18 Chapter Title Goes Here

Unpacking What Works in Service- Promising Research-Based Practices to Improve Outcomes

SHELLEY H. BILLIG, PH.D. “I can’t believe everyone doesn’t do service-learning. It changed my life.” – STUDENT

Many individuals associated with service-learning have seen the ways in which participation can change lives. Some young people fi nd that they are successful in for the fi rst time Shelley H. Billig is vice president of RMC in a long time. Others report that service-learning gave them a career direction and a sense Research Corporation and Senior K-12 Program Advisor for the Learn and Serve of purpose. Still others say that their participation convinced them that “kids can make a America National Service-Learning difference” in how communities operate and in meeting the needs of others (Billig 2004). Clearinghouse. She leads several national While these sentiments are not uncommon, matters even more as service-learning and state research and evaluation projects they do not represent the outcomes for all practice spreads. to understand the impacts of service- service-learning programs. As the practice In this age of educational accountability, learning and to explore educational of service-learning becomes more popular, outcomes count more than ever. Fortunately, reforms, including closing the achievement the ways in which service-learning is imple- the research in K-12 service-learning has gap and reconnecting disaffected youths. mented have varied dramatically, often with begun to illuminate what it is about service- She also directs a training and technical results that are disappointing, yielding few or learning design that promotes stronger no positive impacts. As practitioners have assistance center for southwest states, outcomes, particularly in the areas of noted for many years, service-learning can , and districts that receive No Child academics and civics. have strong academic, civic, and character- Left Behind funds. building outcomes, but these outcomes are This article explores eight promising service- not automatic. Rather, it is the way in which learning practices. These eight emerged from service-learning is implemented that makes a the past several years of collecting research on difference. In short, quality matters, and it what works, and from recent studies that Growing to Greatness 2007 19

Eight Promising Practices factor with the greatest impact on student achievement (Marzano, Pickering, and INTEGRATION Pollack 2003). As applied to service-learning, Curriculum integration is defi ned here as Ammon, Furco, Chi, and Middaugh (2001), using service-learning as an instructional for example, found that the factors that method to help master content seemed related to higher academic impacts standards. Studies have shown that with were clarity of academic goals, clear connec- strong integration, students’ test scores in tions between goals and activities, reasonable the subject matter area with which service- scope, and support through focused refl ec- tested the Essential Elements of Service- learning is integrated can increase signifi - tion activities. Billig, Root, and Jesse (2005) Learning (National Service-Learning cantly (Billig and Klute 2003; Billig, Klute, found service-learning that featured integra- Cooperative and National and Sandel 2003; Meyer, Billig, and Hof- tion with content standards predicted Council 1999) and other indicators defi ned schire 2004; Santmire, Giraud, and Groskopf academic outcomes for high school students. as being associated with quality practice in 1999). In these studies, curriculum integra- the fi eld. Each of the eight that emerged as tion meant that service-learning was planned The implications of these combined results predictive of positive outcomes has statistical and implemented with specifi c learning mean that educators should integrate service- evidence of effectiveness in several studies, objectives in mind. The learning objectives learning into curricula by engaging in the either within the fi eld of service-learning or in were tied to the content standards or the same kind of lesson or unit planning that a closely related fi eld of educational reform. specifi c areas of knowledge and skills that they use for any other . start with the standard or curricular However, the practices are not always as students are meant to acquire. objective; think about (and possibly discuss obvious as they seem. This article provides General meta-analyses of studies of educa- with students) how they will address the a brief examination of what works, the tional reform have found that a “guaranteed standard within the preparation, action, evidence behind it, and examples of what and viable curriculum” is the school-level refl ection, and demonstration phases of the these promising practices could look like in K-12 and afterschool settings. The order in which these are presented roughly matches the sizes of the effects that the interventions It is the way in which service-learning is implemented that makes have had, though there is not consistency in the order of magnitude across studies. All of a difference. In short, quality matters, and it matters even more as the examples are composites from service- service-learning practice spreads. learning projects evaluated by RMC Research within the past fi ve years. 20 Unpacking What Works in Service-Learning

