fisheries in the sea while most of the rest work in fisheries proccessing and other related occupation on these islands. Many primary processing factories of marine products have provided many kinds of sea products. Fish sauce “nuoc mam”, a famous sea product, was produced in Phu Quoc and exported to many different countries on the world. This is a traditional industry of turning low-valued fish into a profitable product through long period of fermentation and processing with salt and water.
Tourism has provided significant employment for population of Nha Trang City. More than 80 hotels, 60 tourism boats and a range of associated services have provided thousands of jobs for local communities. At present, Phu Quoc has 8 large hotels to be built on the main island, mostly concentrated in the west coast of Phu Quoc island and that will be increased in the near future. The development of marine tourism at the area will be generated jobs and benefits for local communities.
Uses of coral reefs as a resource for education and aesthetic have been considered in Nha Trang bay and Con Dao National Park. There has been number of students from different universities coming for enhancing awareness and knowledge on marine ecology and conservation. The photos contest on natural beauty was organized in 2004 with number of photos of coral reefs of Nha Trang and Van Phong bays.
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STATUS AND THREATS
With more than 200 coral sites along the Viet Nam coast have been surveyed for recent years shows that the coral coverage in the reefs is not in the good status. Based on the scale of English et al (1997), only 1% of coral reefs is in excellent coverage (higher than 75% coral coverage), while there is more than 31% of coral reefs in bad coverage (less than 25%). The coral reefs with fair and good coverage are about 41% and 26%, respectively. The specific inventory data of coral reef areas stated that most of coral reefs have coverage at average level from 25 to 50% (table 7). Only coral reefs located at offshore or far from the communities may maintain relatively good status (Vo Si Tuan, 2000).
Table 7 Coverage of some reef areas in the coastal waters of Viet Nam. Coverage rank Average cover No Study areas No. sites Time (%) (%) 1 Hạ Long–Cat Ba 21 12 - 65 40.6 ± 15.2 1998 2 Bạch Long Vi 5 2.7 - 47.6 21.7 ± 19.0 1995 3 Hai Van–Son Tra 7 35 - 62.7 50.5 ± 15.7 1996 4 Cu Lao Cham 5 18.4 - 53.7 33.9 ± 12.4 2002 5 Nha Trang bay 8 5.6 - 44.4 26.4 ± 15.9 2002 6 Ninh Hai 6 16.3 - 55.9 36.9 ± 13.5 2002 6 Ca Na bay 6 18.4 - 68.4 40.5 ± 24.1 1996 7 Con Đao 8 1.6 - 50.3 23.3 ± 18.2 2002 8 Phu Quoc 6 28.7 - 52.5 42.2 ± 8.60 2002 9 Nam Du 4 37.8 - 62.8 47.4 ± 11.7 2002 10 Tho Chu 4 4.6 - 15.9 11.3 ± 4.80 2002
The coverage of live corals on the reefs at some major distribution areas of Viet Nam waters has been decreasing by time. The coral coverage declined down to 30% at some areas (Table 8). It implies that coral reefs have been damaged and towards bad degradation.
The coral reef status has also been reflected via data of coral reef community. Some studies on coral fish of Nguyen Huu Phung & Nguyen Van Long (1997); Nguyen Van Long & Nguyen Huu Phung (1997) proved that coral reefs in Southern part of Central Viet Nam is relatively diverse in species composition. However, coral fish density is just remarkable in the further islands such as Con Dao, Phu Quoc, Nam Du, Tho Chu...ect. The inventory data of dominant species as standard of Reef Check (1998) presented serious poor of coral organisms, who have used for food or/and souvenir material values. Some families have food value such as Emperor (Lethrinidae), Snapper (Lutjanidae), grouper (Serranidae), Sweetlips (Haemulidae) remain rarely in the reefs and most of them are shorter than 20 cm long. The continuously studied data for several years in coral reefs at Cu Lao Cham, Nha Trang Bay, Con Dao, Phu Quoc also showed that the number of fish species with edible or/and ornamental value has been decreased by time and some species would be probably locally extinct (Nguyen Van Long, in press). Some benthic species having high value on the reefs such as lobster, Sea Cucumber, Trumpet triton Charonia tritonis and Giant Clam Tridacna spp. is remaining very few and even extinct in some reefs.
