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Dumand. a New Window on the Universe

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Dumand. a New Window on the Universe DUMAND A New Window on the Universe P.K.F. Grieder Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Switzerland For the DUMAND Collaboration* The Deep Underwater Muon and Neutrino Installation in the ocean, and continuous Detector (DUMAND) is a completely new high-precision sonar tracking of the location concept, based on the detection of Cheren­ of each module had to be solved. kov radiation produced by relativistic muons This work, together with extensive theore­ particles as they move through a dielectric tical studies and the construction and suc­ medium (the ocean water) faster than the cessful operation of a prototype system, phase velocity of light in the medium. In DUMAND I, lead to the present scope of enabling the construction of a detector sys­ scientific activities and to today’s system tem of a size capable of identifying sources configuration for the DUMAND II detector. of high-energy neutrinos with a reasonable hope of success, DUMAND opens the era of Site and Environmental Aspects high-energy neutrino astronomy. It employs The site where the detector matrix will be the ocean’s water mass as a multi-purpose installed as well as the 25 km cable route to medium: as a shield against the unwanted the site have been carefully surveyed. Com­ cosmic-ray background, as a well-behaved position and topography of the sea floor are absorber for particles and radiation, as a tar­ well-known along with significant ocean get for muon and neutrino interactions, as a parameters around a depth of 4500 m such Cherenkov radiator for charged particles, as ocean currents (≤ 50 mm/s), water tem­ and as a dark room to prevent light from perature (≈ + 4.0°C), the optical attenuation interfering with faint Cherenkov radiation. length in the visible (≈ 40 m), salinity, etc. Comparatively small optical sensor mo­ The optical background In the ocean has dules constitute the detectors. They are dis­ been Investigated [1]. It is chiefly due to tributed in the form of a three-dimensional background light from seawater radioactivity matrix array throughout a well-defined vo­ (specifically, Cherenkov radiation from the lume at great depth in the ocean and sepa­ beta decay of 40K) and to bioluminescence. rated by a distance of the same order as the The former can be eliminated by noting local attenuation length of light in ocean water Fig. 1— DUMAND II array layout, showing coincidences between neighbouring modu­ (Fig. 1). The system is capable of detecting the 216 optical modules arranged in strings les. High levels of light were observed high-energy muon-neutrinos and their anti­ moored on the ocean floor some 4500 m during ship-tethered measurements owing particles of terrestrial and extraterrestrial ori­ deep. Systems for control, data handing, to wave motion inducing local turbulence gin that Interact within the detector matrix or auxiliaries, and support are not shown. causing bacteria to release light flashes. Its Immediate vicinity, producing detectable This stimulated bioluminescence whenever and reconstructable muon trajectories in the not confined to the size of an underground excessive turbulence is present is not array. Very high-energy cosmic ray muons cavity and the interpretation of data will not expected to be a major problem for originating from even more energetic inter­ be troubled by uncertainties in the density of DUMAND modules that are moored from actions of the primary cosmic radiation In the surrounding rock or in the complexity of the ocean floor, because ocean currents at the atmosphere are also monitored. the surface topography. The very large the site are weak. Sedimentation and bio- Distinction between cosmic-ray muons background rate found In detectors placed fouling have been studied and were found to and neutrino induced muons is achieved by in shallow lakes will also not be a problem. be of no concern. Lost equipment that we excluding from the neutrino analysis dow- have recovered some one and a half years ward-going muons within a zenith angle Prototype Experiment after immersion at a depth of nearly 5000 m range between 0° and 70°. Discrimination The main concern with this novel concept showed no signs of growth on its surface. against atmospheric neutrinos Is achieved is that completely new technologies have by statistical analysis and angular correla­ had to be developed; they must then be Prototype System and Experiment tion of arrival direction in conjunction with deployed in an unusual environment. A To deliver the ultimate proof of the feasibi­ energy cuts. DUMAND also has the capabi­ large amount of exploratory and pioneering lity and practicability of the DUMAND con­ lity to detect electron-neutrinos and antineu­ work therefore had to be carried out during cept, and to test the reliability of our techno­ trinos, but this option will