Black-Footed Ferret Recovery Effort Progresses Toward Reintroduction

January 1991 Vol. XVI No. 1

Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Technical Bulletin Washington, D. C. 20240 Black-footed Ferret Recovery Effort Progresses Toward Reintroduction

Many encouraging events have occurred since our last update on the black-footed ferret recovery program (see Bulletin Vol. XIV, No. 7). Efforts of the Fish and Wildlife Service, Wyoming Game and Fish Depart- ment, other Federal, State, and Native American agencies, and private groups to restore the Endangered black- footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) in the wild are gathering steam. Captive breeding, research, and investigations of possible reintroduction sites are proceeding in a number of" areas. As a result of these recovery activities, the Service now anticipates that black- footed ferrets will be reintroduced

into the wild in the fall of 1991. The last known population of black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) in the wild was discovered in 1981 in a white-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus) complex near fi/leteetse, Wyoming. In 1986, after disease struck the colony, the last survivors were taken for captive breeding. Captive Breeding The entire captive population of 180 ferrets (fall 1990) descends from 18 of the Meteetse animals. All known black-footed ferrets are now in captivity. The worlds black- At the Sybille Unit, several other The Henry Doorly Zoo had a suc- footed ferret population reached 180 noteworthy events have been recorded cessful breeding season in 1990, un- anim;ils this fall, up from 118 animals in the captive breeding effort. Sibe- like 1989 when the ferrets did not in 1989, through captive breeding rian polecats (Mustela eversmanni) whelp as expected. Successful breed- efforts at the Sybille Wildlife Re- played an important role in the sur- ing resulted from a better understand- search and Conservation Unit near vival of several black-footed ferret kits. ing of the life and reproducdve cycles Wheatland, Wyoming, the National In 1989 and 1990, surrogate polecat of these animals, the introduction of Zoological Park's Conservation and mothers, bred at the same time as the new and better diets (including the Research Center at Front Royal, Vir- ferrets, nursed the ferret kits when the addition of vitamin E), and the appli- ginia, and the Henry Doorly Zoo in black-footed ferret mothers failed to cation of new techniques, including Omaha, Nebraska. A total of 63 kits lactate, hi 1990, for the first time at light-cycle manipulation to induce were added to the three captive popu- Sybille, a black-footed ferret kit suc- early estrus in black-footed ferret fe- lations, of which 50 were added to the cessfully nursed from a black-footed males. Also in 1990, two black- Sybille population, 2 to the Omaha ferret that was not its mother. Older footed ferrets at the zoo were success- population, and 11 to the Front Royal female ferrets that failed to breed and fully subjected to root canal surgery population. The total captive popula- viable females that refused to accept after breaking the tips off their canine tion is rapidly approaching the level in males were also artificially insemi- teeth. the recovery plan when ferrets can be- nated in 1990, but this effort was un- Two more facilities are now partici- gin to be reintroduced into the wild. successful. (fontimied on page 3)

1 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) tion as a Habitat (Conservation Area for the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurinn). This action was recommended in the Interagency Sci- entific Committee's 1990 report, "A Con,servation Strategy for the North- ern Spotted Owl," popularly known as the "Jack Ward Fhomas Report" (see Bulletin Vol. XV, No. 7). The Reser- vation could provide a key link, con- necting suitable spotted owl habitat between Washington's Cascades physi- ographic province and the Olympic Peninsula. The Service has offered to a.ssist the Army in conducting habitat Regional endangered species staffers Station staff met in late November have reported the following news: with Fort Lewis Military Reservation inventories and owl surveys. • * • Region 1 - The Fish and Wildlife biologists and foresters to discuss the Service's Olympia, Washington, Field possible designation of the Reserva- The Boise, Idaho, Field Station is providing technical assistance to na-

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region 3, Federal BIdg., Fort Snelling, Twin ture film producer Jim Dutcher, who Washington, D.C. 20240 Cities, MN 55111 (612-725-3500); James C. plans to produce a feature film on Gritman, Regional Director: John Blankenship, John Turner, Director Assistant Regional Director: William F. gray wolves (Canis lupus) for the ABC (202-208-4717) Harrison, Acting Endangered Species Spe- television network. The film is sched- Ralph O. Morgenweck cialist. Assistant Director for Fish uled for broadcast in 1994. Mr. and Wildlife Enhancement Region 4, Richard B. Russell Federal BIdg., 75 Dutcher's film should aid wolf recov- (202-208-4646) Spring Street, S.W., Atlanta, GA 30303 (404- ery by providing accurate information Larry R. Shannon, Chief, 331-3580): James W. Pulliam, Regional Di- Division of Endangered Species to millions of television viewers. rector: Tom Olds, Assistant Regional Direc- * • * (703-358-2171) tor: David Flemming, Endangered Species William E. Knapp, Chief, Specialist. Division of Habitat Conservation In November and December, biolo- (703-358-2161) Region 5, One Gateway Center, Suite 700, gists from the Service's Sacramento, Marshall P. Jones, Chief, Newton Corner, MA 02158 (617-965-5100); Office of Management Authority Ronald E. Lambertson, Regional Director: California, Field Station, San Fran- (703-358-2093) Ralph Pisapia, Assistant Regional Director: cisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge, John J, Doggett, Chief, Paul Nickerson, Endangered Species Spe- and California Department of Fish Division of Law Enforcement cialist. (703-358-1949) and Came conducted a winter popula- TECHNICAL BULLETIN Region 6, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal tion census of the FLndangered Cali- Michael Bender, Editor Center; Denver, CO 80225 (303-236-7920); Michael Rees, Assistant Editor Galen Buterbaugh, RegionalDirectorHoben E. fornia clapper rail {Rallus longirostris (703-358-2166) Jacobsen, Assistant Regional Director: Larry obsoletus) in major marshes of South Shanks, Endangered Species Specialist. Regional Offices San Francisco Bay. Although Califor- Region 1, Eastside Federal Complex, 911 N.S.11 th Avenue, Portland, OR 97232-4181 Region 7, 1011 E. Tudor Rd., Anchorage, AK nia clapper rail populations still ap- 99503 (907-786-3542); Walter O. Stieglitz, (503-231-6118); Marvin Plenert, Regional Di- pear stable along the western shore- Regional Director: Rowan Gould, Assistant rector: Dale Hall, Assistant Regional Director; Regional Director: Ron Garrett, Endangered line, with red foxes (Vidpes vulpes) ap- Bob Ruesink, Endangered Species Specialist. Species Specialist. parently not yet established there, Region 2, P.O. Box 1306, Albuquerque, NM Region 8, (FWS Research and Development populations along the eastern shore- 87103 (505-766-2321); Michael J. Spear, nationwide), Washington, D.C. 20240; John line within the ReRige continue to de- Regional Director, James A. Young, Assistant D. Buffington, Regional Director: Al Sherk, Regional Director: George Divine, Acting En- Endangered Species Specialist (703-358- cline. No more than 30 California dangered Species Specialist. 1710). clapper rails were observed in Dum- barton Point Marsh and 50 were U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Regions ob.served in Mowry Slough. Histori- Region 1: California, Hawaii. Idaho, Nevada. Oregon. Washington, American Samoa, Commonwealth otthe Northern Mariana Islands. Guam, and the Pacific Trust Territories. Region 2: Arizona. New Mexico. Oklahoma, and Texas. Region 3: Illinois, Indiana, cally, these marshes respectively sup- Iowa. Michigan. Minnesota. Missouri. Ohio, and Wisconsin. Region 4: Alabama. Arkansas, Flonda. Georgia. Kentucky. Louisiana. Mississippi. North Carolina. South Carolina. Tennessee. Puerto Rico and the U .S. Virgin Islands. Region 5: Connecticut. Delaware. ported over 200 and over 150 rails. District of Columbia. Maine. Maryland, Massachusetts. New Hampshire. New Jersey. New York. Pennsylvania, Rhode Island. * * * Vermont. Virginia, and West Virginia. Region 6: Colorado. Kansas. Montana. Nebraska. North Dakota. South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. Region 7: Alaska. Region 8: Research and Development nationwide. Region 9: Washington, D.C., Office. On December 11, the U.S. Forest The Endangered Species Technical Bulletin is published on recyclable paper consisting of Service, Idaho Department of Lands, at least 50% recycled wastepaper. People who do not keep back issues are urged to recycle and Washington-Idaho Forest Indus- the paper, pass them along to an interested person, or donate them to a local school or library. (continued on page 5)