Table 8 Decline of coral coverage in some areas. STT Study areas No. site Decline of coral cover Period (%) 1 Ha Long–Cat Ba - -7.1 1993 - 1998 2 Cu Lao Cham 5 -1.9 1994 - 2002 3 Nha Trang bay 8 -21.2 1994 - 2002 4 Con Dao 8 -32.3 1994 - 2002 5 Phu Quoc 5 -3.3 1994 - 2002
Burke et al. (2002) indicated that most coral reefs in the coastal waters of Viet Nam were under threats with 50% of the reefs ranked at higg level and 17% at very high level. Destructive fishing was assessed as popular and serious with 85% coral reefs at medium and high levels. Over fishing was indicated a serious threat to a half of coral reefs. The other threats have been concerned as lesser
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like potential sedimentation (47% coral reefs), coastal development (40% coral reefs) and pollutions (7%). The mitigation of threats based on affective management is not remarkable in Viet Nam. In fact, only three areas consisting of Cat Ba, Con Dao and Ha Long Bay were ranked as rather effective management following the standard criteria of Reef at Risk in South East Asia. In comparison with other coral reef status in the region, based on the model, Viet Nam was ranked in the group of high rate of threatened coral reefs (together with the Philippines, China, Taiwan and Indonesia). The direct survey data clearly addressed multiple and rather serious threats at most of coral reefs in Viet Nam.
Over fishing Surveys at 29 coastal communities of ADB project (5712-REG) (phase 2) showed that fresh seafood importing need of China and Hong Kong markets is creating a high pressure on coral reef resources of Viet Nam. In fact, those activities have not been controlled and checked even in some national parks like Con Dao. It leads to over fishing all the marine specialties such as sand fish, lobster, mollusks ect... The most important compositions to build up the coral reefs are hard corals, staghorn corals, and soft corals, which are extensively exploiting and trading. In addition to making souvenir, “live rock” have been annually exporting to Europe and US for marine pest needs. Ornamental fish are also exploiting for exporting to marine pest culture markets.
The data obtained during 2002 – 2003 by coral reef monitoring reflect the poorness of ReefCheck indicators. The commercially valuable groups of large groupers Serranidae (e.g. Plectropomus, Epinephelus, Cephalopholis spp.) and Lutjanidae (Lutjanus spp.) are both highly depauperated and low relative abundance and sizes, reflecting the intensive fishing pressure. Only few of them were recorded at few sites in Cu Lao Cham, Con Dao islands, Nha Trang bay. Other notable absentees from almost areas include the labrid Humphead Maori Wrasse Chelinus undulatus and serranid Barramundi Cod Cromileptes altivelis, once common components of many Indo-west Pacific reef fish assemblages. These species are among the most favour target fishes for the Asian live fish trade, and are now locally extinct in many areas of East Asia. They were observed at only one site of Con Dao islands.
Benthic indicators for commercial species were not recorded at number of sites. The Giant Clam Tridacna squamosa is observed commonly only in Cu Lao Cham. The Giant Triton Charonia tritonis is not seen in any of sites monitored. Notable absentees in almost areas are the commercially important sea cucumber species. The same situation occurs for lobsters, which were recorded at few sites of Cu Lao Cham, Nha Trang and Ca Na bays. The Top Shell Trochus nilotichus presents only in Con Dao islands and Cu Lao Cham with low density. Amount of dead corals exploited for limestone and making dykes of aquaculture ponds has not been reported.
Destructive fishing This threat is performed via using destructive fishing method such as dynamite, poison, small mesh size fishing nets, trawling net, electrical fishing. According to the survey of project ADB 5712-REG in 1999, destructive fishing methods are implementing in 21/29 coastal provinces/cities. In there, the destructive fishing methods have been commonly using at Quang Ninh, Nghe An, Quang Binh, Thua Thien – Hue, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan province. Recently, dynamite fishing has been decreased, but cyanide fishing has been become more popular for increased demand of living fish trade. The effectiveness of those destructive fishing methods is very dangerous and badly impact on whole ecosystem.
There are few statistic data concerning with destructive fishing. Some interviews with local fishermen show existence of dynamite fishing in some reef areas. The survey in Nha Trang bay (Vo Si Tuan et al, 2002) showed that ca. 10% of manta-tows had evidence of blast fishing in the form of "craters" and/or other obvious physical damage to reef areas. The monitoring pratices did not record any traces on the transects and the index values are maximum. Hookah diving using poison has brought to high benefit for a lot of coastal fishermen in Cu Lao Cham, Nha Trang and Ca Na bays, Phu Quoc islands... According to above-mentioned survey, evidence of poison fishing was found at a lot of reefs in Nha Trang bay. Overall ca. 5% of manta-tow sites were affected. Abandoned poison "squirt bottles" were also observed on one reefs. Actually, a lot of "hookah" divers use poisons to capture fish, both for food and to supply the lucrative aquarium trade and cyanide is thought to be used regularly. However, and evidence is not always obvious.
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Tourism One of the biggest impacts of tourism is the increase of souvenir need and does leading to wild animal exploitation. Marine turtle (Hawks’ bill turtle, green turtle...) has been exploiting at any time and anywhere and free trade in big tourism center such as Nha Trang, Vung Tau. Other species can be used for making souvenir things for example: pearl oyster, snail, sea urchin...becoming rare animals in the reefs and being in danger of local extinction. Tourism also creates physical impacts like anchoring on coral reefs, careless jumping down of tourists... can break corals.
