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El Lugar De Aterrizaje Del Apolo 15 En El Monte Hadley Delta (Una Hazaña Poco Conocida)

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El Lugar De Aterrizaje Del Apolo 15 En El Monte Hadley Delta (Una Hazaña Poco Conocida) EL LUGAR DE ATERRIZAJE DEL APOLO 15 EN EL MONTE HADLEY DELTA (UNA HAZAÑA POCO CONOCIDA) Alberto Martos, Jorge Arranz, Carlos de Luis y Fernando Bertran (Traducción del artículo publicado en la página 11 del boletín The Lunar Observer de la sociedad ALPO, en el número de Enero de 2019*) * http://moon.scopesandscapes.com/tlo_back/tlo201901.pdf “Después del Apolo 17, mi favorito es sin duda el Apolo 15 ". Estas palabras, dichas por uno de nosotros que trabajó en la estación de vuelos tripulados de Madrid durante el viaje del Apolo 15, resumen el resultado de un análisis crítico sobre los logros científico de las seis expediciones Apolo a la Luna (preferimos la palabra "expedición", aplicada a los viajes de exploración lunar, en lugar de la palabra "misión", que suena mucho más militar). El vuelo del Apolo 15 fue el primer viaje de las expediciones tipo Apolo "J", donde la letra "J" hace referencia a una larga jornada en la superficie de la luna (2 días y 18 horas, en nuestro caso). Nuestra preferencia por el Apolo 15 se basa en sus principales logros, que pueden resumirse como sigue: el primer aterrizaje lejos del ecuador lunar, a 26º N o 790 km. de distancia; la primera actividad extra-vehicular (SEVA por su siglas en inglés) antes de poner el pie en la superficie lunar, consistente en una descripción del paisaje a los geólogos sentados en el centro de control en Houston, de pie por la escotilla superior del módulo lunar; despliegue del primer vehículo itinerante lunar o LRV (Lunar Roving Vehicle) para mejorar su movilidad exploratoria; desplazarse 28 km. a través la superficie lunar, examinando tres objetivos geológicos ampliamente separados para recoger 77 kg. de muestras lunares (rocas) de tres tipos de suelos lunares: terrae (rocas plutónicas, brechas y fundidos de impacto), maria o “mares” (muestras de vidrio verde hasta entonces desconocidas y basálticas) y rima Hadley (lava volcánica), así como arena y polvo; encontrar la roca más antigua traída a la Tierra hasta entonces (la roca Génesis, de unos 4 mil millones de años de edad); despliegue de un tercer laboratorio autónomo ALSEP (Apollo Lunar Surface Experimental Package) en la superficie; difusión por televisión del experimento de Galileo sobre la caída libre; primer lanzamiento de un sub-satélite (partículas y campos sub-satélite, o P& FS) desde la órbita lunar para explorar el entorno lunar; y levantamiento por primera vez de un mapa de las características de reflectancia en UV y rayos X del suelo lunar, a lo largo del camino de tierra de la nave espacial en órbita, con cámaras espectrales conectadas al compartimiento SIM (Scientific Instrument Module) del módulo de servicio. Esta última característica elevó a 5 el número de EVAs (Actividades Extra Vehiculares) llevadas a cabo por la tripulación, y esta 5ª actividad fue la primera EVA realizada por el piloto del CSM (Módulo de Comando y Servicio). ¿Qué hizo que el resultado del Apolo 15 fuera tan superior al de los anteriores Apolos 11, 12 y 14? Como hemos intentado señalar, la clave del éxito del Apolo 15 fue su gran movilidad proporcionada por el LRV. Pero ¿por qué todas las expediciones precedentes carecieron de un vehículo automóvil? ¿Contó la tripulación del 15 con un lanzador Saturn V más potente y, por lo tanto, pudieron llevar una carga útil más pesada a la Luna? En absoluto. Por lo que conocemos, los cohetes Saturno V fueron exactamente iguales para todo el proyecto Apolo. La razón de la diferencia viene dada por las condiciones de la dinámica de vuelo, es decir, por las características orbitales en cada caso particular. Para entender esta diferencia debemos profundizar en las trayectorias del vuelo Tierra-Luna. Creemos que vale la pena encabezar nuestra observación geológica con un informe de las hazañas del vuelo del Apolo 15. En primer lugar debemos tener en cuenta que una trayectoria de vuelo Tierra-Luna debe conectar dos órbitas circulares situadas en el plano Sol-Tierra-Luna (para aumentar la seguridad del vuelo facilitando la maniobras espaciales), una alrededor de la Tierra, la llamada órbita de estacionamiento terrestre, y la otra alrededor de la Luna, la llamada órbita de captura lunar. La trayectoria teórica de vuelo Tierra-Luna, llamada órbita de transferencia lunar (LTO), debe ser una órbita elíptica que una ambas órbitas circulares y tenga su perigeo cerca de la Tierra y su apogeo cerca de la Luna. De esta manera, una nave espacial lanzada a la Luna desde el perigeo, donde la velocidad es máxima, llegará a su objetivo en el apogeo, donde la velocidad es mínima, y será capturada fácilmente por la gravedad lunar. Para aprovechar