service-learning approach; and devise the Students and teachers co-planned the service Ongoing refl ection occurs before, during, specifi c activities to be used for this purpose, activity, identifying the specifi c standards that they and after service and features multiple forms including the rubrics they will use for would weave into the various service-learning of refl ection: written, oral, and nonlinguistic. assessment, the questions they will use for activities. Any standards that would not be Many studies have shown the value of varied refl ection, or the planning steps in which addressed in the service-learning activity were and differentiated instruction (see, for students will engage. placed aside and the incorporated them into example, Tomlinson and McTighe 2006; other forms of instruction. Students worked with Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock 2003). Teachers should challenge and inspire the teacher to develop an assessment to be used at students to learn by making their expecta- Cognitively challenging activities are those the end of the service-learning activities to evaluate tions for learning clear before engaging in that prompt participants to think deeply what the students learned. The students then activities. Learning goals and objectives about an issue, to deconstruct a problem engaged in the service, refl ection, and demonstra- should be defi ned and displayed prominently and fi nd multiple alternative solutions, or tion activities and were later evaluated using the in written form. Teachers and students should to be confronted with situations that cause assessment tool. know where goals fi t into the curriculum and dissonance and the need for resolution the expectations for mastery. Teachers should ONGOING COGNITIVELY CHALLENGING between previously held thoughts and beliefs plan for differentiating instruction as needed, REFLECTION ACTIVITIES and evidence to the contrary. The level of the same way they would for any other lesson Refl ection is one of the core elements of challenge should be developmentally appro- plan. (See, for example, Marzano, Pickering, service-learning and, when done well, leads priate and should build on what the students and Pollack 2003 for citations of the litera- to stronger and deeper outcomes, often already know and are able to do. Cognitive ture that support the connection between helping the development of metacognition challenge has been found to be correlated these practices and academic achievement. and other higher order thinking skills (Eyler, with academic engagement, civic engage- Correlations were also found between these Giles, and Schmiede 1996; King and Kitch- ment, and acquisition of academic and civic factors and civic outcomes by Billig, Root, ener 1994; Leming 2001). However, many knowledge and skills (Billig, Root, and Jesse and Jesse 2005; Billig, Root, and Jesse 2004; service-learning practitioners do not vary the 2005; Billig, Root, and Jesse 2006; Root and Ammon, Furco, Chi, and Middaugh 2001.) type of refl ection activities they use, resorting Billig in press). EXAMPLE: In one high school, teachers began the exclusively to journal-writing and summaries With cognitively challenging activities, planning for service-learning by identifying the of service experiences that capture the those who facilitate learning explicitly teach standards across content areas that they would feelings students had when engaged in problem-solving, decision-making, explora- like to address through service-learning activities. service (Billig 2004). The power of refl ection tion, classifi cation, and hypothesis-testing They listed these standards on the board and can be strengthened considerably if refl ec- skills. They ensure that students have time to reviewed them with students as they discussed the tion both becomes ongoing and involves practice and refi ne the skills during prepara- specifi c community needs the class would address. more cognitive challenge. tion, action, refl ection, and demonstration. Growing to Greatness 2007 21

