Breathing Changes in motorsport regulations are prompting fresh developments in engine valve technology, as Wayne Ward reports

our- engines are now dominant in road transport What all reciprocating engines have in common is some means of applications, as they are in most forms of racing, often because ‘timing’ the entry of the fuel-air mixture (or simply air in the case of of regulation that mandates their use. Granted, there are niche diesel or gasoline direct-injection engines) and the exit of the products racing series that remain the preserve of the simpler two- of combustion. In reciprocating four-stroke engines, one method Fstroke engine, while gas turbines are powerplants of choice for some predominates, the , which is controlled by offshore powerboat racing, but unless there are huge advances in these and springs. The fact that it remains so without serious challenge or rotary engine technologies, four-strokes will probably continue to is something we have to thank (or curse) the governing motorsport dominate motor racing for some time to come. bodies for. The scope for developing an alternative to the poppet valve

Various racing valves. Note the different machining details close to the seat area; some have multiple angles (Courtesy of Manley)

28 FOCUS : VALVES

isnew closed in many motorsport series where there are budgets to do so. life Forging of valve heads allows valves to be made in a It is well documented (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) that a lot of development single piece from a small-diameter bar (Courtesy of KPMI) has gone into such systems for a long time. The for example, which represents the most serious challenger to the poppet valve, has undergone sporadic development for well over 50 years. The design, manufacture and engineering of poppet valves and their associated components is well understood after a century of continuous development, and it is unlikely that we will see them replaced to any great extent in the next 20 years or more. That is not to say that development of the poppet valve has stopped or even slowed appreciably. It is this continuing development, and the pace at which it happens, that makes it difficult for any new technology to replace the poppet valve. The current and rapid change in the architecture of passenger engines, from large-capacity naturally aspirated engines to much smaller boosted engines, has been remarkable, but we are only part of the way through this process. Car manufacturers who are known for large-capacity performance are looking to replace their engines with boosted units with half or, in some cases, less than half the capacity of their naturally aspirated forebears. However, customers dynamics (CFD). Exhaust ports are also important: should they have won’t want to lose any car performance, so the levels of boost will be insufficient flow capacity, the amount of exhaust ‘residuals’ in the high compared to turbocharged engines from only a few years ago. when the inlet valves close will be higher than With high boost pressures will come high combustion temperatures, we want, again harming the output of the engine. so valve materials will have to change to cope with their new Combined with our optimised ports, the devices that control the operating environment. Racing has not been immune from this entry and exit of fluids to or from the combustion chamber – namely trend. For example, IndyCar has switched from naturally aspirated the valves – need to be opened and closed in an optimal manner. V8 engines to 2.2 litre turbocharged V6 units, and 2013 will be their So, the performance development engineer also spends a great deal second season of competition, while in 2014, will wave of effort in optimising valve lift profiles. He, or she, is limited in their goodbye to its 18,000 rpm V8 engines and usher in a new powertrain ambitions by a number of engineering realities, such as the proximity combining a 1.5 litre V6 turbocharged engine with high-tech energy of other moving components, considerations of stress and the mass of recovery systems. the reciprocating components. The mass of the reciprocating valvetrain components is limiting in Considerations of mass a number of respects and at different points in the valve lift curve. Engineers with responsibility for engine performance tend to focus During the initial part of the curve, the valve and its associated much of their attention on the ability of the race engine to ‘breathe’ components are subject to high accelerations. As we know, for a given – that is, to inhale as much air as possible – and, having taken in mass, force is directly proportional to acceleration. The development this air, to trap the maximum amount possible in the combustion engineer would like the scope to be able to use high acceleration, so chamber. There is a great deal of attention paid to the design of the that the valve opens at the fastest possible rate, opening the port and ports so that the air (or air-fuel mixture) can enter with the least loss allowing the maximum flow through it. However, the forces involved of pressure, taking other factors into consideration. For example, a can be so high as to restrict acceleration through considerations of large port combined with a large valve may well cause a reduction in stress: the cam lobes or followers may become scuffed or pitted if the performance, despite having displayed high flow rates when analysed contact stress is too high.