las velocidades de rotación y traslación de la Tierra en el lanzamiento, el perigeo debe estar sobre el lado apuesto de la Tierra en el momento de lanzamiento y para facilitar la captura por la gravedad de la Luna, el apogeo debe estar sobre el lado oculto de la Luna en el momento de la llegada. Pero la dinámica espacial impone sus leyes. La velocidad que una nave espacial debe adquirir para llegar a un apogeo situado detrás de la luna (aproximadamente 11,1 km/seg), es sólo un 1% menor que la velocidad de escape del sistema Tierra-Luna (11,2 km/seg). Por esa razón, un pequeño error de exceso en la determinación de este vector de velocidad (velocidad y orientación) podría causar que la nave espacial Apolo fuera lanzada más allá de la órbita lunar y quedara en la órbita solar, sin ninguna posibilidad de rescate. Y los ingenieros del centro de operaciones de la NASA no querían poner en peligro a los astronautas en sus vuelos a la Luna. Había una solución posible: reducir la distancia de apogeo al punto de libración (L1) del sistema Tierra-Luna. Esta solución divide la órbita de transferencia directa en dos ramas: una propulsada desde la órbita terrestre hasta el punto de libración (L1); y la segunda rama, una "caída libre" desde el punto L1 hasta la inserción en la órbita lunar. Como se puede imaginar fácilmente, la forma de esta trayectoria de vuelo curvada parece un "8" que rodea a la Tierra y la Luna, cada una dentro de un seno. De esta manera el peligro de escape desaparece y, como ventaja, el viaje tiene una trayectoria de retorno libre y puede ser abortado en el apogeo si es necesario (se consideró que el vuelo del Apolo 13 podría haber sido abortado en este punto). Una buena alternativa para la gente de la NASA, que apuntaba a una trayectoria sin elementos de azar. Esto es todo acerca de los pros, pero hay que reflexionar sobre los contras. En realidad, con esta técnica el punto de la libración (L1) se convierte en el apogeo de la trayectoria propulsada de la Tierra a L1, y también el apolunio de la trayectoria de "caída libre" de L1 a la Luna. Y debido a esta circunstancia, la nave alcanza el punto de inserción en la órbita lunar en el perilunio, es decir, en el punto donde la velocidad es máxima, capaz de lanzar la nave espacial de vuelta a la Tierra (por eso es una trayectoria de retorno libre). En estas condiciones quedarse en órbita alrededor de la Luna requiere un impulso fuerte de ignición en sentido contrario para anular ese exceso de velocidad hiperbólica en el perilunio y entrar en una órbita lunar elíptica, que se irá redondeando disparando en sentido contrario el motor de la nave espacial con disparos sucesivos a sus pasos por el perilunio. Se guardan así unos 500 Kg. de combustible con dichas maniobras de disparo frenado. Pero en los días de Apolo 15 el comité de ciencia lunar, que asesoró a la NASA en la selección de objetivos lunares en función de su importancia geológica, presionaba argumentando la conveniencia de aterrizar en sitios alejados de la banda ecuatorial (elegida por razones de seguridad en los primeros vuelos). Se quejaban de que, debido a la restricción a la banda ecuatorial para el aterrizaje, todas las expediciones Apolo habían aterrizado hasta el momento en terrenos tipo mare y ninguna en terrenos tipo terrae. Y señalaron varios objetivos situados fuera de esa banda, como la grieta Rima Hadley, cráter Descartes y cráter Litrow. (Se habían considerado también otros puntos, como las colinas de Marius, y los cráteres Censorinus y Aristarchus, pero finalmente fueron abandonados debido al severo recorte de tres vuelos en la duración del Programa Apolo). Esta solicitud de los científicos implicaba volar a la Luna fuera del plano Sol-Tierra-Luna (el fácil utilizado hasta entonces por las naves anteriores de Apolo, que conduce a aterrizar en sitios localizados en la banda ecuatorial), para entrar en una órbita de la Luna inclinada nominalmente 25 grados, de modo que Apolo 15 aterrizase junto a Rima Hadley, al pie de Mons Hadley Delta, 6 grados para que Apolo 16 aterrizase en el cráter Descartes y 21 grados para que Apolo 17 aterrizase en Los Montes Tauro, cerca del cráter Littrow. Afortunadamente, en julio de 1971 los planificadores de la NASA ya habían resuelto el asunto del control de la velocidad de la nave espacial, lo que hacía posible la trayectoria de transferencia directa con un aceptable riesgo pequeño. Apolo 15, 16 y 17, que volaron a la Luna fuera del plano de seguridad en una órbita de transferencia directa, fueron las expediciones de Apolo tipo J, superiores a todos los vuelos anteriores porque parte de los 500 kg. de combustible ahorrados por la nueva trayectoria de vuelo se emplearon en mejorar el Módulo Lunar, que pudiera mantener una estancia de 75 horas en la superficie de la Luna, y llevar un LRV para mejorar la movilidad de la tripulación.
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