2 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) Northern Spotted Owl Recovery Team is Announced

Secretary of the Interior Manuel Knowles, Deputy Under Secretary, as for the Northern Spotted Owl, U.S. Lujan has announced the creation of a Team Coordinator [Bulletin Vol. XV, Forest Service) l6-member Northern Spotted Owl No. 11). The Team will be under the • Richard Holthausen (Forest & Recovery Team, which has the chal- authority of the Secretary's Office. Wildlife Biologist, U.S. Forest Service) lenging task of writing a plan to se- The newly announced Team mem- • John Beuter (Deputy Assistant cure the owl's long-term future. The bers are: Secretary for Natural Resources and Team includes representatives of the • Martha Pagel (Governor's Repre- the Environment, Department of Ag- affected States, all involved Federal sentative, State of Oregon) riculture) land management agencies, and aca- • Christine Sproul (Governor's • Melvin Berg (Forester, Bureau of demia. In his directive to the Team, Representative, State of California) Land Management) Secretary Lujan said, "The develop- • Richard Nafziger (Governor's • Wayne Elmore (Wildlife & Fish- ment of a recovery plan for the north- Representative, State of Washington) eries Biologist, Bureau of Land ern spotted owl may be the most im- • John Tappeiner (Silviculturalist Management) portant effort of its kind since the pas- & Forest Ecologist, Oregon State Uni- • Edward Starkey (Research Biolo- sage of the Endangered Species Act." versity) gist, National Park Ser\'ice) The northern spotted owl (Strix oc- • Ralph Gutierrez (Wildlife Biolo- • Kenneth Lathrop (Forester, cidentalis caiirina) was listed on June gist, Humboldt State University, Cali- Bureau of Indian Affairs) 26, 1990, as Threatened (see Bulletin fornia) • led Heintz (Economist, Office of Vol. XV, No. 7). Under the Act, the • John Fay (Biologist, Division of the Assistant Secretary for Policy, Secretary of the Interior has the re- Endangered Species, U.S. Fish and Management and Budget, Depart- sponsibility to develop a plan for its Wildlife Service) ment of the Interior) recovery. As the first step in this pro- • Jonathan Bart (Wildlife Biologist, Fhe Team should begin its work in cess, Secretary Lujan named Marvin U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) March, and a draft recovery plan is Plenert, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife • Robert Anthony (Wildlife Biolo- expected by fall of 1991. Upon Service's Portland Regional Director, gist, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) completion of the draft, it will be re- to serve as Team Leader and Donald • Kent Mays (Program Manager leased for public comment. Ferret Recovery Progresses leased. Research on disease control is pected to yield important information (continued from page 1) taking place in all of the captive for training black-footed ferrets and paring in the captive breeding pro- breeding facilities. Cancer continues designing cages to stimulate hunting gram, bringing the total to five. Fhe to be the primary medical problem instincts. To assist the work being Louisville, Kentucky, Zoological Park with aging black-footed ferrets. done at the Sybille Unit, one full-time and Cheyenne Mountain Zoo in Coccidiosis, a disease caused by a veterinary technician and a doctoral Colorado Springs, Colorado, received parasitic protozoan that infects the in- candidate researching black-footed ferret breeding pairs in December ner lining of the digestive tract, has ferret behavior, sponsored by the Ser- 1990. (The Kentucky Fried Chicken caused the deaths of several kits in the vice, have been assigned to work with Corporation flew the black-footed fer- past and is being studied so it can be the Wyoming Game and Fish Depart- rets down to the Louisville Zoological controlled (but not totally eradicated). ment. Park in its corporate jet.) Another Black-footed ferrets need to be ex- Fhe Service and the National Fish two facilities, the Phoenix, Arizona, posed to some level of the disease to and Wildlife Foundation have spon- Zoo and Toronto, Ontario, Zoo have build up the natural immunity neces- sored a study at the University of been selected to pardcipate in the cap- sary to survive any outbreak of Wyoming's Department of Veterinary tive breeding program and should re- coccidiosis once they are reintroduced Sciences, where a canine distemper ceive breeding pairs in late 1991. into the wild. vaccine is being tested on Siberian At the Sybille Unit, Fish and Wild- polecats with very promising results. Research life Service and Wyoming Game and Two black-footed ferrets were inocu- A variety of black-footed ferret Fish Department-sponsored research- lated with a modified live virus vac- studies are being conducted around ers are conducting studies on predator cine in early January 1991 to test its the country. Much of the research is avoidance, hunting-prey behavior, and safety and effectiveness. Seven more focused on improving the ability of imprinting of different types of diets ferrets will be inoculated with the vac- captive-reared black-footed ferrets to for captive-reared black-footed ferrets. cine in the near future. survive in the wild when they are re- Results of these investigations are ex- (continued on page 4)