with a flow bench or when simulated using computational fluid In order to allow higher accelerations, we can look to the use t

29 FOCUS : VALVES

of problems. First, the stress in the stem increases, as does the stress concentration factor at the junction of the stem and head, leading to significantly higher stresses. These can be mitigated to an extent though by increasing the radius at the transition between head and stem, but this takes away some of the advantage of reducing the mass. The second problem becomes clear if we consider the valve as an elastic system, with the head effectively acting as a mass and the stem acting as a spring. As we try to open the valve quickly, some of the intended motion imparted to the valve This thermal simulation shows the temperature throughout a section of the head and valves. The exhaust is sodium-cooled and shows good temperature distribution throughout the head from the is lost in compressing the stem. Of course, this is and stem (Courtesy of MW Racing) recovered soon after, but we have set an oscillating system in motion. Much of the complexity of valvetrain simulation comes from having of better materials than those currently employed, but in some to consider the influence of all components and their mountings as a applications the budget is sufficient to use the best materials as a collection of masses, springs and dampers. The amount of lost motion matter of course, and this avenue of allowing higher acceleration rates and the frequency of oscillation are affected as we change the mass offers no scope for a ‘quick fix’. The other way to reduce force and of the valve head and the stiffness of the valve stem. The further away stress is to reduce the mass of the valvetrain components, and there we go from the head, if we divide the stem lengthwise into small are various ways to do this, but here we also need to exercise restraint. elements, each element of the valve is compressed to a greater degree Later in the valve lift cycle, close to the point of maximum valve due to the inertia of the head and the part of the valve between the lift, we obviously need to bring the valve to a halt, so that it can begin element under consideration and the valve head. It is not a simple its return journey to close the port at the optimum time. Here, when spring-mass system; we also have to consider the mass of the spring, or developing a valve lift profile, we will often want to use the highest in this instance the valve stem. rate of acceleration again, but this time in the opposite direction. This Reducing stem mass by minimising cross-sectional area also acceleration is the reason why we need to have a method to maintain influences the valve’s bending stiffness. For example, if we have a the valvetrain in the motion that the development engineer has planned. 6 mm valve stem and wish to reduce its mass per unit length by 30%, In the vast majority of cases, a return spring is used. This might we can reduce its diameter to 5 mm or we can make it hollow by

be the familiar physical spring or an ‘air spring’, of the type used in drilling it to 3.29 mm – that is, reducing the cross-section by t MotoGP or Formula One. In motorcycle racing and on its road-going bikes, Ducati ploughs its own furrow with ‘desmodromic’ valve

actuation, which has no valve return spring but uses a separate cam Typical racing valves. profile to close the valve. At the point of maximum valve lift, the Note the use of dishing, different surface treatments, spring force required is proportional to the mass of the valvetrain finishing processes and reciprocating components, including a proportion of the collet groove styles (Courtesy of Supertech) spring mass. Again we see a case for the reduction of valve mass. A poppet valve is a very simple component, being a flat disc at the end of a slender column, and opportunities for reducing mass simply involve doing so at one or both ends. We have to exercise great care in how we do this though, so as not to reduce the performance of the engine or compromise its reliability. Without changing the valve’s geometry, however, we can change the material it’s made from – a lower-density material will yield a lower valve mass. Titanium valves are an attractive proposition for this reason. We can easily reduce the diameter of the valve stem or reduce its cross-sectional area by drilling the stem. As we do so, however, we run into a couple