Coastal development and sedimentation The development of coastal cities has been affected to coral reefs. The infrastructure construction such as port and dike building, has directly or/and indirectly damaged coral reefs. Some evidences presented that recent increase of sediment concentration in the water has a connection with coastal development, dredging, soil exploitation, forest cut and other unplanned agricultural activities.
Ha Long – Cat Ba coastal areas are examples, which demonstrate a strong impact of sedimentation on coral reefs. The previous studies showed that the suspended sediment concentration in the water at those areas is rather high. Coral reefs of the Cat Ba National Park were damaged by high sediment concentration discharged from mining activities of Quang Ninh province. The coastal areas in the central Viet Nam have been known as less impact of waterways system. However, studies also showed that the coral reefs at those areas are in danger of sedimentation from the rivers in the rainy season. It is highly concerned that high water turbidity has not only locally occurred, but also expanded to a large area, where corals are currently distributing.
Pollution Industrial zones and manufactures’ development nearby the coast is creating potentially negative impacts. New building, harbor enlargement and more frequent operation of boats have been speeded up the coastal pollution process. Increasing of seawater nutrient is another threat and it may generate a eutrophicating phenomenon. Surveys recorded over growth of seaweed at some areas in the North of Nha Trang Bay and South of Van Phong Bay. (Pham Van Thom & Vo Si Tuan, 1997). Aquaculture is dramatically developing at shallow coastal areas near by the coral reefs created negative influence on coastal coral reefs. Data collected from recent studies showed that blooming tendency of harmful algae at aquaculture areas will be a potential threat to coral reefs in those areas (Pham Van Thom, unpublished).
Coral exploitation Dead coral exploitation using for construction material and making dykes of aquaculture ponds has been popularly happened at some places such as Phu Yen, Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan...coral exploitation at littoral areas decreased distribution areas of corals, created hydraulic unbalance of coral reefs as well as increased sedimentation caused by erosion, aggradations and exploitation. The most certainly important composition of coral reefs is hard corals, horny corals and soft corals, which are currently exploiting and trading at the big scale. Nowadays, coral trading is an increasing commerce around the world including dead corals, souvenir material corals and alive corals for ornamental culture. Viet Nam exporters have been licensed from the government agencies. The difference in coral trade between Viet Nam and other export countries is week control in species, exploitation yield, and transparency in the coral trade. Even though Viet Nam doesn’t have any inventory data on exported corals but other import countries knew it very well. The table 9 presents the data on the yield of corals exploited in 1998. It probably needs further discussion on this commercial activity in Viet Nam. According to some studies (Vo & Truong, 1997; Dang Ngoc Thanh & Vo Si Tuan, 1998) coral reefs in Viet Nam are seriously being damaged in most of waters. Living resources have been over exploited and become extremely poor. Many problems like ecological balance of the coral reef ecosystem are still being uncovered. Ecosystem conservation is quite simple even in the proposed marine protected areas. Management capacity of functional agencies is still not required enough. Those are some issues should be discussed when approved coral export campaign in the future.
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Table 9 A figure on coral export in Viet Nam and some countries. Export country Living corals (piece) For souvenirs (Kg) Viet Nam 19,327 103,157 Tonga 10,754 232 Solomon 25,856 50,403 Indonesia 517,841 Fiji 71,353 155,527 (source: CITES, 1998).
Anchor and Others Kind of Damage The damage caused by anchoring was recorded mainly in tourist sites such as Nha Trang Bay. As showing in the habitat survey (Vo Si Tuan et al. 2002), anchor damage is apparent in < 10% of survey sites focusing in areas with the most intensive tourism activities. Other sites with noticable damage were in the vicinity of the villages and where fishing boats anchor. Overall data of the monitoring sites do not show anchor damage on the transects and showed maximun values of the index. Meanwhile, some other damage causing coral breakage, rubbish (non-fishing and fishing related) were recorded in most areas and presented via low values of the indexes. This means that rubbish is dischared directly into the sea by local communities and fishermen.
During recent years a number of fishing ports have been constructed in a lot of the islands with coral reefs such as Cu Lao Cham, Bach Long Vi, Phu Qui, Con Dao. Port building and dredging nearby Ha Long bay are considered a reason for sediment loading on coral reefs. These have directly or/and indirectly damaged coral reefs but no detailed surveys on the impacts done.
Storms Storms can physically damage and break corals at shallow waters, especially Staghorn corals. Many corals were completely broken, alive corals’ coverage declined and population structure rather changed after the storms threw. Coral surveys conducted from 1986 – 1989 reported large areas of broken staghorn corals accumulated on the seabed and nearby the South-Eastern coasts of Cat Ba, Dau Be and Long Chau. Those were consequences of Joe storm passed the areas by Jul. 23rd 1980.