3 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) Ferret Recovery Progresses workshop to learn how to take advan- (continued from page 3) tage of experiences with mammalian Black-footed ferrets prey almost ex- t and avian reintroductions. The par- clusively on prairie dogs. In the fall of ticipants discussed a variety of topics, 1989, the Service sponsored a Prairie including possible threats to reintro- Dog Ecosystem Workshop at Estes duced animals, minimum population Park, C^olorado. This workshop sizes, and release techniques. Several brought together about 25 experts and important conclusions and recom- scientists knowledgeable in the soil, mendations came out of the work- range, food chain, and disease rela- shop. For example, the participants tionships of prairie dogs. They met to found that most successful reintro- identify management problems in ductions use young-of-the-year rather prairie dog ecosystems and examine than older animals. The participants how these problems could affect also recommended that 50 captive black-footed ferret reintroduction ef- animals be released in the fall of 1991, forts. The biologists discussed such provided this release does not jeopar- topics as prairie dog diseases (includ- J dize the captive population. ing sylvatic plague, a flea-carried virus Service biologists are establishing that is deadly to prairie dogs), the ef- guidelines for removing Environmen- fects of cattle grazing on the prairie tal Protection Agency rodenticide la- The Wyoming Game and Fish Departments's dog ecosystem (and vice versa), and Sybille Wildlife Research and Conservation beling restrictions on less suitable the effects of recreational shooting of Education Unit near Wheatland is one of five prairie dog complexes. The Service facilities where black-footed ferrets are being prairie dogs on the ferret's prey base. bred in captivity. Two more facilities should also is working with the Interstate Co- (The workshop proceedings eventually begin participating in the program later this ordinating Committee's state working year. will be published by the Service and groups (which include State, Federal, the Wyoming Came and Fish Depart- and private owners of possible tual release. In the fill of 1989, the ment.) A brochure designed to edu- reintroduction sites) and other inter- first three conditioning cages for cate people on the values of prairie ested parties to map prairie dog towns black-footed ferret "hunter training" dog ecosystems subsequently was pre- within most of the black-footed were finished by the Wyoming Came pared by the Service and distributed ferret's historical range (i.e., within and Fish Department at the Sybille to people living within the historical Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Unit, and they have been stocked with range of the black-footed ferret. South Dakota, Utah, Kansas, Ne- prairie dogs. Biologists from the braska, Arizona, and Wyoming). Studies on predator diseases are Service's National Ecology Research Representatives of the Bureau of In- being conducted at probable reintro- Onter and the National Zoological dian Affairs and the Service are evalu- duction sites in South Dakota in co- Park are using Siberian polecats (also ating possible reintroduction sites on operation with the State of South Da- called steppe polecats) to study tech- Tribal lands in Montana and South kota, National Park Service, and the niques for training black-footed ferrets Dakota, although progress is very Forest Service. The Fish and Wildlife to hunt and avoid predators. (See the slow. In western New Mexico and Service and Bureau of Land Manage- Regional News in this issue for addi- eastern Arizona, Navajo Nation biolo- ment are sponsoring studies on the tional details.) recreational shooting of prairie dogs gists are surveying and identifying and its potential impact on black- sites for restoring black-footed ferret footed ferret reintroduction plans. Preparing for Reintroduction on their lands. Such reintroductions Other Service studies are gauging the The process of evaluating potential could be significant for helping to socio-economic consequences and reintroduction sites for black-footed conserve the lands and culti:res of Na- public attitudes regarding the possible ferrets has accelerated due to the suc- tive Americans. reintroduction of ferrets in Montana. cess of the captive breeding program. Within Wyoming, Chevron USA, Probably one of the highlights of The Shirley Basin Reintroduction Inc., the Wyoming Came and Fish 1990 was the Black-Footed Ferret In December 1989, the Interstate Department, and the Service have Reintroduction Workshop, sponsored Coordinating Committee's state work- jointly sponsored predator studies in in March by the Wyoming Came and ing groups ranked potential black- the Shirley Basin/Medicine Bow area. Fish Department and the Service in footed ferret reintroduction sites in Research is also being conducted on Laramie, Wyoming. About 20 biolo- training captive-bred ferrets for even- gists and researchers gathered at the (continued on next page)

4 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) / Ferret Recovery Progresses ment plan for the Shirley Basin tion pens with artificial burrows. (continued from previous page) reintroduction, with Meeteetse, Wyo- Then, if all goes well, the ferrets will three States. On November 20, 1990, ming, as a back-up site. (Similar be allowed to move freely in and out the Service's Denver Regional Direc- documents are also being prepared for of the pens, which can serve as shelters tor and the Director of the Wyoming possible reintroduction sites in Mon- until the ferrets adapt to life on the Game and Fish Department decided tana.) outside. The radio-collared animals that the Shirley Basin in Wyoming Initially, biologists are planning to will be monitored until their dispersal was biologically the best and would be release about 50 black-footed ferrets and survival are well documented. Bi- the first reintroduction site. This into the Shirley Basin. (The exact ologists are cautioning everyone to ex- high prairie area, south of Casper, was number and sex of the ferrets will be pect high mortality of released ani- selected because it supports a 39,000- determined by the captive breeding mals, possibly exceeding 90 percent. acre (16,000-hectare) white-tailed population.) Successive releases will If all goes according to plan, black- prairie dog (Cynomys leuciiriis) com- likely be necessary to establish a viable footed ferrets will once again be living plex, it contains large blocks of public population. All of these ferrets will be in the wild this fall. With the coop- land (primarily Bureau of Land Man- marked, radio-tagged, and released in eration and assistance of State and agement-administered lands), and pri- litter or social groups established in Federal agencies, private landowners, vate landowners and cattle grazing in- captivity to increase their chances of ranchers, corporations, zoos. Native terests are agreeable to the reintro- survival. Prior to their release in the Americans, and other interested par- duction. The Service and State of Shirley Basin, the ferrets will be kept ties, the future of the black-footed fer- Wyoming are preparing a draft envi- and fed for about 10 days near a high ret recovery effort looks promising. ronmental assessment and manage- density prairie dog town in acclima-