The refl ection activities themselves should Providing youths with opportunities for meaningful participation be challenging, continuous, connected, and contextualized (Eyler, Giles, and Schmiede allows them to engage in problem-solving, decision-making, 1996; Pritchard and Whitehead 2004). Some planning, goal-setting, and helping others. especially promising refl ection activities utilize questions to stimulate affective, behavioral, and cognitive reactions, and ask Probing, redirection, and reinforcement of resources within the community for free or low-cost students to explore metaphors, nonlinguistic ideas will help young people improve the health care, especially for children, and were able to representations, conceptualizing activities, quality of their responses to questions. have many health care providers come to the fair analysis of similarities and differences, and and vaccinate children for free. They were also able EXAMPLE: In one middle school, students decided perspective-taking (Pritchard and Whitehead to get free screening for cholesterol and blood sugar, that they should hold a community health fair for 2004; Billig 2006). and free nutritional advice. As part of their follow- migrant farmworkers, restaurant workers, and up activities, they investigated health care policies Promoting cognitive challenge by using others who did not have health care through their and established a campaign to advocate for health appropriate questioning strategies that probe employers to acquaint them with services available care reform, writing letters to their legislators that the thinking behind the service experience in the community. The students were asked to expressed their opinions. assists students in acquiring knowledge and document the problem, so they initially conducted skills. This activity also helps students transfer online research to identify health care access issues. what they have learned to real-world settings Giving young people a say in every phase where the variables affecting their experi- The teacher asked how they knew that these issues of a service-learning project has been shown ences are not controlled. The refl ection applied to their own community, so the students to have a strong infl uence on academic and prompts them to make meaning of their interviewed farmworkers and restaurant workers civic engagement (Billig, Root, and Jesse experiences and scaffold the new informa- to determine what their health care needs were and 2005; Bradley 2003; Fredericks, Kaplan, and tion onto what they already know. what it would take for them to come to a health fair. In speaking to the community members, Zeisler 2001). Without voice, students can With older students, it is important to ask students realized that they could not hold the fair feel discouraged, alienated, and disrespected, questions to help them develop meta- during the working day and that many of the needs and they may believe that their contributions cognitive skills, defi ned as thinking about had to do with children’s immunization, which is are unimportant. Providing youths with their own thinking patterns and learning required when children move into a new school. opportunities for meaningful participation processes. Illuminating these patterns helps allows them to engage in problem-solving, young people develop multiple ways to Students reoriented the content of the fair to address decision-making, planning, goal-setting, and analyze issues, relationships, and events, children’s needs and to discover low-cost alterna- helping others. They become an integral part and to make better-informed decisions. tives for the uninsured workers. They identifi ed of the process and shape their own service- 22 Unpacking What Works in Service-Learning

learning experiences, which may increase Youth voice should also be developmentally The teacher asked the students to document the community engagement in the long run appropriate, with young people being asked problem, which they did by counting and graphing (Fredericks, Kaplan, and Zeisler 2001). to make decisions and choices within the number of running incidents during several established parameters. Discipline of this timed periods during the day. The teacher then Mitra (2004) and Oldfather (1995) found nature mirrors real life and should not be asked the students to brainstorm the potential that students who were given opportunities seen as constraining. Older youths should reasons why the kindergarteners may be running for voice in school increased their abilities to be given most of the responsibility, including and what solutions might address these reasons. articulate opinions, began to see themselves roles as facilitators and resource persons Students initially said that the kindergartners were as change agents, and developed leadership (Bradley 2003). running because they were lost and they needed and public-speaking skills. Students increased hallway signs. They solicited names for the hallways their sense of belonging in schools and had It is particularly important to ensure that from the kindergartners, held an election to name improved interactions with teachers. young people have a voice when they are the hallways, and made signs for the hallways. providing service within the community. Giving youths voice, however, needs to occur Young people can provide meaningful input When they measured the incidence of running within a framework of learning outcomes, by consulting with government leaders about again, the fi rst-graders found that the problem was understanding when they can experiment public policy, participating in community not solved. They then studied how speed was with new ideas and when they cannot, and coalitions, engaging in organizational controlled in society and came up with the idea of respectful treatment of others who have ideas decision-making and activism, and carrying licenses for the students. They brainstormed what different from their own (National Research out service-learning projects (Camino and should be on the licenses and composed a letter to Council 2004). Adults should expect some Zeldin 2002). The combination of research, a nearby hardware store to request the materials initial hesitation and even apprehension service, and advocacy is associated with the needed to make licenses. from students who may be unaccustomed to most powerful outcomes for high school taking responsibility for their own learning, They created a license for every kindergarten student students in the area of civic learning (Root since becoming self-directed takes experi- and then measured the incidence of running once and Billig in press). ence and time. Adult facilitators should again. The fi rst day after the licenses were issued, ensure that students know, and receive, the EXAMPLE: In one elementary school, students were the running had stopped. However, the running assistance and support they need throughout asked to solve problems they identifi ed within their resumed the next week, when many kindergarteners the process. This does not mean that students school and its immediate surroundings. First-grade either misplaced their licenses or realized there were should always be helped to succeed. Instead, students reported that kindergartners were running no negative consequences for running. students can learn from their mistakes, and in the hall and that this running made the Back at the drawing board, the fi rst-graders these experiences can become signifi cant hallways unsafe. then devised other possible solutions. The teacher learning opportunities. However, adults allowed the students to choose solutions and to should always be sure that students are safe. Growing to Greatness 2007 23

