Ming Qing Yanjiu 21 (2017) 58–92 brill.com/mqyj Representations of History in the Poetry of Zheng Jing Writing about Identity in the Southern Ming Olivia Milburn Seoul National University [email protected] Abstract Zheng Jing 鄭經 (1642–1681), the first classically trained Chinese-language poet to write about Taiwan’s landscape, also addressed a number of other themes. This paper will consider his small group of historical poems dealing with the achievements of the founders of earlier imperial dynasties; his poems about contemporary events, in particular the ongoing conflict between the Qing government and the remnants of the Southern Ming dynasty (which he supported) on Taiwan; his poems about his experi- ences as a military commander; and his poems criticizing the Manchu imperial house for their alien customs and culture. These works aren’t read here as straightforwardly autobiographical; instead we’ll interpret them as works of literature, ones carefully constructed to send specific political messages to a contemporary readership. Keywords Zheng Jing – Southern Ming – Ming-Qing transition – poetry – identity – history Introduction In the second half of the seventeenth century, Zheng Jing 鄭經 (1642–1681) became the first classically trained Chinese language poet to write about the landscape of the island of Taiwan. His writings record scenes from the Jinmen and Penghu islands and from Taiwan itself, and he provides the earliest po- etic accounts of the customs and culture of Taiwan’s inhabitants. For this he is justifiably famous within the history of Taiwanese literature. Studies of Zheng © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2018 | doi 10.1163/24684791-12340014Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 09:50:13AM via free access Representations of History in the Poetry of Zheng Jing 59 Jing’s poetry have approached his work from a number of angles. Some schol- ars have focused on his significance as the first poet to incorporate Taiwanese images in his writings, specifically through poems that describe landscape— the topic that he returned to more times than any other.1 There have also been a small number of studies that focus on his use of particular images, most notably Ruan Xiaoqi’s 阮筱琪 analysis of Zheng Jing’s self-representation as a lonely, isolated figure.2 However, the great majority of readings of Zheng Jing’s poetry concentrate on its relationship to his life, with the verse being read autobiographically and assigned to specific dates and stages of develop- ment—often on very arbitrary grounds. In addition, considerable efforts have been made to draft the poet into modern arguments concerning the relation- ship between China and Taiwan.3 By contrast, this paper takes as its subject Zheng Jing’s writings on history and on ethnic and cultural identity, and his patriotic engagement with the Southern Ming dynasty in his role as one of the chief military leaders of the ongoing resistance to the Manchu Qing. These works will here be read as deliberate literary self-representations, rather than as statements of fact. This paper will consider three specific themes found in the poetry of Zheng Jing. First, he wrote a small group of historical poems that consider the achieve- ments of the founders of earlier imperial dynasties. Secondly, he produced a number of poems about contemporary events, in particular the ongoing con- flict between the Qing government and the remnants of the Southern Ming dynasty (which he supported) on Taiwan; these include works treating his own experiences as a commander in the war. Finally, he wrote about the Manchu imperial house, arguing that their alien customs and culture made them un- suitable to rule in China. These poems are interpreted here not as pieces of autobiography but as works of literature that have been carefully constructed to send specific messages to a contemporary readership. Zheng Jing was keenly aware of his position and understood the value of his poetry as a means for communicating his opinions to friends and enemies. Therefore, Zheng Jing’s poetry will be analyzed here as a reflection of how he wished to be seen, not of how he was. 1 For example, see Gong Xianzong 2002 and Huang Tengde 2013. 2 Ruan Xiaoqi 2009. 