Regional News bou (Rangifer tamndus caribou) across contemplated for this summer. {continued from page 2) North America are in decline from The Hualapai Mexican Vole Recov- tries reached a tentative agreement to unknown causes. Most likely, a com- ery Plan is expected to be completed manage roads in the Grouse Creek bination of poaching, wolf/bear pre- this winter. Grizzly Bear Management Unit of the dation, and road building, together * * • Cabinet-Yaak ecosystem. 'Fhis agree- with the naturally low reproductive The U.S. Forest Service, Fish and ment will help secure 70 square miles rates of caribou, are having a cumula- Wildlife Service, University of Ari- (180 square kilometers) of grizzly bear tive effect on the herds. zona, Arizona Game & Fish Depart- (Ursus arctos horribilis) habitat in + + * ment, and volunteers completed the Idaho. In this heavily roaded area, 56 Region 2 - The status of the En- fall 1990 survey of the Endangered locations were identified as needing dangered F^ualapai Mexican vole Mount Graham red squirrel access restriction gates or barricades. (Microtus mexicaniis hualpaiensis) is (Tamiasciurns hudsonicus gmhamensis) I'he agencies identified responsibili- being assessed by the Arizona Game in late October. The total fall popula- ties for management of each location and Fish Department under a Fish tion, including juveniles, was esti- and agreed upon actions to place and and Wildlife Service contract. The mated to be between 250 and 300 maintain gates or barriers. Using vole has been known to occur recently animals. It is difficult to tell, how- funds provided under Section 6 of the in four areas. However, surveys of ever, whether this represents a real in- Endangered Species Act, up to 12 three of the areas by the Bureau of crease in the squirrel's population gates will be installed on private or Land Management and the Service in from last year. Conifer cone crops State land to aid law enforcement and late September revealed no sign of were good this year, especially for help provide grizzly bear security. Af- voles. One of the areas (Grapevine Englemann spruce (Picea engelmanii), ter the three parties sign the coopera- Spring) appeared to have been de- in contrast to previous years. Both tive agreement, which should be this stroyed by a flood earlier in 1990. adult and juvenile red squirrels were winter, gates and barriers will be in- The drought of 1988-1989 eliminated storing conifer cones in middens (i.e., stalled in 1991 and 1992. vegetative cover at the other two sites. food storage areas). Some animals ap- * * * The State extensively surveyed all four peared to be developing new middens, The Woodland Caribou Recovery known areas in the fall of 1990 and with cones being stored on the ground Team met in Spokane, Washington, to evaluated other sites that once sup- in small hollows, along fallen trees, revise the current recovery plan for the ported populations. Only one site and inside logs. The success of these Endangered Selkirk Mountain herd. (Pine Peak Canyon) shows signs of new ventures will be examined in the A draft revision should be ready by vole activity. Further exploration of spring surveys. the spring of 1991. Woodland cari- the canyon and surrounding areas is (continued on page 9)

5 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) \ Listing Proposals — December 1990

Nine species — five Idaho snails, Florida Plants three Florida plants, and one North Three plant species native to the Carolina plant — were proposed by Apalachicola region of the Florida the Fish and Wildlife Service during panhandle were proposed by the December 1990 for listing as Endan- Service for listing as Threatened (ER. gered or Threatened. If the listing 12/18/91): proposals become final, the following • Telephus spurge (Euphorbia tele- taxa will receive Endangered Species phioides) — An herbaceous perennial, Act protection. this plant has a highly branched, bushy appearance and grows to about one foot (30 centimeters) tall. Its Idaho Snails broad leaves are maroon at the edges. Five species of small aquatic snails 'Fhe inflorescence is a cyathium restricted to the Snake River system (a structure resembling a flower, con- were proposed December 18 for list- taining several male flowers, each re- ing as Endangered: duced to a single stamen, plus a single • Bliss Rapids snail, an unde- stalked female flower). This species is scribed, monotypic genus in the known from only 22 sites, all within 4 family Hydrobiidae; miles (6.4 kilometers) of the coast. • Utah valvata snail (Valvata • white birds-in-a-nest (Macbridea utahensis), which despite its name is alba) — This perennial, a member of now known only from Idaho; the mint family (Lamiaceae), is an up- • Snake River Physa snail (Physa right, usually single-stemmed herb natricina) ; Valvata utahensis that grows up to approximately one • Idaho springsnail (Fontelicella Snake River Physa snail — will likely foot in height. Its large, brilliant idahoensis) ; and become extinct. Even existing dams green and white flowers resemble • Banbury Springs limpet, an may be causing additional damage to snapdragons and are clustered among undescribed species in the genus Lanx. the habitat by the practice of "peak bracts at the top of the plant. Forty- loading," which requires the artificial one of this species' 63 known sites are All five species occur only at a few raising and lowering of water levels within Apalachicola National Forest. sites in south-central Idaho within the for generating power at times of peak • Florida skullcap (Scutellaria main channel of the Snake River and demand. Oxygen depletion, water floridana) — Another perennial mint, several tributaries. None of these pollution from agricultural runoff 5. floridana is sparsely branched and snails can survive in reservoirs. They and competition from a recently in- has short, narrow leaves with purplish apparently require clean, well-oxygen- troduced snail {Potomapyrgus antipo- tips. Its flowers are bright lavender- ated water and a rapid, free-flowing danim) are other potential threats. blue and white, and have a cap or river or large spring habitat. As Federal agencies whose activities "scutellum" on the calyx. This species reaches of the Snake River have been could have an impact on the habitat is known from 11 sites, 5 of which are impounded for irrigation and hydro- of the Idaho snails include the Federal in the Apalachicola National Forest. power facilities, the amount of suit- Energy Regulatory Commission, All three species are restricted to able habitat available for the snails has which has jurisdiction over licenses for lowlands along the Gulf of Mexico been reduced substantially. Only 11 hydroelectric projects, and the U.S. coast, where they grow primarily in known sites support remnant popula- Army Corps of Engineers, which has wet savannas, seepage bogs, and other tions of one or more species. authority under Section 404 of the open, poorly drained areas. Many of Hydroelectric projects have been Clean Water Act to regulate the filling these native habitats are being con- proposed for construction in several of of navigable waters and other wet- verted to pine plantations or improved the remaining sections of free-flowing lands. If the Idaho snails are listed pastures. The suppression of naturally habitat on the Snake River. If these under the Endangered Species Act, all occurring wildfires also affects the facilities are approved and built as Federal agencies will be required to sun-dependent plants by allowing the planned, the population of all five rare ensure that their activities are not encroachment of competing vegeta- snails will be reduced, and two species likely to jeopardize the survival of tion. Power line rights-of-way provide — the Banbury Springs limpet and these species. (continued on next page)