Some storms seriously affected to coral reefs of the coastal waters in South Viet Nam. In 1997, impacts of Linda storm on coral reefs in Con Dao were a clear proof for this phenomenon. The survey results before the storm (1994-1995) stated that 70% of coral reefs were ranked at high or very high coverage levels. After the Linda storm, most coral reefs were damaged and coral coverage of some reefs was nearly down to more or less zero. If possible, those coral reefs need to spend more than ten years to recover as previous status.
Coral bleaching In 1998, coral bleaching seriously affected on many coral reefs in Viet Nam. Coral reefs in Con Dao were considered as a clearest evidence for this impact style. After the Linda storm, many newly recovered coral reefs in Con Dao were damaged by bleaching in 1998. Data collected from more than 11 coral reef sites demonstrated that the frequency of damaged coral colonies was very high and fluctuated from 0 to 74.2%, average value was about 37% depending upon different sites. Periodical survey data conducted from 1998 to 2002 showed that Con Dao coral reefs recovered very slowly after two serious damages of Linda storm and coral bleaching phenomenon (Vo Si Tuan, 2000)
Outbreaking of some species Crown of Thorn Starfish (COTS) Acanthaster planci becomes a danger of coral reefs around world. They eat corals faster than recovery rate of corals when obtained high enough density. This will impact on the coverage of live corals on the reefs and create ecological unbalance of reefs. Human activities have been considered as indirect reasons relating to this outbreak.
COTS has been a considered problem causing degradation of the reefs in some coastal central areas in Viet Nam. Actually, its outbreak occurring for recent years would be a serious damage to a lot of reefs, especially in central coastal waters from Quang Nam province to Khanh Hoa province. Reef monitoring activities during 2002 – 2003 showed the abundance of Crown of Thorn Starfish (COTS) and Diadema sea urchin for benthos (Table 10). The records of high density of COTS on the reefs of central coastal waters (Cu Lao Cham islands with the average density of 50ind/ha), Van Phong - >
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150ind/ha and Nha Trang bays - > 60ind/ha) suggest further surveys to explain the reasons. The outbreak of COTS in Nha Trang bay started in 2001 (Vo Si Tuan, 2002) and continues a problem for reef conservation. Sea urchin Deadema setossum reach rather high abundance around the coastal islands of Gulf of Thailand (Phu Quoc and Nam Du). The comparison of Diadema density in 2000 – 2001 (Vo Si Tuan 2002) with that during 2002 – 2003 recognized the increasing trend at almost areas, except at Ninh Thuan coastal waters (Table 10).
Recently, expansion of Sponges has been recorded only in several sites in Ha Long Bay and Cat Ba islands. Sponges have expanded in many reefs, squeezing out and eroding coral colonies. Several large sized boulder corals can be broken even by a slight touch.
Table 10 Summary for density of Crown of Thorn Starfish and sea urchin.
Reef areas Crown Of Thorns Starfish Diadema setossum (2002-03) 2000-01 2002-03 Cu Lao Cham 2.50 ± 3.50 26.61 ± 32.65 Van Phong bay 7.74 ± 12.52 28.5 43.92 ± 48.16 Nha Trang bay 3.34 ± 3.45 4.6 63.13 ± 85.05 Ninh Hai 0.00 7.1 4.17 ± 3.24 Ca Na bay 0.24 ± 0.34 125.76 ± 163.71 Con Dao 0.13 ± 0.35 4.9 20.38 ± 56.03 Phu Quoc 0.08 ± 0.20 124.3 434.09 ± 173.20 Nam Du 0.00 460.88 ± 189.11 Tho Chu 1.13 ± 1.34 89.77 ± 132.55
MANAGEMENT
National legislation related to marine resoureces and coral reef mamagement The Law on Environmental Protection was passed by the National Assembly in 1993. It is broad and includes strategic direction for environmental protection. In 1994, it was followed by Decree No. 175/CP, which provides guidance for its implementation. The law contains a broad mandate for environmental impact assessment, and it establishes environmental quality standards specifying the provisional environmental quality criteria that are to be used for monitoring and inspections of projects and activities. The law has been effectively implemented, making great strides in environment protection, especially enhancing the people’s awareness on the environment and ecology. Law of Fisheries was adopted on 26th December 2003 by the National Assembly of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam . This Law came into force from July 1st 2004. The Law stated that Fisheries resources shall be subject to the ownership of the people and under the integrated management of the State. Organizations and individuals shall have rights to exploit the fisheries resources as provided for by legislation. Following the law, fisheries activities shall ensure the economic effectiveness in accordance with the protection, rehabilitation and development of fisheries resources and biodiversity; shall protect environment and natural landscape. The development of fisheries activities in all aspects shall be done in accordance with the development master plan and plans of fisheries sector nationwide and in specific provinces. The articles related to coral reefs included contents on sustainable fisheries development; prohibited activities in fisheries activities; habitat protection, conservation, protection, rehabilitation and development of fisheries resources, and Planning and management of protected areas and marine parks The Ordinance on the Protection and Development of Fisheries Resource was approved by the Government of Viet Nam on April 25, 1989. It contains 29 article stipulating national fishery resource protection and development in inland water bodies, territorial waters, transitional areas, EEZs and national continental shelf areas. Article 3 states in details that the fishery resources protection and development must be integrated with their living environment protection. Article 8 also stipulates to strictly ban any harmful acts to damage fishery resources, to pollute living environments of aquatic organisms by uses of dynamites, toxic substances, electric pulse, waste discharge and destruction of coastal habitats, etc.. Although no specific provision is provided for marine conservation palling by the Ordinance, it has become an important legal instrument for supporting fishery resources management for both inland and marine resources.