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heads. As with many promising developments though, the rule- makers quickly moved to outlaw them, and they remain outside the rules for a number of race series, notably NASCAR. However, they are legal for a number of lower- budget series and are indeed used in some of them. Hollow-head valves are usually expensive to manufacture, since a void or voids in the valve head has to be closed by one or more ‘panels’ that are typically welded These valves have a novel engineered surface, combining surface in place. There are various methods texture for oil retention and low-friction coatings (Courtesy of Sinus) to achieve this and, particularly for titanium, diffusion bonding offers 30%. As we know, the bending stiffness of a section is proportional to a very repeatable process. The internal structure of a hollow-head valve the moment of inertia about the neutral axis. In this case, the 5 mm needs to be carefully considered, for a number of reasons. Clearly, the solid stem has only 49% of the bending stiffness of the 6 mm valve, valve head will be less stiff than a solid head. Similarly, by removing while the hollow stem has 91% of the bending stiffness. If the valve material, we can dramatically change the heat transfer characteristics, stiffness is too great, there may be insufficient compliance to cope with and this will depend on whether the hollow head contains any liquid imperfections in the seat geometry relative to the valve; conversely, if metal cooling (see later). A hollow head combined with sodium cooling the valve’s bending stiffness is not great enough, there may be some will increase heat transfer through the valve head, while a ‘simple’ hollow oscillation during the period when the valve is open, leading to a poor head will decrease heat transfer owing to lower cross-sectional area. seating condition. The third consideration is the effect of introducing stress Reducing the mass of the valve head is an area of development concentrations, for which there are two reasons. The first is that welds which engineers are very keen on. Making the valve head very flat, so act as stress concentrations in themselves and, second, because we have that it resembles a thin disc, is one option, but we will often find that only very restricted access for welding, we have little influence over the flow soon suffers. Valves with a dished face are another option, but geometry inside the valve head, where the welded joint could well have here we can reduce engine performance, and for two reasons. some unfavourable geometry, including sharp corners or worse. The first is that we lose a small amount of If we choose to flatten the solid valve head to reduce mass, we need when we make a dish in the valves, although this can be recovered to consider the consequences. One disadvantage of very flat valves is by adding material elsewhere in the combustion chamber. We can that the flow past them can be adversely affected, since by flattening the sometimes see small ‘domes’ in valve pockets on ; these are valve we are asking the flow across the back of the valve to turn through design features intended to recover compression ratio lost through the a greater angle at the seat. The result is that the flow simply separates at use of dished valves. the seat and cannot turn the corner, especially at high flow speeds. The second reason came to me by word of mouth several years ago. The style of valve commonly known as the ‘turbulator’ type can help Apparently, with some dished valves there can be a loss of combustion the incoming air turn the corner while maintaining the low mass of the efficiency through flame quenching and incomplete combustion. There flattened head type. I have seen several types of turbulator valve, but will certainly be a small change in heat transfer owing to the slight all have the same basic aim – to increase turbulence in the fluid layers increase in combustion chamber surface area, especially if we use close to the valve. Energising the flow in this way helps it flow around domed valve pockets. As explained in the previous RET article on valves the corner better, thus increasing the flow capacity of the port-valve (7), there are differing styles of valve dish, the most common being a combination. This type of valve is used in a wide variety of applications portion of a sphere, but this can reduce the valve head’s stiffness. and is now offered commercially by some valve manufacturers. A less common variant is an almost conical dish, the cone being concentrated at the centre of the head. This conical dish reduces Stiffness head stiffness to a lesser extent but, for the same mass decrease, it Valve stiffness is important for various reasons. We have already will have a greater effect on chamber surface area. For a given mass mentioned the case where we have lost motion due to compression of decrease a sphere, or portion of a sphere, is the geometry with the the valve at closing and opening. Lost motion at valve opening simply lowest surface area. means that the valve actually opens later than expected, and we lose Realising the disadvantages of both very flat valve heads and dished some flow. At valve closing, however, the implications can be more

valves, some manufacturers have developed valves with hollow serious. If the valve lacks stiffness, it is subjected to forces that cause it t