6 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) clearings and along the edges of n; upland woods where the canopy is thin. Therefore, it depends on some form of periodic disturbance to maintain the open quality of its habitat. Some of the openings once produced by wildfires and native grazing animals are now being maintained by artificial disturbances (e.g., certain power line and road right-of-way maintenance activities). Being concen- trated on such intensively managed areas, however, exposes the plants to risk from herbicides, trampling, and mowing during their reproductive cycle. white birds-in-a-nest {Macbndea alba) With proper management, the two populations that are located within law, which regulates taking, transport, highway rights-of-way may survive. and sale but does not provide habitat The third, however, is in an area protection. Populations of M. alba recently subdivided for residential de- and S. floridana in Apalachicola velopment. Other threats to the white National Forest are managed with the irisette include encroachment by ag- intention of benefitting these and gressive, non-native plants such as other sensitive species. If the Services kudzu (Pueraria lobata) and Japanese listing proposal is approved, the habi- honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica). tat of all three plants will receive protection from any adverse ef- North Carolina already lists the fects of Federal activities. white irisette as endangered, but the restrictions on take and trade provided by State law do not extend to habitat. White Irisette (Sisyrinchium If the Service's listing proposal is dichotomum) approved, the species will gain protec- As indicated by its common name, tion from any adverse effects of Fed- this plant is a member of the iris fam- eral activities. ily (Iridaceae). The white irisette is a * * • perennial herb growing to about 7.5 Available Conservation Measures inches (20 cm) in height, with pale to Among the conservation benefits bluish green basal leaves and tiny authorized for Threatened and white flowers borne in clusters at the F^ndangered plants and animals under ends of winged stems. It is endemic the Endangered Species Act are: pro- to the upper piedmont region of tection from adverse effects of Federal Listing Proposals North Carolina. In 1942, this species activities; restrictions on take and traf- (continuedfrom previous page) was reported to be "fairly common," ficking; the requirement for the Ser- some open habitat for the plants, but today it is known from only three vice to develop and carry out recovery especially E. telephioides, but the use locations in Polk, Henderson, and plans; the authorization to seek land of- herbicides for clearing the corridors Rutherford Counties. All three popu- purchases or exchanges for important (instead of mowing or other mechani- lations have been at least partially habitat; and Federal aid to State and cal means) could constitute another damaged by residential and industrial Commonwealth conservation depart- threat. Because the entire distribution development, road maintenance ments that have approved cooperative of E. telephioides is within 4 miles of activities, suppression of natural dis- agreements with the Service. Listing the coast, this species also is vulner- turbance, and exotic plants. Because also lends greater recognition to a spe- able to habitat loss from residential of imminent threats to its survival, cies' precarious status, which encour- and resort development. S. dichotomum has been proposed for ages other conservation efforts by These plants are already listed as en- listing as Endangered (F.R. 12/20/90). State and local agencies, independent dangered species under Florida State The white irisette grows only in (continued on page 8)

7 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) Final Listing Rules Published for Three Species

During December 1990, final rules and to hard frosts and freezes during sitizes the warblers nests. Long-term were published listing three taxa — a the flowering/fruiting period. Fhe successional changes in the forests also plant, a bird, and a mammal — as En- Fish and Wildlife Service proposed may be reducing the amount of suit- dangered or Threatened species. that the sentry milk-vetch be listed as able habitat for the warbler. F^ndangered in the October 18, 1989, If current trends continue, it is esti- Federal Register (see Bulletin Vol. XIV, mated that the golden-cheeked war- Sentry Milk-vetch (Astragalus Nos. 11-12), and the final rule was bler population will decline more than cremnophylax var. cremnophylax) published December 5, 1990. 50 percent by the year 2000. 'Fhe This dwarf plant, a member ot the warbler's wintering habitat in the pea family (Fabaceae), usually grows pine-oak forest highlands of southern Golden-cheeked Warbler in a mat no more than 10 inches (25 Mexico, Ciuatemala, Honduras, and cennmeters) in diameter and less than (Dendroica chrysoparia) Nicaragua is also being destroyed and 1 inch (2.5 cm) high. It produces Fhe golden-cheeked warbler is a degraded. small white or pale purple flowers. small, insectivorous bird that breeds The Service conducted an extensive 'I'he sentry milk-vetch is endemic to a only in parts of centr;il Texas. It has review of the status of the golden- single site on the South Rim of Grand very specific ecological requirements, cheeked warbler and determined that C]anyon National Park, where it oc- occurring only in mature Ashe juniper emergency action was needed to pro- curs in crevices and depressions on ( jiinipenis ashei ) and o;ik woodlands. tect the species. An emergency rule Kaibab limestone. The entire popula- Habitat destruction is the primary listing the species as Endangered and a tion consists of fewer than 500 indi- reason this species is threatened. Ur- proposal to provide long-term Endan- vidual plants. Park visitors walking to ban development and widespread gered Species Act protection was view the canyon rim have trampled clearing of juniper for range manage- published in the May 4, 1990, Federal the sentr)' milk-vetch and degraded its ment have occurred throughout the Register (see Bidletin Vol. XV, No. 6). habitat, causing the population to de- warbler's range. In 1990, it was esti- After considering the best scientific cline. From May 1989 to May 1990, mated that no more than 263,750 information available and the threats siibpopulations experienced from 19 acres (106,750 hectares) of suitable facing this species, the Service deter- to 63 percent mortality, depending on habitat remained. mined the species should be listed as the degree of human visitation. Al- 'Fhe golden-cheeked warbler and its Endangered. 'Fhe final rule was pub- though the National I'ark Service has habitat continue to be threatened by lished December 27, 1990. 'Fhe Ser- rerouted foot traffic to restrict access juniper clearing and the construction vice found that Critical Habitat for to this site, plant vigor is so low from of highways, water reservoirs and the warbler cannot be determined at past trampling that the species is still delivery systems, and private develop- this time, but additional information in danger of extinction. The number ments. Habitat fragmentation also on habitat requirements is being col- of seedlings annually produced also may be promoting the spread of the lected. Critical Habitat for the war- seems to be small with a high mortal- brown-headed cowbird [Molothrus bler must be designated by the Service ity, possibly due to poor seed dispersal ater), a more adaptable bird that para- (continued on next page )