make mistakes until they fi nally solved the problem. learning opportunities for all students, showing them that this way of thinking is In so doing, the teacher covered many reading, regardless of their socioeconomic and associated with overgeneralization and a writing, math, and social studies standards. At cultural backgrounds, genders, or academic misunderstanding of individuals within the end of the year, the students scored high on all performance levels. Teachers should hold society. Explicit social skills, particularly measures of academic and civic engagement and high expectations and a caring attitude for confl ict resolution, should be taught and felt that learning was fun. all groups. Providing opportunities for practiced. Differences should be understood culturally heterogeneous cooperative learn- and appreciated, even when students dis- RESPECT FOR DIVERSITY ing with individual accountability and group agree with one another (Nieto 2004). Serious Diversity can come in many forms. For recognition also promotes respect and equity. scholarship in multicultural allows example, students can be exposed to people Learning activities using print, video, and students to explore their identities and what from diverse cultural backgrounds, to people authentic interactions with diverse popula- it means to live in a democracy. with different ideas, to people with disabili- tions should be provided and refl ections Within the service-learning setting, it is ties, to people from different generations, should bring out the need for understand- especially important to design service or to people who face life circumstances ing. (See, for example, Tomlinson and activities that have mutual benefi t for different than their own. It is important to McTighe 2006; Marzano, Pickering, and students and those being served so that note that service-learning participants are Pollock 2003.) likely to be diverse in some ways, especially students’ stereotypes of others are not those who are being served. Research has Societal practices that have proven detri- reinforced. For example, working with the shown that explicit teaching of respect and mental to positive intercultural relationships elderly should not just entail helping elders discussion of diversity is associated with should be explicitly discussed and the with writing or computer skills, but should multiple civic and character outcomes for unfairness of prejudice and discrimination also include activities such as gathering oral youths (Billig, Root, and Jesse 2005; Powers, should be highlighted. For example, students histories from them to document their lives Potthoff, Bearinger, and Resnick 2003; Blozis, should become aware of the thinking fl aws and societal events. This way, both students Scalise, Waterman, and Wells 2002). associated with stereotyping, with adults and elders benefi t from the interaction.

Respect for diversity comes in many forms, many having to do with the way that activities are organized, the language being used, Serious scholarship in multicultural education allows students to expectations for cognitive processing, and promoting motivation to learn (Nieto 2004). explore their identities and what it means to live in a democracy. In the learning setting, respect is articulated by making sure that there is equity in the 24 Unpacking What Works in Service-Learning

EXAMPLE: Students in an afterschool program MEANINGFUL SERVICE Service-learning planners can do a lot to decided to work with families who wanted to learn When service-learning is viewed as valuable, ensure that young people fi nd the activities English. They made arrangements with a local useful, relevant, and interesting, young relevant and useful, both for them and for community center to offer classes in English people become both more engaged and the people they serve. Typically this means language and to go on fi eld trips with the English acquire more knowledge and skills (Billig, that the activities go beyond simple “meeting learners to help them understand how to buy Root, and Jesse 2005; Blank 1997). The the community needs.” For example, fi ling groceries at supermarkets and how to use the ways in which meaning is derived vary papers for an agency may meet a need, but public transportation system. by individuals and groups and appear to often does not feel very meaningful to the depend upon stimulating both student person doing the fi ling. Instead, meaning When the students came to the center for the fi rst interest and control (Brophy 2004). Many should be derived by meeting an interesting lesson, the room was fi lled with parents and researchers have found that teachers can challenge and seeing the benefi t of one’s children from many different language and enhance students’ feelings that activities are efforts for both oneself and for others. socioeconomic backgrounds. In providing English meaningful by providing activities that are lessons to the families, the students from the Service-learning becomes more meaningful substantive but not overwhelming; framing afterschool program learned about the families’ when students choose the issue to address, the activities so they have clear relevance to lives before they came to the United States. They when the issue requires analysis and prob- students’ lives; elaborating beyond informa- told of their experiences in America in ways that lem-solving, and when there is a personal tion in textbooks; explicitly connecting to expanded the students’ ways of thinking about connection to the task at hand, often previous experiences; and providing activities everyday life. While the families learned English, through the formation of a relationship characterized as having “high academic the students learned about other cultures and between the server and the recipient of the press,” that is, requiring comprehension, what it is like to negotiate the rules of U.S. life. service (Billig, Root, and Jesse 2005; Root explanation, exploration, debate, or other and Billig in press). Being explicit about why cognitively challenging skills (Brophy 2004). the task is meaningful also helps students to connect to the issue.