32 RET_ADTEMP.indd 1 15/03/2013 17:15 to compress as the valve comes close to the seat. The high acceleration on a programme of valve mass reduction, the stresses in the stem will levels deflect not only the valve but many other components involved. have been increased by reducing its section, and the stresses on it are However, the valve can be one of the least stiff parts in the valvetrain further increased by the seating velocity being uncontrolled. and so experiences a large proportion of the overall deflection. The The combined consideration of mass and stiffness is made easier deflection of the system as a whole can mean that the valve closes with the increasingly widespread use of finite element stress analysis. early at certain engine speeds, resulting in the need for a longer closing Through the use of such software it is becoming easier to calculate ramp. If the correct length of constant-velocity closing ramp is not the stresses in valves during known operating conditions as well as to provided, there is a danger that the valve will close so early that it will calculate a more accurate stiffness for each component in the system. be ‘off the ramp’ and so will close with a speed far above what the The availability of accurate stiffness values for valvetrain components valvetrain development engineer has planned for. is critical to the success of valvetrain simulation software. This high-speed closing can pose a number of reliability problems, such as valve cracking, valve chipping and seat recession – which can Cooling lead to more serious problems – as well as stem breakage, which is Valve cooling is achieved via a number of different routes, and it can normally ‘game over’ for an engine. affect both performance and reliability. Generally, most of the heat Valve cracking is generally taken to mean radial cracks beginning at transfer is through the valve seat while the valve is closed, and is the periphery of the valve. As the crack progresses into the thicker part affected by increased contact area, proximity of cooling media (air, of the head, the crack growth rate often slows to a point where the valve oil or water) to the valve-seat contact and the thermal conductivity of can continue to function well enough for a time. In this era of limited the head and valve seat materials. In pursuit of increased port engine use during a season for many series, people sometimes have flows there is a general tendency to make the valve-seat contact as to race with valves that they know are cracked. Valve chipping, as the narrow as possible, thus limiting cooling. Other sources of cooling are name suggests, is where radial cracks join up and a piece of the valve through the valve guide and the area at end of the valve stem, which is detached. Valve cracking and chipping are not solely associated with will generally be in contact with a limited quantity of oil unless a poor control of the valve when seating, or lack of stiffness, and often pneumatic valve return system is used. such problems are a result of valve cooling, more of which later. The practice of partial filling of hollow-stemmed valves using Seat recession is, as the name suggests, the recessing of the seat a molten metal to increase cooling is often used in racing, and into the head, causing a permanent deformation of the seat or loss of is generally known as ‘sodium cooling’. However, sodium is not material from the seating face. If the head is adequately proportioned necessarily the coolant used. It needs a great deal of care in its and made of a suitable material for the application then the seat handling, but it is at least solid at room temperature, so can easily insert (if these are used) should not sink into the head. Predicting be controlled and stored. Sodium-potassium, commonly known as valve stem reliability is based on knowledge of the material and the NaK, is an alternative liquid metal coolant, but is liquid at room planned operating cycle; the forces caused by the impact of the valve temperature, and also needs careful handling. Both coolants are very onto the seat at a velocity that is higher than anticipated increases reactive, especially in contact with water. both the mean stress and the stress amplitude. Once the stem starts to The idea behind liquid metal cooling is that through a repeated crack, failure will follow pretty quickly. If an engineer has embarked ‘sloshing’ action, heat is transferred from the valve head to the valve guide. It is generally used for exhaust valves where it is often not possible to extract sufficient heat This valve is having a dish machined into its combustion chamber face. Valve dishing can be an effective way to reduce valve mass (Courtesy of Manley) from the valve head via the seat. However, it has also been used with success in the past for inlet valves for race engines (8), where removing heat from the head will mitigate heat transfer to the incoming charge, in addition to any reliability benefits. Cooling the centre of the valve can also decrease the tendency for valve cracking at the edge of the valve, as tensile stresses in the rim of the valve head are lower because the centre of the head is cooler.

Materials The range of valve materials under consideration for poppet valves is widening all the time, and at both ‘ends’ of the spectrum. As far as groups of valve materials are concerned, there are three main contenders – steel, titanium and superalloys.