Listing Proposals is required to consult with the Service ing "take" are different. It is unlawful (continued from page 7) on ways to avoid jeopardy. For species to collect or maliciously damage any organizations, and concerned indi- that are proposed for listing and for Endangered plant on lands under viduals. which jeopardy is found. Federal Federal jurisdiction. Removing or Section 7 of the Act directs Federal agencies are required to "confer" with damaging listed plants on State and agencies to use their legal authorities the Service, although the results of private lands in knowing violation of to Rirther the purposes of the Act by such a conference are not legally bind- State law or in the course of violating carrying out conservation programs ing. a State criminal trespass law ;ilso is il- for listed species. It also requires these Additional protection is authorized legal under the Act. In addition, some agencies to ensure that any actions by Section 9 of the Act, which makes States have more restrictive laws of they fund, authorize, or carry out are it illegal to take, possess, transport, or their own specifically against the take not likely to jeopardize the survival engage in interstate or international of State or federally listed plants and of any Endangered or Threatened spe- trafficking in listed animals except animals. cies. If an agency finds that one of its by permit for certain conservation activities may affect a listed species, it purposes. For plants, the rules regard-

8 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) Final Listings Bering Sea, the Gulf of Alaska, and In response to the decline of the ii ontinued from previous pdge) along North Americas west coast Steller sea lion, NMFS took emergen- down to soLithern California. Prelimi- cy action to list diis species as Threat- by May 4, 1992, unless such a desig- nary 1990 data indicate that Alaska ened throughout its range. A 240-day nation is found not to be prudent. rookeries from the Kenai Peninsula to emergency rule was published in the Kiska Island supported about 25,000 April 5, 1990, Federal Register (see Steller Sea Lion (Eumetopias Steller sea lions, compared to about Bulletin Vol. XV, No. 5). On July 20, jubatus) 140,000 in 1956-60, for a drop of NMFS published a proposal to give On November 26, 1990, the about 82 percent. The decline has the species long-term listing protec- National Marine Fisheries Service spread from the eastern Aleutian tion. The November 26 final rule (NMFS), an agency of the U.S. Islands, where it began in the 1970's, contains protective measures similar Department of Commerce that has east to the Gulf of Alaska and west to to those in the emergency rule regard- Endangered Species Act responsibility the central Aleutian Islands and Kuril ing the discharge of firearms, the for most marine wildlife, published a Islands. The reasons for the decline establishment of buffer zones around finding that the Steller sea lion should are not known but may be due to re- 35 sea lion rookeries, and a quota for be listed as Threatened. The Fish and ductions in the availability of pollock the incidental take of sea lions by Wildlife Service, which is responsible and other prey species, incidental take commercial fishermen. for maintaining the Federal List of of seals during commercial fishing op- In March 1990, NMFS established Endangered and Threatened Wildlife erations, disturbance of rookeries and a Steller sea lion recovery team, which and Plants, then formally added the haulout sites, or a combination of fac- is in the process of preparing a recov- species to the list on December 4, tors. (Steller sea lion pups were taken ery plan and developing recommenda- 1990. commerci;illy up through 1972, which tions on necessary protective regula- The Steller sea lion ranges from may explain the declines in the eastern tions.The draft recovery plan should Japan through the Soviet Union's Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska be available for public review later this Kuril Islands, the Okhotsk Sea, the through the 1970s.) year.

Regional News is bordered by many high electrical lation of the FLndangered little-wing (continued from page transmission lines. There was no sig- peady mussel (Pegias fabula) in a short * * * nificant difference in the number reach of the Little Tennessee River in The number one known cause of of sandhill cranes flying over marked North Carolina. At the time of this death for fledged whooping cranes and unmarked lines. However, the discovery, the only known little-wing (Grus americana) is powerline colli- collision rate on unmarked line seg- pearly mussel population in North sions. Forty percent of the known ments was more than twice as high as Carolina had been lost. Only seven losses in the Rocky Mountain flock on marked line segments. The birds' other populations of this mussel are and 25 percent of the Canadian/U.S. response to the markers indicated they known. Historically, the species was flock are due to birds colliding with saw the markers at a distance and ad- widespread in the Tennessee and powerlines. Consequendy, the Service justed their flight path. In contrast, Cumberland River Systems. However, began evaluating line marker devices birds approaching the unmarked lines in recent years the species' distribution in cooperation with utility companies more frequently flared at the last has been severely reduced due to deg- in Colorado and Nebraska in 1988. moment as they attempted to avoid radation of water and substrate The Colorado study, which is examin- the lines. quality. Fhe discovery of this new ing yellow markers that increase Copies of the final report on the population in the Little Tennessee powerline visibility, is continuing. results of the Nebniska study are avail- River will assist in the species' recov- Fhe Wyoming Cooperative Fish able from Dr. Jim Lewis, Fish and ery. and Wildlife Research Unit in Lara- Wildlife Service, PO. Box 1306, Al- + * • mie, with the support of Service buqtierque, New Mexico 87103 (tele- Region 5 - y\.fi:er 5 years of lobbying Regions 2 and 8 and utility compa- phone: 505/766-3972; FTS 474- by a broad coalition of conservation nies, recently completed a 3-year 3972). groups, the Massachusetts Legislature study that examined whether or not * * • enacted a strong endangered species yellow airplane marker balls on Region 4 - Late last summer, biolo- protection law on December 17, powerlines diminished collisions in gists from the Service's Asheville, 1990. Once the legislation is fully Nebraska's Platte River Valley. This North Carolina, Field Office and implemented in January 1992, Massa- area is used by sandhill cranes (Grus the Tennessee Cooperative Fishery chusetts will have one of the most canadensis) as a spring staging area and Research Unit discovered a new popu- (continued on page 11)