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Directive No. 125 – CT dated 28 April 1988 on development of aquaculture issued by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Now called Prime Minister). The document considered aquaculture activities, especially shrimp culture for export in coastal provinces and Mekong delta and other coastal area, which were developing very strongly, contributing to the economic growth, increased people’s income and improved well-being. However, environmental protection, balanced and scientific planning were not paid due attention. This Directive has provisions on initial planning of land with water surface for aquaculture, on the integration between aquaculture farming and protection of resources, protection of land especially agriculture land, the protection of environment and natural ecosystem. However, this document still mainly focuses on economic development.
There are some other legal documents supporting to enforce above-mentioned laws, including: Decree No. 195/HDBT, dated 2/6/1990 issued by Minister Council on executing Ordinance on the fishery protection and development; Decree No. 48/CP, dated 12/8/1996 issued by Government on stipulation of administrative violation on the protection of fishery resources; Directive No.1/1998/CT – TTg dated 2/1/1998 issued by the Prime Minister on banning of using explosive, striking – electricity, poison for fishery exploitation. Decree No. 26/CP, dated 12/8/1996 issued by Government on stipulation of administrative violation on environment protection; Decree No. 68/CP dated 01/11/1996 and Decree No. 76/2000/ND – dated 15/12/2000 issues by Government on detail stipulation of enforcement Mineral Law;
Legislations on tourism have considered concerns on impacts of tourist activities to resources and environment in general and to coral reefs in particulary. On 22/6/1993, the government has enacted Resolution 45/CP on management reform and development of the tourist sector. In the Resolution, the government has confirmed that Viet Nam has large potential to develop tourism activities, is endowed with natural beauty, places of interest, historical, religious and architecture relics.
In order to codify regulation on tourism, the National Assembly Standing Committee (2000) has approved the Ordinance on Tourism. The Ordinance stipulates that: ‘the State ensures tourism development toward cultural tourism and ecological tourism” (Article 2), “Organization, individuals operating tourism business are responsible for protecting, reasonably and effectively exploiting and utilizing tourist resources and protecting the environment in tourism areas, routes, and sites” (Article 14), “The state invests in basic surveys on tourist resources; placing priority on projects that protect and restore tourism resources, utilization and development of tourist resources” (Article 16). If tourism is managed in this direction, coral reefs in tourist sites will be reasonably exploited and conserved.
Decree on Viet Nam’s Marine Police was approved by the Permanent Committee for the 10th National Assembly and promulgated in 28 March 1998. All 4 clauses that regulate tasks of the Viet Nam’s Marine Police (Clause 6, 7) also mention the task of marine environment protection “Guarding against environmental pollution in the territorial seam sea border, Viet Nam’s economic privilege territory and shelf of ocean bed”.
National policies/plans for environment protection and nature conservation The 1991-2000 National Plan of Environment and Sustainable Development is a framework plan that outlines inter sectoral key priorities on environment protection, and it also exhibits Viet Nam’s environmental commitment to international community. Chapter 11, par 3.4 of the Plan emphasized on integrated coastal zone management and planning, and the details are to:
- Protect estuaries and coral reefs; - Protect and reforest mangrove forest - Carry out investigations of sea weeds and grass; - Manage coastal lagoons in Central Viet Nam; and - Protect the coast from erosion and undertake technical solutions for coastal protection.
Biodiversity Action Plan for Viet Nam (BAP) was approved by the Prime Minister of the Government by his Decision 548/TTg dated December 22, 1995. The objectives of BAP are: Planning of significant coastal wetland protected area establishment: Ca Mau, Red river delta, Tram Chim, Tam Giang Lagoon, etc; Establishment of select priority MPAs with highest level biodiversity values; Implementation integrated coastal zone management in line with the sustainable development principle. BAP was adopted in due time and its adoption has exhibited an important effort to fulfill the country’s commitment to the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) that Viet Nam ratified in 1994.
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National Strategy on Management of Protected Area System was approved by the Prime Minister of the Government by his Decision 192/2003/QĐ -TTg dated September 17, 2003 addopted the strategy to develop Protected Area System of Viet Nam to 2010.