34 FOCUS : VALVES

can be used to cope with the smaller forces involved. It is likely therefore that the spring, and thus the valve, can be positioned lower down, leading to a smaller and lighter . These are benefits which are useful in racing, and especially so in the wider automotive industry (9), where there are no lower limits on vehicle or engine mass. A low-mass engine can be mounted using a lower-mass support structure, giving a lower-mass car that in turn can be powered by a lower-performance engine to produce the required vehicle performance. A low-mass valvetrain truly is at the heart of the current low-mass, efficient vehicle revolution. For racing, the use of aluminium valves is likely to be some way off, although aluminium metal matrix composite valves were trialled on a limited basis several years ago (but without much success). At the opposite end of the spectrum to aluminium alloys are the superalloys, which can operate quite happily at high temperatures and stress levels. For many years the requirements for high-temperature materials have been met by those such as Nimonic and Inconel alloys; Nimonic 80 has been in common use in race engines for several decades. However, there is a wide range of materials with properties exceeding those of the traditional superalloys. Just as race engines have reaped the benefits of new aluminium, steel and titanium alloys developed initially for the aircraft industry, so we will also come to enjoy the use of superalloys originally conceived for use in aero These valves are selectively coated on the stem diameter only (Courtesy of KPMI) engines. There are many ‘generations’ of these materials that have not yet found use in racing owing to their expense and the satisfactory Steel remains the mainstay of automotive valve manufacture and performance of existing superalloys used for valves. Now that many still serves a large part of the racing market. Steel valves are relatively of the race series responsible for rapid development – such as World cheap and durable, and the material is well suited to naturally aspirated Endurance/Le Mans, IndyCar and Formula One – are turning to racing, where temperatures are moderate. The steels used are generally turbocharged engines, however, and because the companies who corrosion-resistant austenitic alloys that have limited scope for changes supply engines to these types of racing also enjoy large development in strength and hardness through heat treatment. They have had little budgets, we can expect to see new materials being used. development in recent years, as the benefits of doing so are limited, so In terms of expanding the operating range of existing common the same alloys that we might have found in common use in racing 40 superalloys such as Nimonic 80, sodium cooling can offer a significant or 50 years ago are still among the most popular. Materials such as 21-2 advantage. One disadvantage though of using such alloys is their cost. and 21-4 therefore make up a significant part of the market. Not only do they cost more to manufacture, their constituent elements Compared to steel, titanium alloys offer an obvious benefit to the are intrinsically expensive, owing to their common use by aerospace valvetrain design and development engineer, in that they are far less and military supply industries. Nickel in particular was identified by dense. The basic ‘workhorse’ titanium alloy, Ti-6Al-4V, is used for some one valve manufacturer interviewed for this article as an element that’s automotive inlet valves, but alloys with higher strength and the ability so expensive that it is actively looking for suitable valve alloys with a to run at higher temperatures are generally used for racing valves. lower nickel content. Ti-6-2-4-2 or Ti-6-2-4-6 were commonly mentioned by valve suppliers Titanium aluminide, a compound of titanium and aluminium, interviewed for this article. Other materials less commonly mentioned naturally occurs in small quantities in many titanium alloys but, when were Ti-834 and Ti-1100. refined and used as a material in its own right, has been banned in There remains a buoyant market for naturally aspirated engines Formula One for some years, although it is allowed under the new in the passenger car market for which aluminium-based alloys are 2014 rules that encompass turbocharged engines. The material never being actively developed. However, such materials are limited in went away, and the charge that it was too expensive for Formula One their operating envelope to low-temperature applications and for was never really true, as it remained homologated in at least one rally inlet valves only. However, aluminium has low density and excellent engine in WRC (10) and has been used in other applications. How thermal conductivity, with the density being especially valued by widely it becomes used in Formula One is yet to be seen, but it might engine development engineers, not only for its obvious potential also spark a resurgence in its use in other racing series. Compared to for a low-mass valve but also the huge opportunities for engine titanium it is less dense, has a much higher modulus and is capable of improvements that come with it. A lighter valve requires a much operation at higher temperatures. It has been successfully substituted

lighter, low-force spring to control it, so a lower-mass spring retainer for superalloys in some aerospace applications, notably on the t