To be meaningful, service should actually When service-learning is viewed as valuable, useful, relevant, meet an important need. New research on the connection between service-learning and interesting, young people become both more engaged and and effi cacy shows that when students take acquire more knowledge and skills. on a task that is too big, like solving home- lessness, they may not fi nd meaning in the Growing to Greatness 2007 25

work they do. Instead, they can feel frus- PROGRESS-MONITORING Using data for improvement has repeatedly trated because their efforts do not appear AND PROCESS-MONITORING been shown in educational research to to make a difference. When smaller tasks are Progress-monitoring and process-monitoring increase both individual and group learning, selected and follow through is conducted so refer to assessing the progress made toward because the data reveal what the impacts of that students see the results of their efforts, reaching goals and analyzing the processes participation have been and whether impor- they more often say that the service was being used to ensure that the learning is tant goals have been reached. For example, meaningful to them (Billig, Root, and Jesse maximized. In service-learning, progress- Good and Brophy (2000), in their review 2005; Root and Billig 2006; Billig 2006). monitoring typically occurs through measur- of the monitoring literature noted that ing gains on a survey, a participation count, or progress-monitoring helped teachers with EXAMPLE: Middle school students decided that they other measures that indicate if goals are being diagnosis; teachers could examine errors and wanted to learn history from the 1800s to 1850s met. Process-monitoring is rarer in service- treat them as important learning opportuni- by cleaning up an old cemetery near the school and learning, and when it does occur, it typically ties. Fuchs and Fuchs (2006) identifi ed more investigating the lives of the people buried there takes the form of analyzing student work, than 200 empirical studies published in peer- who lived during that period. The students including their refl ections, and assessing reviewed journals that attest to the effective- gathered rubbings from the headstones and then what they learned. Process-monitoring and ness of this type of progress-monitoring for studied the town records to learn about the person progress-monitoring are often viewed as types helping students improve reading, mathemat- they chose. Students uncovered records that told of formative evaluation, though monitoring is ics, and spelling skills. In addition, student of an indentured servant who ran away, was typically more frequent and the measures are motivation for learning was enhanced when captured, and stood up for herself as being subject more discrete and specifi c than those typically learners could see skills left to master and to unfair capture and labor practices. There were used in formative evaluations. In all of these strategies for how they would learn the skills records of the trial, and the students were able to types of monitoring and evaluation, results and accomplish tasks, especially when the trace the lineage of the woman to a family that are expected to be used to improve practice. information was presented in concrete terms currently lived in the next town. When they shared with examples (Brophy 2004). the story with the descendants, the family showed Progress-monitoring, formative and summa- them pictures of the woman and discussed what tive evaluation, and use of data for improve- EXAMPLE: In one high school service-learning class, happened to her. Students retained knowledge of ment are associated with stronger outcomes students established teamwork as a goal for a that period of history, policies that shaped people’s in service-learning when the measures are service-learning project in which they worked with lives, and how experiences in that period still affect well connected to the tasks and outcomes, children of prisoners. After students set the goals, people today. and when teachers use the data (Billig, Root, they developed an assessment rubric that would and Jesse 2005b). determine how well each of the goals was being 26 Unpacking What Works in Service-Learning