Institutaional Framework National institutions/ executive bodies Decree 43/2003/ND-CP of Viet Nam government dated on 2nd May 2003 authorized Ministry of Fishery to declare list of species needed to be protected, restored and giving silutions for protection aquatic ecosystems, genetic diversity, aquatic biodiversity. Ministry of Fishery were also authorized to give regulations on notak-zones, catching limited areas and list of non – imported and non – exported species, and manage domestic aquatic reserves, marine protected areas.
Decision 08/2003/QĐ-BTS of Minister of Fisferies signed on 5th August 2003 authorized the National Directorate of Aquatic Resources Exploitation and Protection (NADAREP) to oversign and monitor implementation of regulation on species needed to be protected, non-imported, non – exported species (exept aquaculture seed), seed conservation and manage domestic aquatic reserves, marine protected areas.
Although that MOFI now has overall management responsibility for the MPAs system but that sites with a terrestrial as well as a marine component will be managed by MARD together with MOFI. This situation is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. Management regulations for MPAs are also under discussion but these are likely to be broad and flexible, in order to allow management regulations to be tailored to specific geographical areas and management requirements
Legislation at the provincial level There are 27 coastal provinces, cities in Viet Nam, among which over 10 provinces and cities having coral reef distribution with varied coverage and diversity. Due to the practice of protection activities of corals and other aquicultural and natural resources, the provinces has issued a number of different legislative documents, including decisions and directions. These documents focus mostly on the implementation of the Government’s policies, legislative documents regarding the protection of aquicultural resources and corals. In addition, provincial authorities are the major actor to organize the implementation of enforcing the rule of law not only in the area of protecting corals and aquicultural resources. As a result, the provincial authorities have issued related regulations, directions such as exploiting corals; purchasing and transporting corals, destroying corals to plant aquicutural products, building projects regarding the issues of waste treatment. Some localities have established, at different levels, zones of marine protection with the focus of protecting coral ecology. Further, more importantly some local communities with the assistance of the international organizations for natural preservation and central offices of sciences have committed and organized to protect coral reef effectively.
In general, the documents issued by the local authorities are characterized as: to solve a typical and serious case of legal violation at localities such as destroying and exploiting corals in a large scale. With an aim to organizing forces, collaborating different branches and authorities at levels to enforce the effective implementation of the rule of law regarding the protection of coral reefs. Issuing general regulations for a zone of protecting natural resources including coral reefs might be major or minor element, and to serve sustainable development (tourism, aquicultural resources) for communities. Having regulations to arrange and plan zones of different functions for territorial water including a number of islands and coastal areas, and different subjects of protection.
Besides, local legal documents show the active initiatives to solve the problems at hand without waiting for guidance from the central government: To harmonize the issues of protecting coral reefs and protecting aquicutural resources, and protecting environment. To solve the relations between protecting corals and exploiting minerals, planting aquicultural resources, developing communities. To unify the instructions, collaborate protecting forces within the provincial areas. Some policies and issues approach the view of intergrated management, linking the protection of corals and economic development, and issues in mainland. Some regulations have supplemented the management gap existing at central level, in accordance with the overall policies of the Party and Government.
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Provincial/local institutions Sustainable management of Viet Nam’s marine resources areas faces a number of institutional constrains. One of the most significant of these relates to the formal administrative jurisdiction for marine areas. There is a clear system of jurisdiction and administration for the terrestrial part of Viet Nam but no such comparable system exits for the country’s marine areas. Coastal provincial jurisdiction is in practice assumed to end at the limit of the coastline (low water) and there are no provincial boundaries extending into the marine times area. Where Provincial governments are involved in marine management they do so on a purely sectoral basic (eg. fisheries, marine transportation, etc). The result is that the marine zone of Viet Nam is treated as a completely open access with none of the control of the hierarchical system of government and administration that exist on the terrestrial side.
At provincial level, offices and branches such as the Department of Fisheries, the branch of Exploitation and Fishery Resource Protection, the Departement of Natural Resource and Environment remain under the supervision of expertise by the offices at ministerial level. Thus, there are still confusing, overlapping issues or some areas lacking the management at central level. However, under the law provincial People’s Committee is the authority to govern natural resources and environment within its provincial areas. Specialized offices are the authority to advise the implementation of tasks assigned by the provincial people’s committee. As such, whenever there a need to collaborate to solve overlapping issues or lack of management recognized or to assign responsibility for a specific issue, the provincial people’s committee can actively make decision.
Coral reef monitoring The need for developing this coral reef monitoring is increasing days after days in line with pressure put by human beings in Viet Nam. On the world, a great number of rapid methods on monitoring of coral reefs are built. One objective of the new methods is to try to come up with main indicators reflecting the characteristics of the population/society and reflecting the impact of human beings on the coral reefs. One important matter to be considered is how to expand the monitoring scale, meanwhile simplifying the method in order to shorten the monitoring time under water and involve many stakeholders, including volunteers and coastal communities.