3 Wu Yuqi 2012 gives an interesting political reading of Zheng Jing’s poetry as a reflection of his status as the second King of Yanping, and in doing so manages to avoid mention of modern conflicts over Taiwan. Other studies show significantly less restraint; for example, see Zhu Shuangyi 2005 and Liu Jianming 2014. Ming Qing Yanjiu 21 (2017) 58–92 Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 09:50:13AM via free access 60 Milburn The Zheng Family: Political Identities in the Southern Ming The identity—and recorded self-identification—of the various individual members of the Zheng family was highly fluid throughout the Ming-Qing transition era, the period when the family was historically and politically significant.4 The simplest way to show the hybrid and multivalent way in which they constructed their identity is through a consideration of the social and geographical mobility they showed and the wide variety of names that they used at different stages of their lives. This process of constructing a com- plex and multilayered personal identity is recorded from the time of Zheng Jing’s grandfather, usually known by his Chinese name, Zheng Zhilong 鄭芝龍 (1604–1661). A native of Tong’an 同安 in Fujian province, as a young man he travelled to Macau. There he learned Portuguese, converted to Catholicism, and adopted a new name: Nicholas Iquan (Yiguan 一官) Gaspard.5 Subsequently, Zheng Zhilong moved to Hirado in Japan, where he worked for some years before returning to Fujian. Operating from his home province, he built an in- creasingly extensive—but largely illegal—international trading network.6 In 1628, he achieved an accommodation with the Ming government that allowed him to legitimize his activities and obtain official rank within the regime. After the collapse of the Ming central government following the fall of Beijing in 1644, Zheng Zhilong became associated with the court of the first Southern Ming regime. He accepted an earldom (Nan’an bo 南安伯) from Zhu Yousong 朱由崧 (1607–1646), formerly the King of Fu 福王 (r. 1642–44), who ruled as the Hongguang Emperor 弘光帝 (r. 1644–45). When Qing forces captured the Hongguang Emperor’s capital of Nanjing and ended his reign, Zhu Yujian 朱聿鍵 (1602–1646), the King of Tang 唐王 (r. 1632–36, 1645), established himself 4 Struve 1984 is the most detailed study of this period to be in English and from the Ming loyal- ist perspective. The work concludes with the death of Zheng Chenggong in 1662, during the final retreat of the Zheng forces to Taiwan. For an exhaustive history of the Qing conquest, see Wakeman 1985. 5 This was the beginning of a long-term engagement between the Zheng family and various different European powers, and the family also retained close links with the Catholic Church for several generations. See Mateo 2002; Zhang Xianqing and Wang Hui 2015; and Chen Zhongchun 2010. 6 It is now thought by some scholars that the famous Selden Map (depicting trade routes link- ing Fujian with Japan, Vietnam, Malaysia, Taiwan, and the Philippines) was produced for Zheng Zhilong, and that this indicates something of the extent of his activities; for example, see Lin Meicun 2013. Another option put forward by some scholars is that the map was origi- nally produced for Li Dan 李旦 (d. 1625), Zheng Zhilong’s employer in Hirado; see Batchelor 2013: 56–57. Ming QingDownloaded Yanjiu from 21Brill.com09/30/2021 (2017) 58–92 09:50:13AM via free access Representations of History in the Poetry of Zheng Jing 61 as the Longwu Emperor 隆武帝 (r. 1645–46) in Fuzhou. Seeking local support, he promoted Zheng Zhilong to the rank of marquis, with the title Pinglu hou 平虜侯 (Marquis of Pacifying the Caitiffs), and then to the rank of duke, with the title Pingguo gong 平國公 (Duke of Pacifying the State).7 In 1646, Zheng Zhilong made the strategic decision to defect to the Qing, as a result of which he was granted membership of the Plain Yellow Banner as a Martial Han and given the Manchu title of Jingqini hafan 精奇尼哈番 (equivalent to viscount) of the third rank. In 1654, he was again raised to the rank of marquis, this time with the title Tong’an hou 同安侯, which referenced his place of birth. But two years later, in the face of continuing hostilities involving his son, Zheng Zhilong was stripped of all his titles and honours, and he spent the rest of his life in prison before his execution in 1661.8 Zheng Zhilong experienced an ex- traordinary rise in wealth and rank before his downfall, and his career spanned a number of regimes and involved interaction with a wide variety of ethnic groups.9 At each stage of change, he either adopted a new name or else was granted a new title. Attempting to peel apart these layers and find a definitive version of the man would negate Zheng Zhilong’s success at being himself. A similar complexity can be seen in the identity of Zheng Zhilong’s old- est son, Zheng Chenggong 鄭成功 (1624–1662). Although he is usually desig- nated in modern scholarship by this name, it was not the name he preferred to use, and his other identities should be recognized. During his childhood in Nagasaki under the care of his mother, a member of the Tagawa 田川 fam- ily, Zheng Chenggong was known by the personal name of Fukumatsu 福松. Subsequently, when he joined his father in Fujian, he was renamed Zheng Sen 鄭森.