reached. Every few weeks, students assessed their point out that if the intended academic, civic, and helping students to transfer the aca- individual and group efforts, then discussed how or character development outcomes are to be demic knowledge learned through their well they were doing, whether they were on target to developed through the service-learning service experiences (such as problem-solving reach their goals, whether the teamwork group process, more time is needed. or how to fi nd the answer to a mathematical process was working, and how they could improve. question) to other parts of the curriculum. Other studies in the larger body of literature This self-monitoring led to establishing clear on student academic performance support EXAMPLE: When one teacher learned that duration expectations, confl ict-resolution skills, and more duration as a key to increased learning. For was important, she stopped to think about her goal-driven behaviors. example, the National Research Council current practice. She had let the students choose an DURATION (1999) found that coherence, or the con- issue of importance to them, and they decided they Recent research has shown that projects must nectedness of the ideas and skills presented wanted to reduce the incidence of rape in their be of suffi cient duration, typically at least a to students over an extended period of time, community. Students studied the incidence rates semester or 70 hours long, to have an impact is related to increased achievement. To have and the research on how to prevent rape. They on students (Billig, Root, and Jesse 2005; coherence, a curriculum must focus on established a campaign and made people aware of Spring, Dietz, and Grimm 2006). The 70 important ideas or skills, help students have cell phone programming that would alert authori- hours include preparation, action, refl ection, a logical and developmentally appropriate ties immediately if there was an imminent problem, and demonstration of results. Fewer hours experience of those ideas and skills, help and they sponsored an awareness night. The simply do not give the students enough time students see the connection between the teacher realized that they never followed through to grapple with diffi cult issues or to have a ideas and skills, and assess and diagnose what to see whether their strategy had worked, whether deep enough experience to make the learn- students understand to determine the next others actually programmed the cell phones and ing endure. This is not to say that community steps in instruction. Quality service-learning knew what to do in a dangerous situation, or if service can not or should not be performed practice displays these characteristics by the incidence of rape declined in their community. addressing “power” or “essential” standards in single or multiple events; rather, it is to Working with the students, the teacher brain- stormed what the class needed to do to identify the impact of their efforts. The students designed the Coherence, or the connectedness of the ideas and skills studies, carried them out, and then when they found only limited impact, developed additional presented to students over an extended period of time, is related strategies that were more powerful. to increased achievement. Growing to Greatness 2007 27

RECIPROCAL PARTNERSHIPS essential elements of a service-learning Conclusion Partnerships with community organizations program, the benefi ts to the community, the The composite examples included here are a strong feature of most service-learning academic and curricular standards for which illustrate that the eight characteristics of programs. Partners bring many important teachers are held accountable, and the role effective service-learning practice need not resources to service-learning, such as provid- of youth voice in implementing projects to be diffi cult for practitioners to implement. ing a site for projects; resources in the form the community partner. The community However, these practices must be intention- of funding, time, or materials; and opportu- partner, in turn, needs to communicate its ally woven into service-learning and moni- nities to involve young people in meeting mission, the capacity of the organization to tored for quality in order for impacts to be urgent needs. Reciprocity in partnerships provide service-learning opportunities, and shown. Developing expertise in each of the means that both sides benefi t through the the resources available and the costs required principles will go a long way toward helping activities, and usually involves having a shared to support the service-learning partnership to make the case for service-learning in K-12 vision, regular two-way communication, the school. schools and to deepen both the quality interdependent tasks, and common goals. EXAMPLE: Students in an had and the outcomes of service-learning. Reciprocity was found by several researchers been conducting water studies in the nearby This need is particularly important for (Kramer 2000; Ammon, Furco, Chi, and watershed for years and received consistent educators working with the growing number Middaugh 2002) to be associated with recognition from the Bureau of Land Management of high-poverty suburban schools, since sustainability of service-learning. On the for their efforts. The Bureau counted on these some evidence indicates that quality is other hand, when partnerships were short- students to keep track of progress being made in relatively lower in these settings (Pritzker term and isolated, both teachers and stu- reducing pollution. The students learned valuable and Moore 2005). dents were less engaged and less likely to skills in measuring various aspects of stream Educators generally know how to operation- continue participating in service-learning health. When the school district put the alternative alize the ideas presented here. It will take because of the lack of local support and the school on the list for closure, due to budget cuts, the some time in terms of personal refl ection diffi culty in initiating more partnerships. students and the Bureau partnered to develop a and professional development, however, for campaign for the school board to keep the school Abravanel (2003) found that partnerships change to occur. open. They went door to door to voters to tell them worked better when there were ongoing of the need for the school and the benefi ts for the dialogues to guide their development. She community of having the school in place. Voters advised that schools need to communicate a passed a tax levy and the board was convinced to clear defi nition of service-learning, the keep the school open. 28 Unpacking What Works in Service-Learning

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