9 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) Aleutian Canada Goose Reclassified From Endangered to Threatened

After a 22-year eftort to restore the Aleutian Canada goose (Branta canadensis leucopareia), the Fish and Wildhfe Service has determined that this subspecies is no longer in imminent danger of extinction and that enough progress has been made to re- classify the subspecies from P^ndangered to the less critical category of 1 hreatened. The Service proposed the subspecies for reclassification in the September 29, 1989, Federal Regis- ter (see Bulletin Vol. XIV, Nos. 11- 12), and the final rule was published December 12, 1990. Aleutian Canada geese probably once bred on islands from the western Gull- of Alaska to the Commander and Kuril Islands of the Soviet Union. They are thought to have wintered in Japan and in North America from British Columbia to California. The The Aleutian Canada goose is the only subspecies of Branta canadensis whose range once included both the North American and Asian continents. decline in the subspecies' numbers and breeding range is attributed closed to hunting for all Canada geese the full recovery of the goose is the largely to predation by the arctic fox beginning in 1975 and in Oregon in loss of wintering and migration habi- (Alopex lagopus), a non-native species 1982. As a result of these actions, the tat. Wintering habitat in California is that was introduced onto many of wild population has increased an aver- being lost to urban development, Alaska's Aleutian Islands years ago in age of 16 percent annually since 1975, changing agricultural practices, and an attempt to estabhsh a fur trade. when there were 790 birds, and now pollution. The threat of large losses Sport hunting and loss of the goose's exceeds 6,000 birds. In the U.S., to disease, such as avian cholera, will wintering habitat also probably con- Aleutian Canada geese currently nest also grow as increasing numbers of tributed to the decline of the subspe- on Buldir, Little Kiska, Agattu, Nizki, geese concentrate in the remaining cies. It is generally recognized that Alaid, Chagulak, and Amukta Islands wintering grounds. hunting during migration and on the in the Aleutians, and on Kiliktagik Is- The change in classification of the goose's wintering areas kept their land in the Semidi Island Group, Aleutian Canada goose to Threatened numbers depressed. south of the Alaska Peninsula. All of does not significantly alter the protec- After the Service listed the Aleutian these islands are within the bound- tion of this species under the Endan- Canada goose as Endangered in 1967, aries of the Alaska Maritime National gered Species Act. Anyone taking, at- an intensive effort was launched to Wildlife Reftige. tempting to take, or otherwise illegally protect the subspecies on its breeding Although the Aleutian Canada possessing an Aleutian Canada goose and wintering grounds. Even before goose is no longer in imminent danger without a permit would be in viola- the subspecies was listed, the Service of extinction, it still requires protection of the Act. Section 7 of the Act had begun to eliminate arctic foxes tion under the Endangered Species also continues to protect this subspe- from the Aleutians. The Service sub- Act. The small, isolated breeding cies from Federal actions that could sequently reintroduced geese on fox- populations are vulnerable to storms jeopardize its survival. The Service free islands and worked with the and disease. Less than 15 percent of will proceed to work with Federal and States of California and Oregon to ac- the habitat that was once used by State agencies and private groups to quire or protect key wintering habitat. nesting geese has been cleared of arctic seek full recovery of the Aleutian Selected areas in California were also foxes. One of the greatest threats to Canada goose.