35 FOCUS : VALVES

low-pressure turbine blades in some of the latest Finite element stress analysis can be a very useful tool, generation of passenger aircraft engines. providing stress calculations and stiffness data for further Some materials companies are developing valvetrain motion simulation (Courtesy of Supertech) alternative intermetallic materials that are based on other elements which might yet prove suitable for valves, but these are possibly years away from being made available for use in race engines. Ceramic valves are not thought to be in common use, although anecdotal evidence suggests that many people have looked at using them, and may have had trial parts made in the past. One company with whom I discussed materials has experience of manufacturing ceramic valves, but does not admit to making them for any current application. The wear behaviour of valve materials is very important, and as such coatings and surface treatments are commonly used. Titanium in particular can have very poor wear characteristics and is commonly used for valves in conjunction with a coating. Coatings may be used locally on a valve, for instance along the stem, tip or on the valve seat, combinations of these or applied all over. The previous RET article on of those commonly used for racing valves, although we can expect valves (7) went into some detail on the subject of surface treatments and this to change in the future. As the range of materials expands, as the coatings, and little was reported to have changed in the period since manufacturing technique matures and as we become more sure of the then. So-called ‘hybrid coatings’ for titanium valves, which involve fatigue properties of parts thus produced, such methods will surely the use of materials commonly associated with exhaust gas catalysis, evolve towards becoming a limited production method rather than have been used to extend the temperature capability of titanium alloys simply a rapid prototyping technique. through limiting oxygen ingress and diffusion. It is also possible that hollow-head valves, with complex and The compatibility of the valve material and its surface treatment/ optimised load-carrying structures within them, may be produced coatings with the adjacent components also needs to be considered, in the near future. Of course, any production technique has its as some material combinations don’t work well. One prominent limitations, but laser sintering (or one of the other techniques) is likely manufacturer of racing valves specifically cited titanium nitride-coated to be far less limiting than conventional machining when it comes to titanium valves as being problematic when used in production-based internal geometry. External machining is likely to remain the preserve

heads equipped with original steel valve guides. There can also be of conventional machining techniques. t material wear problems with certain combinations between the valve and the seat insert. Valve manufacturers can often give expert advice on which seat and guide materials are suitable for use with valve A selection of racing valves and materials and coatings/surface treatments. associated components. Note the selectively coated valve in the centre (Courtesy of Xceldyne) Manufacture Poppet valves are circular in cross-section and therefore lend themselves to manufacturing by traditional methods of machining such as turning, drilling and grinding. For a more economical alternative to machining from billet, we can turn to forging, friction welding or extrusion to produce a ‘blank’ from which the valve is machined. Where there have been attempts to produce hollow-head valves, the production of closing panels and welding are additional processes involved. I believe that rapid prototyping processes will come to play a significant part in the production of specialist valves in years to come. The technology already exists, although the range of materials from which the parts can be produced is quite limited at present. The current range of commercially available materials for direct metal laser sintering includes none

