Divergence and Curl of a Vector Function ƒ This unit is based on Section 9.7 , Chapter 9. ƒ All assigned readings and exercises are from the textbook ƒ Objectives: Make certain that you can define, and use in context, the terms, concepts and formulas listed below: 1. find the divergence and curl of a vector field. 2. understand the physical interpretations of the Divergence and Curl. 3. solve practical problems using the curl and divergence. ƒ Reading: Read Section 9.7, pages 483-487. ƒ Exercises: Complete problems ƒ Prerequisites: Before starting this Section you should . . . 9 be familiar with the concept of partial differentiation 9 be familiar with vector dot and cross multiplications 9 be familiar with 3D coordinate system 1 Differentiation of vector fields ƒ Example of a vector field: Suppose fluid moves down a pipe, a river flows, or the air circulates in a certain pattern. The velocity can be different at different points and may be at different time. ƒ The velocity vector F gives the direction of flow and speed of flow at every point. ƒ Applications of Vector Fields: • Mechanics • Electric and Magnetic fields • Fluids motions • Heat transfer ƒ There are two kinds of differentiation of a vector field F(x,y,z): 1. divergence (div F = ∇ . F) and 2. curl (curl F = ∇ x F) 2 Examples of Vector Fields

3 The Divergence of a Vector Field ƒ Consider the vector fields Vector function with two variable: r F(x, y) = P(x, y)ˆi + Q(x, y)ˆj Vector function with three variable: r F(x, y, z) = P(x, y, z)ˆi + Q(x, y, z)ˆj+ R(x, y, z)kˆ ƒ We define the divergence of F r ∂P ∂Q ∂R Div F = + + ∂x ∂y ∂z ƒ In terms of the differential operator ∇, the divergence of F r r ∂P ∂Q ∂R Div F = ∇ • F = + + ∂x ∂y ∂z ƒ A key point: F is a vector and the divergence of F is a scalar. r ˆ 2 ˆ 2 2 ˆ r Example: F = 4xyi + (2x + 2yz) j + 3(z + y )k, Find ∇.F 4 Divergence • Divergence is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface area (per unit volume) as volume shrinks to zero.

• Air leaving a punctured tire: Divergence is positive, as closed surface (tire) exhibits net outflow

• The divergence measures sources and drains of flow:

∇ ⋅ F(@ P) > 0 ⇒ source ∇ ⋅ F(@ P) < 0 ⇒ sink ∇ ⋅ F(@ P) = 0 ⇒ no source or sink 5 Physical Interpretation of the Divergence ƒ Consider a vector field F that represents a fluid velocity: The divergence of F at a point in a fluid is a measure of the rate at which the fluid is flowing away from or towards that point. ƒ A positive divergence is indicating a flow away from the point. ƒ Physically divergence means that either the fluid is expanding or that fluid is being supplied by a source external to the field. ƒ The lines of flow diverge from a source and converge to a sink. ƒ If there is no gain or loss of fluid anywhere then div F = 0. Such a vector field is said to be solenoidal. ƒ The divergence also enters electrical engineering topics such as electric and magnetic fields: • For a magnetic field:∇ ·B= 0, that is there are no sources or sinks of magnetic field, a solenoidal filed. • For an electric field:∇ ·E= ρ/ε, that is there are sources of electric field.. 6 The Curl of a Vector Field ƒ Consider the vector fields r F(x, y, z) = P(x, y, z)ˆi + Q(x, y, z)ˆj+ R(x, y, z)kˆ ƒ The curl of F is another vector field defined as:

iˆ ˆj kˆ r ∂ ∂ ∂ curl F = ∂x ∂y ∂z P Q R

ƒ In terms of the differential operator ∇, the curl of F r r ∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P Curl F = ∇ × F = ( − )ˆi + ( − )ˆj+ ( − )kˆ ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ƒ A key point: F is a vector and the curl of F is a vector. r ˆ 2 ˆ 2 2 ˆ r Example: F = 4xyi + (2x + 2yz) j + 3(z + y )k, Find ∇ × F 7 Physical Interpretation of the Curl ƒ Consider a vector field F that represents a fluid velocity: The curl of F at a point in a fluid is a measure of the rotation of the fluid. ƒ If there is no rotation of fluid anywhere then ∇ x F = 0. Such a vector field is said to be irrotational or conservative. ƒ For a 2D flow with F represents the fluid velocity, ∇ x F is perpendicular to the motion and represents the direction of axis of rotation.

Related Course: ENGR361

ƒ The curl also enters electrical engineering topics such as electric and magnetic fields: ¾ A magnetic field (denoted by H) has the property ∇ x H = J. ¾ An electrostatic field (denoted by E) has the property ∇ x E = 0, an irrotational (conservative) field. Related Course: Elec 251/351 8 Further properties of the vector differential operator ∇

1) div[]grad f (x, y, z) = ∇ • ∇f = ∇2 f ; 2 ∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f ∇ is called the = + + Laplacian operator ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z2

2) ∇[]f (r)g(r) = g∇f + f∇g r r r 3) ∇ • []f (r)F(r) = f∇ • F + F • ∇f []r r r 4) ∇ × f (r)F(r) = f∇ × F + (∇f ) × F r r r r r r 5) ∇ • []F(r) ×G(r) = G • (∇ × F) − F • (∇ ×G) r r 6) div[curl F(r)] = ∇ • (∇ × F) = 0 7) curl[grad f (r)] = ∇ × (∇f ) = 0 r Verification Examples: f = x2 y 2 z3; F =< x2 y, xy 2 z,− yz2 > 9 Vector Calculus and Heat Transfer ƒ Consider a solid material with density ρ, heat capacity c , the temperature distribution T(x,y,z,t) and heat flux vector q. ƒ conservation of heat energy ∂ (ρcT) + ∇ ⋅q = 0 ∂t ƒ In many cases the heat flux is given by Fick’s law q = −k∇T ƒ Which results in heat equation:

∂T = κ∇2T, ∂t ƒ Related Course: MECH352

10 Vector Calculus and Fluid Mechanics ƒ Conservation of Mass: Let ρ be the fluid density and v be the fluid velocity. Conservation of mass in a volume gives ∂ρ + ∇ ⋅(ρv) = 0 ∂t Which can be written as ∂ρ + ρ∇ ⋅ v + v ⋅∇ρ = 0 ∂t

ƒ Related Course: ENGR361 11 Vector Calculus and Electromagnetics ƒ Maxwell equations in free space • Maxwell Equations describe the transmission of information ( internet data, TV/radio program, phone,…) using wireless communication.

∇ ⋅ E = ρ /ε , ∇ × E = −∂B / ∂t v 0 µ ∇ ⋅ B = 0, ∇ × B = 0J + ε 0∂E/ ∂t

ƒ Solutions of this equations are essential for the analysis, design and advancement of wireless devices and system, high-speed electronics, microwave imaging, remote sensing, …etc. ƒ Related Courses: ELEC251, ELEC351, ELEC353, ELEC453, ELEC 456, ELEC 457 12 Magneto-static Field Example

Magneto-static Field is an example of rotational field

∇×B = J

∇×B = 0, outside the cable ∇×B ≠ 0, inside the cable

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