10 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) Regional News protection afforded to listed plants that occur on private land. Region 8 - I'he Service's National (continued from page 9) The Federal Highway Administra- Wildlife Health Research Center in progressive endangered species laws in tion and Kansas Department of Irans- Madison, Wisconsin, has received the country. portation altered the original align- funds to investigate the role of disease The most significant component of ment for a proposed northeast Kansas in limiting the distribution and abun- the new law is the protection provided highway to avoid the 80-acre (32- dance of native Hawaiian forest birds. to habitat for endangered species. hectare) Elkins Prairie, a remnant of Working with the Patuxent Wildlife Habitat loss is the single greatest virgin tall grass prairie known to con- Research Center, the Center will con- threat to native plants and animals in tain both listed plants. Fhe Douglas duct integrated studies of this prob- Massachtisetts and elsewhere. Accord- County Zoning Board provided addi- lem, examining free-fiying birds and ing to Henry Woolsey, Coordinator of tional safeguards against the threat of carcasses for the prevalence of diseases, the Division's Natural Heritage & En- development along the new highway and using sentinel birds (i.e., suscep- dangered Species Program (who has by agreeing to maintain the agricul- tible caged birds) to detect the pres- been working on this bill for 5 years), tural zoning classification of the prai- ence of diseases. "the passage of this bill is a major rie. This classification makes it im- * * * milestone for wildlife conservation in possible to commercially develop the Biologists from the Service's Na- the Commonwealth." area. Because the owner is not a crop tional Ecology Research Center in * * • farmer, it was believed that this action Fort Collins, Colorado, and the Na- Region 6 - A bacterial disease com- would protect the plants' habitat. tional Zoological Park in Washington, monly referred to as "redleg" has been However, before dawn on Sunday, D.C., have been conducting experi- confirmed as a factor in the death of November 18, the landowner began mental releases of Siberian polecats at least five Endangered Wyoming plowing the prairie. Local environ- (Mustela eversmanni) for the past 2 toads (Bujfo hemiophrys baxteri). This mentalists and county officials per- years to test release techniques for the disease is considered to be stress-re- suaded him to stop after about a third Endangered black-footed ferret lated. The outbreak occurred in cold of the tract had been plowed. The (Mustela nigripes). (See the story in weather, when the toads were going county called an emergency board this issue for an update on the black- into hibernation, which is considered meeting and negotiated late into Sun- footed ferret recovery effort.) The to be a stressful time for the toads. day night, finally offering the land- Siberian polecat, also called the steppe Biological censusing techniques, in- owner his originally requested $6,000 polecat, is widely distributed through cluding photography, were not consid- per acre selling price for the prairie. the grasslands of Asia, and has physi- ered to be significant stress factors His demands apparently increased, cal and behavioral characteristics simi- contributing to the disease. Ninety- however, and negotiations broke down lar to those of the black-footed ferret. two Wyoming toads were individually around 3:00 a.m. Monday morning. In the foil of 1989, 13 captive-reared, identified through photographs in Shortly thereafter, the landowner re- sterile polecats were radio-tagged with 1990. The current adult population sumed his plowing, turning under all newly designed transmitters and re- is believed to be around 100 individu- but a sm;ill strip of the 80 acres. leased in an area near Wheatland, als. 'Fhis was not illegal under the F'n- Wyoming. The new radio collars, • * * dangered Species Act. The rules for which did not accumulate mud or A Regional News item in the May listed plants do not prohibit individu- cause ulcerations in the polecats, were 1989 Bulletin (Vol. XIV, No. 5) re- als from doing whatever they want on a success and will be used when black- ported on a "fine example of inter- their land, as long as no other laws are footed ferrets are released. agency cooperation for protecting violated. At the time the Section 7 In the f^ill of 1990, 5 wild-catight listed species while accommodating consultation was conducted on this and 38 captive-reared, sterile, radio- project goals." It described an Endan- highway project, Elkins Prairie con- collared Siberian polecats were re- gered Species Act/Section 7 consulta- tained the world's largest known leased into black-tailed prairie dog tion between the Service and the Fed- population of Mead's milkweed. (Cynomys ludovicianus) colonies in eral Highway Administration over two Larger populations have since been Colorado and Wyoming. Four test Threatened plants. Mead's milkweed discovered, tempering this loss some- groups were released: 1) the wild- (Asclepias meadii) and the western what. Hut the destruction of two caught Siberian polecats; 2) captive- prairie fringed orchid (Platanthera populations of threatened species reared Siberian polecats, raised from 3 pmeclara). Since that time, unfortu- highlights the lack of protection pro- months of age in a 2,000-square-foot nately, the consultation has turned out vided under the Endangered Species (190-square-meter) training enclosure to be a better example of the lack of Act for listed plants on private land. (continued on page 12)

11 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991) Regional News (i ontinued from page 11) containing prairie dogs and their bur- BOX SCORE rows; 3) captive-reared polecats raised in a training enclosure with prairie LISTINGS AND RECOVERY PLANS dogs and frequent exposure to a dog (which served as a surrogate predator); ENDANGERED 1 THREATENED 1 LISTED SPECIES Category Foreign and 4) captive-reared polecats raised Foreign i SPECIES WITH U.S. Only 1 U.S. Only 1 TOTAL PLANS in small cages and released gradually Mammals 54 249 22 1 from the cages. 1 8 333 29 Birds 72 153 1 12 0 i 237 69 As with the 1989 release, most of Reptiles 16 58 1 14 1 106 25 the polecats released in 1990 were Amphibians 6 8 5 0 . 19 6 Fishes 53 11 1 33 0 1 97 49 killed by coyotes (Cants latrans) or Snails 4 1 1 6 0 1 11 7 American badgers (Taxidea taxus). In Clams 37 2 2 0 41 29 Crustaceans 8 0 1 2 0 1 10 5 Colorado, the predator population Insects 11 1 1 9 0 1 21 12 was about 3 times greater than in Arachnids 3 0 0 0 ' 3 0 Plants 186 1 1 60 249 120 Wyoming and all of the captive-raised 2 1 polecats were killed within 2 days of TOTAL 450 484 1 155 38 ' 1127* 351** their release. In Wyoming, one cap- Total U.S. Endangered 450 (264 animals, 186 plants) tive-raised polecat lived over 34 days Total U.S. Threatened 155 (95 animals. 60 plants) and successfully killed prey but finally Total U.S. Listed 605 (359 animals, 246 plants) died of starvation. Cage-reared polecats survived an average of less than 4 Separate populations of a species that are listed both as Endangered an Threatened are tallied twice. Those species are the leopard, gray wolf, grizzly bear, bald eagle, piping plover, days at the Wyoming site, whereas roseate tern, Nile crocodile, green sea turtle, and olive ridley sea turtle. For the purposes of animals raised in the training enclo- the Endangered Species Act, the term "species" can mean a species, subspecies, or distinct sures survived an average of 9 days. vertebrate population. Several entries also represent entire genera or even families. Only one of the cage-reared polecats There are 276 approved recovery plans. Some recovery plans cover more than one species, immediately left the cage, and it sur- and a few species have seperate plans covering different parts of their ranges. Recovery vived for 19 days before dying of star- plans are drawn up only for listed species that occur in the United States. vation. rhe wild-caught Siberian Number of Cooperative Agreements signed with States and Territories: 53 fish & wildlife polecats survived longest at both sites. 39 plants All of these polecats also eventually January 31. 1991 died, except for one animal that was recaptured in good condition 6 weeks after it was released. Although rein- which have been bred in captivity for the enclosure-training facilities may troduced black-footed ferrets may be many generations, it does appear that play a very important role in black- more adept at hunting prey and avoid- the methods u.sed to raise and release footed ferret behavioral conditioning ing predators than their Asian cousins. ferrets will affect their survival. Thus, and reintroductions in the future.

January 1991 Vol. XVI No. 1 FIRST CLASS POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR PERMIT NO. G-77

Department of Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service Technical Bulletin Washington, D. C. 20240

TAKE" PRIDE IN I AMERICA I

12 ENDANGERED SPECIES TECHNICAL BULLETIN Vol. XVI No. 1 (1991)