Reef Check method can be evaluated as the one to response well to some aforesaid requirements, which is proved through the fact that Reef Check is used with LIT in Global Coral Reef Monitoring Programme (GCRMN). The foundation of this method is to monitor the characteristic indictors of the basic proportions living on the bottom grounds of coral reefs (hard corals, soft corals, dead corals, seaweeds, etc and agenesis creatures), and quantify some organism playing an important role on reefs economically and in the sense of ecosystems.
Reef Check monitoring also leaves options for selecting more suitable indicators/ instructed species for different reef areas and can be changed in accordance to the capacity of the participants. For areas whose ecology progress is paid attention to like Con Dao, the indicators are increased including the varieties of coral species, bleaching situation against classified units, fish quantity against families. When establishing community-based monitoring station like the ones in Van Hung (Khanh Hoa), Ninh Hai (Ninh Thuan), local economically-valued species are added to the list of the instructed species. The selection of the addition is made by local fishermen with the consultation from scientists. Besides the monitoring meaning, this way should help with raising awareness of communities on conserving marine natural resources with the participation from the local people.
Coral reef monitoring in Viet Nam was officially carried out since 1998 in the proximity of different topics. During the initial period, selected sites depended on the implementation of the projects whose researching goals may not relate to reef monitoring. Later, monitoring orientation was, step by step, combined into contents of some projects oriented network system building and more areas set up. The selection carried out based on the idea of “ network” consisting of ecological stereotype and management recommendations. Selected sites should be representatives for different marine waters, for areas with coral distribution and for biodiversity zoning.
As for management, some areas are protected in the proximity of some marine protected areas, some are open for free exploitation, even exploitation without management. Data collected from fixed monitoring sites in Nha Trang Bay, Con Dao since 1998 initially shown the changes in the structure of reef organism population under the natural impact and human impact. However, data collected from
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the permanent monitoring sites are not periodic and continuous due to financial difficulties and human resources so the effectiveness are not so high. Coral Reef Monitoring with the participation of local communities is considered necessary and important requirements in order to raising research potentialities and managing coral reefs in Viet Nam in a near future.
Coral reef rehabiliatation First trials for coral rehabilitation were carried out in 2000 at Con Dao islands following strong impacts Lynda typhoon. Some other practices were done during 2002 – 2005 in Van Phong and Nha Trang bay as experiments with poor data on motality and growth. More extensive rehabilitation was implemented by the National Project to restore and management of coral reefs in south Qui Nhon bay (Binh Dinh province) where coral reefs had suffered serious degradation due to coral mining, destructive fishing, providing systematic data from 2002 – 2004. Coral transplantation with collection of small part of coral colonies from good reefs was used as technique for rehabilitation with materials used for attachment of coral pieces including dead coral substratum, cement block, cement tubs, iron sticks.
The concurrent site management with strong supports from local government and communities has brought positive effectiveness of reef rehabilitation thank to not only coral transplantation but also natural recovery. Outputs of rehabilitation in Binh Dinh province indicate that:
- The species as Acropora nobilis, A. yongei, A. microphtalma obtained quick growth. Meanwhile Porites nigrescens presented good adaptation to environment seasonal change. - Foliose corals belonging to Montipora, Echinopora, Pachyseris, Echinopora and branch Acropora, Porites play an important role of natural rehabilitation. - At one of experiment sites, all restored corals died in rainy season, meanwhile corals growed well in summer, indicating a big change of fresh water flow and sedimentation which prevented coral restoration.
Restoration of reef resources was firsly considered by the Institute of Oceanography under the support by SUMA programme of Ministry of Fisheries during 2002-2004. Reproduction of Top shell Trochus nilotichus with wild broodstock was successfully practiced to provide spats for resource restoration with involvement of local community in Ninh Van village (Ninh Hoa, Khanh Hoa province). Top shell reserved in cages growed well in natural conditions and become broodstock to produce more spats (F1) for further restoration in Khanh Hoa province in present time.
Establisment and management of marine protected areas (MPAs) Viet Nam is now in a suitable period to develop the MPA system. On theory, a small part of marine resources and coastal resources of Viet Nam is protected in the existing MPA system. These MPAs are currently the focus to protect and conserve biodiversity in marine areas and coastal areas within the country. While the proportion of different ecosystems has not yet been enough mentioned in the MPAs system, the awareness of need in defining this proportion in the national MPA system has been increasing. This can be proved through the fact that Government agencies and the scientist submitted some national programs to develop MPAs and some proposed plans for each concrete MPA or to expand the areas of the existing MPAs.
The survey results on local communities in Viet Nam conducted by the project ADB 5712-REG have shown that coastal communities do not consider protected areas important. In fact, they are very important. This indicate that marine biodiversity are of high value, natural resources proliferate and bring economic benefits either directly or indirectly. Moreover, low priority is given to protected areas, meanwhile, high priorities are given to marine biodiversity and indicate that basic foundation to maintain, strengthen and expand protected areas in Vietanm is economically-based foundation, not only based on the value of biodiversity.