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Summary Some examples of valve manufacturers The acceptance by motor racing’s governing bodies and rule-makers that small-displacement boosted engines will play an increasing FRANCE role in roadcar transportation has led to a pragmatic change in the Xceldyne Europe direction of race engine regulations. Boosted engines will force us +33 243 601 081 www.xceldyne.com towards extending the operating range of titanium alloys through the GERMANY use of improved alloys and better valve cooling strategies, and we are MW Racing also likely to see the range of superalloys for exhaust valves grow to +49 2353 9170 www.mwracing.eu include more exotic materials that are better able to operate at high temperatures over an extended period of time. Intermetallic valve ISRAEL Sinus materials may also play an increasing role. +972 9765 5217 www.sinusvalves.com New manufacturing techniques may also have a limited role to play within a few years, depending on the maturity of the production process ITALY and the availability of relevant valve materials. Rapid prototyping Zanzi +39 (0)125 251 540 www.zanzi.com methods are likely to lend themselves very well to the production of small-volume bespoke components, especially as more materials JAPAN become available. The term ‘rapid prototyping’ though is fast becoming a Nittan +81 463821311 www.niv.co.jp/eng.html misnomer for such production methods. Such techniques are increasingly aimed at being realistic production methods for niche applications. RUSSIA Valve development is anything but static, and after a period X-Ti of small evolutionary steps we are entering a new period of +7916 520 2767 www.titanium-valve.com improvement, with some step-changes likely to move the state of the SWITZERLAND art forward considerably. Del West Europe +41 219 672121 www.delwesteurope.com References UK 1. Smith, P.H., “Valve Mechanisms for High-Speed Engines: Their G&S Valves Design and Development”, Foulis, 1971, ISBN 0-8542-9127-X +44 (0)1483 415444 www.gsvalves.co.uk 2. Race Engine Technology, issue 48, August 2010, Upfront: Mario USA Illien on future technology Del West 3. Wallis, T., “The Bishop Rotary Valve”, FISITA Automotive Technology +1 661 295 5700 www.delwestusa.com Magazine, 2007 Engine Pro 4. Wallis, T., “The Bishop Rotary Valve and F1”, SAE Australasia +1 714 282 0577 www.engineproparts.com Ferrea Racing Components Autoengineer magazine, issue 37, Feb 2010, ISSN 0-0360-651 +1 954 733 2505 www.ferrea.com 5. Cross, R.C., “Some Experiments with Internal Combustion Engines”, Kibblewhite Precision Engineering Proc. ImechE, 1957 +1 650 359 4704 www.blackdiamondvalves.com Manley Performance 6. Cross, R.C., “Some More Experiments with Internal Combustion +1 732 905 3366 www.manleyperformance.com Engines”, Proc. ImechE, 1980 MW Racing 7. Ward, W., Focus article on valves, Race Engine Technology, issue 53, +1 774 463 1809 www.mwracing.eu March/April 2011 Precision Engine Parts +1 800 423 2202 www.precisionengineparts.com 8. Walker, M., “Manx Norton”, Books, 2005, ISBN 0-9544- Qualcast 3579-6 +1 615 777 3863 www.qualcast.com 9. Kanzaki, T., et al, “Advantage of Lightweight Valve Train Component REV (Racing Engine Valves) on Engines” SAE Paper 980573 +1 954 772 6060 www.revvalves.com Scorpion Performance 10. Sharp, T., Focus article on valves, Race Engine Technology, issue +1 954 799 3600 www.scorpionperformance.com 37, March/April 2009 SI Valves +1 805 582 0085 www.sivalves.com Acknowledgements Supertech Performance +1 408 448 2001 www.supertechperformance.com The author would like to thank the following for their time and Trick Titanium assistance: Martin Tagliavini of Supertech, Omri Lachman of +1 248 588 9430 www.tricktitanium.com Sinus Valves, Mike Miller of Trick Titanium, Derek Dahl of Victory Victory 1 Performance +1 704 799 1955 www.titaniumvalve.com Performance, Julie Evans and Jacob Harrington of KPMI, Blake Xceldyne Technologies Holloway of MW Racing, Scott Highland of Xceldyne and Trip Manley +1 336 475 0201 www.xceldyne.com

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KNOWLEDGE IS POWER The role of data logging in stockcar racing dials but some of the best engineers in all of OFF-TRACK TESTING SECRETS context. Featuring input from many top Formula One LIVE WIRES AERO-ELASTICITY Electronics and fuel transfer systems investigated IN FORMULA ONE racing are employed by today’s teams and for them PLUS technical directors and written by Ian Bamsey, each Clutch tech to win The Grand Prix paddock Suspension state of the art

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This technical report looks in depth at the cars Engineering a Top Fuel car that exploits 8000 bhp

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