not be discussed. the early phases of the DUMAND project. logy, a one-dimensional prototype, called The DUMAND detector system is, in prin­ One of the foremost technical problems, the Short Prototype String (SPS), was ciple, freely expandable and allows the of course, was the development of a sui­ constructed and deployed for an experiment construction of a truly giant experiment. table detector module which met the many carried out in the Pacific Ocean about 30 km Unlike typical underground experiments, it is stringent requirements, keeping in mind the west of the island of Hawaii in November ever-present high pressure of the surroun­ 1987 [2]. The roughly 70 m long SPS string ding water masses. Major problems deman­ consisted of seven optical modules, two Peter Grieder graduated as an electronics ding great effort, ingenuity and much time calibration modules, an extensive environ­ engineer in Switzerland in 1951 and worked for four years in Industry before undertaking a were tackled during optimisation of the ove­ mental data recording system, wide-band Masters in accelerator physics at the IIT, rall response of the detector matrix, of its hydrophones, and a sonar system. Chicago, USA. He received his Ph.D. in experi­ sensitivity, efficiency and track reconstruc­ The primary purpose of this experiment mental astrophysics from the University of tion capability. Questions related to the opti­ was to demonstrate that muons could be Bern In 1961 where he was appointed cal background, high-speed long-distance detected In the deep ocean and their trajec­ Honorarprofessor in 1978. data transmission, system deployment and tories reconstructed. Because of the limited Europhys. News 23 (1992) 167 similar in principle to those employed for the SPS, and a very high precision sonar. Capabilities The size and configuration of the array were chosen to yield a reasonably even rate and adequate sensitivity to detect neutrinos from extraterrestrial high-energy neutrino sources at their expected flux levels. Moreover, the array has been optimised for the detection of high-energy muons from neutrino interactions because calculations indicate that this is the best compromise for detecting the same sources. Finally, the Fig. 2 — a, left) schematic view of the Short Prototype system can has also detect contained neu­ String used for the first phase of DUMAND: b, upper) trino-induced cascades. In order to carry out diver’s view from a depth of 30 m of the top portion of useful astronomy, a high angular resolution the string during deployment to a depth of over 4000 (typically < 1°) is required. Cherenkov light m from the US Navy’s SSP Kaimalino, a highly stable from through-going particles will illuminate ship. The dark unit in the foreground with the protru­ on average a photomultipler in each of 13 ding rod is an optical calibration module. modules so the detector spacings ensure that muons with energies ≥ 50 GeV which pass through from outside will be detected with high efficiency and reconstructed in direction with a median accuracy of about 1°. The array will be able to resolve the direction of a neutrino to this accuracy if the neutrino energy is ≥ 1 TeV, when the scatte­ ring angle between a neutrino striking a nucleon and the resulting muon which passes into the detector will be ≤ 1°. Muons from atmospheric neutrinos will dominate the downward going muons above a zenith angle of about 80° (Fig. 5) leaving a Fig. 3 — Zenith angular distribution of solid angle of 2.357π steradians for neutrino muons at a depth on 4000 m in the observations. There will be about 3500 at­ ocean, measured with the DUMAND mospheric neutrino events detected each Short Prototype String. year. This gives a background rate of about one atmospheric neutrino per (2.80)2 per year. Thus, with the calculated resolution of 1° for muon direction reconstruction, we will size of the SPS (Fig. 2) and the very short Monte Carlo simulation. The simulation also be largely signal limited, rather than back­ time that was available for the experiment gave the effective detection area for muons ground limited, in the search for extraterres­ (11 days), the test was performed using as a function of the zenith angles. Multi­ trial point sources. high-energy muons produced by interac­ plying the events rates by the area gave the As in the case of the SPS, the array will tions of cosmic rays with the earth’s atmos­ total muon intensity as a function of depth. also contain wide-band hydrophones to phere that penetrate deep into the ocean. Vertical intensities obtained by multiplying The final DUMAND II array will in fact be by a correction factor agreed with previous Fig. 4 — Optical detector module for used to detect the much rarer muons indu­ estimates from underground experiments. DUMAND II with the upper hemisphere of the ced by the interactions of high-energy neu­ glass pressure housing removed. The coarse trinos with the surrounding ocean water.
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