At the same time, tourism activities are quickly developing in coastal zone which included existing or proposed protected areas. Cat Ba, Nha Trang, Con Dao and Phu Quoc together with islands in Ha Long Bay which is approved as the World Heritage are important areas where tourism activities are being developed. Tourism can play an important role in developing coastal areas of Viet Nam.
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However, complicated matters still remain. Natural resources restocking in marine waters and coastal waters of Viet Nam are not in good conditions and being threatened by many factors, including over- exploiting, changing land- use methods and by polluting. In the existing protected areas system, there are great faults, especially of wetland environment, marine and coastal environment. Except some protected areas, Viet Nam lack of a program for marine/coastal protected areas. National Parks such as Cat Ba and Con Dao recommended their marine areas be protected and be recognized as such recently. Even so, these recommended-protected marine areas should be expanded to cover important marine habitats. Now, on theory, only part of coastal/marine natural resources of Viet Nam are considered in the existing protected area system.
There is a close relation between Marine/ Coastal Protected Areas with the matter of economic development in coastal areas. The matters like difficulties/ constraints are also clear and need to be addressed as follows: - Biological basis is not strong for the planning of protected area system - Low financial investment for MPA system - Low capacity of planning, establishing and managing protected areas - Legal frame, policies for protected areas in Viet Nam need to be completed - The matter of developing and improving livelihoods for communities - Awareness of communities and of managers on conservation - Existing capacity and managing situation at established Protected areas or to be established. - The matter of maintain sustainable activities of protected areas.
The challenge is to maintain, manage and reform important habitats on biodiversity which play a key role to the local and national economy, especially important protected areas, both in conserving biodiversity and coastal communities whose welfare and sources of income relied upon marine environment. Investment in conserving biodiversity in Viet Nam can be and should be considered as important steps to ensure the economic stability at coastal areas and stimulants for better improvement activities of the environment quality, meanwhile, establishing a conserving community and a more well-informed people who in reverse support natural conservation activities.
The histories of the Protected areas in Viet Nam are deemed to start from 1986 when natural reserve areas with priority-given ecosystems (mangroves) were established in Ca Mau, Bac Lieu. Then, National Parks such as Cat Ba, Con Dao were established and, step by step, they include waters around islands. Together with WWF - Indochina, the Oceanographic Institute took the initiatives in the research of the potential of biodiversity in accordance to the guidelines to establish marine protected areas in some marine waters during 1993-1995. After that, with the investment of the National Centre of Science and Technology, the Oceanographic Institute continued to build up scientific basis for plans under current preparation. Some realistic activities in line with guidelines for marine conservation are being carried out at marine/ coastal protected areas like Con Dao, Phu Quoc, etc.
The project ADB 5712-REG (phase 2) recommend a national system consisting of 30 marine/coastal protected areas. The management of 6 of them need to be strengthened. Eight of them need expanding and management need to be increased. 6 of them are newly established. Nowadays, the Vietnamese Government consigned Ministry of Fisheries (MOFI) to make a plan to develop marine protected areas. The results of marine parts of the project ADB are incorporated into this plan. 15 areas are listed with the ecosystem given priority to such as coral reefs and seagrass beds. One area in Spratly is also brought into the plan. With the sponsor of Global Environment Fund, DANIDA and Vietnamese Government, the Hon Mun Pilot Project and Cu Lao Cham MPA have been operating in accordance to the strategy of marine conservation. At local levels, provinces and cities also started to prepare protection plan and managing their coral reefs. The model of coral reef management with various objectives is applied to coral reefs in Ninh Hai district, Ninh Thuan province in order to resolve the conflicts between economic stakeholders in using and conserving the local reefs. The plan to establish “no-take” zones or sanctuaries with small-scales is being made in Ninh Hai (NinhThuan) and in Van Phong Bay. However, they are only first-step pilot models in order to seek out effective measures in reaching integrated managing of coral reefs in particular and of marine protected areas in general in a sustainable way.
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The next step towards developing more specific legislation for MPAs has been taken by MOFI through the development of Draft Regulation on Marine Conservation Area Management (2000/QD-TTg). This regulation stipulates the general provisions and regulation for MPA management and includes a short definition of three proposed categories for marine conservation areas (i.e. Marine National Park; Habitat/species protected areas and Marine Resources Management Areas). It also provides guidance for formation of MPA Management Board and identifies mechanism for State management MPA. The regulation provides also the basis for establishing a broader national legal framework for MPAs.
Following this draft regulation, the Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for the management of MPAs including: Development of legal documents and policies related to the establishment of MPAs (official approval is obtained through the National Assembly); Development of programs and project proposals to expand the system of MPAs; Establishment of management boards for MPAs under the direct management of MOFI; Publicity, training and professional development for marine conservation.
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