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A Case Study of the African Dwarf Crocodiles

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A Case Study of the African Dwarf Crocodiles BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: A CASE STUDY OF THE AFRICAN DWARF CROCODILES (OSTEOLAEMUS SPP.) A Dissertation by NICOLE LIMUNGA SMOLENSKY Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Lee Fitzgerald Committee Members, Michael Alvard Toby Hibbitts Luis Hurtado Head of Department, Michael Masser December 2014 Major Subject: Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Copyright 2014 Nicole Smolensky ABSTRACT Overexploitation of wildlife is a leading threat to biodiversity in tropical Africa. Effective management requires integrating information on the extent of exploitation, distribution, and status of exploited species. I explore how trade filters affected the final destination of bushmeat for different species involved in the trade. I highlight the trade in reptiles, in particular African Dwarf Crocodiles (Osteolaemus tetraspis) to investigate why they are rare in markets yet ubiquitously hunted. Hunting locations and methods determined the types of species entering bushmeat markets while selling conditions and prices determined whether species were traded locally or in urban markets. To prioritize conservation efforts of over-exploited species, it is important to determine the distribution and status of populations. I conducted detailed sampling of Osteolaemus populations in Cameroon and around the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL), to investigate the distributional limits and number of cryptic Osteolaemus species in the country. I found that O. tetraspis extends west beyond the CVL, thus, this mountain chain does not represent the distributional limit of this species. I also found O. osborni in Cameroon. I provided information on the population ecology of O. tetraspis and O. osborni in Cameroon to facilitate independent conservation of these two species. Both species are threatened in Cameroon based upon low encounter rates, young population structures and continued threats of habitat loss and hunting pressure. Crocodilians link nutrients and energy between food webs through their movements across heterogeneous habitats. These connections may differ among habitats and as they ii undergo ontogenetic shifts in diet. I compared food web associations of Ostoelaemus species inhabiting a large river and small tributary using stable isotope analyses of carbon and nitrogen. Osteolaemus species inhabiting perennial rivers have aquatic food web associations as opposed to the largely terrestrial food web associations detected when they occupy swamp habitats. These species have large dietary overlap between juveniles, adults and, sexes. Through my research, I have provided a working knowledge of the distribution, ecology, and hunting pressure of Osteolaemus species necessary for assessing their conservation status and developing sound management. These widely distributed species should be regionally managed to conserve their evolutionary diversity. iii DEDICATION The unregulated extraction of natural resources is one of Sub-Saharan Africa’s greatest threats to biodiversity and forest peoples. This dissertation is dedicated to the people dependent upon these resources, and park guards, conservation practitioners, and researchers that have devoted their lives toward ensuring biodiversity persists in concert with the advancement local forest peoples. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research would not have been possible without the aid and encouragement of several individuals. My committee chair Dr. Lee Fitzgerald has played a leading role in my development as a research scientist, giving me the freedom and support to pursue my own questions. For that I am forever grateful. I thank my committee members Drs. Mike Alvard, Toby Hibbitts, and Luis Hurtado, for their advice and instruction that improved the scientific rigor of this research. I’d especially like to thank Dr. Hurtado, who provided laboratory space for my molecular studies, and taught me valuable lessons about the peer-review process. Many permits were required to conduct this research, and it would have been very arduous to obtain them without the help of Drs. Chuyong, Fotso, Hanson, Legrand, and Nchanji, and Mr.s Foguekem, Fotibo Mulema, Ikfuengi, and Kilanga, Ms. Tagg, and all the personnel at the Wildlife Conservation Society, and Project Grand Singes. Funding was provided by Texas A&M University (TAMU) Diversity Fellowship, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Minority Ph.D. Program in Mathematics, Science and Engineering, Rufford Small Grants for Conservation of Nature, Student Research Assistance Scheme of the Crocodile Specialist Group-IUCN, and the L.T. Jordan Fellowship for International Awareness (TAMU). Logistical support in Cameroon was provided by local hunters, Mr. Fouda, and family. I thank Drs. David Blackburn, Mitchell Eaton, Matthew Shirley, Carlos Santamaria, Leslie Ruyle, Mr. Matthew LeBreton, for providing inspiration and encouragement v during various stages of my research. I am grateful for having a supportive lab (past and present members) and mentors like Dr. Wade Ryberg who provided valuable engaging discussions and critique of my research. Spending months in the field away from family is not easy, and I thank my family and especially my husband for their patience, understanding, support and assistance. I also thank my family in Cameroon, in particular my aunt Mrs. Grace Eko for providing a home for me in Cameroon. Her support, compassion and encouragement gave me strength through some challenging moments. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1 CHAPTER II THE ROLE OF TRADE FILTERS IN ASSESSMENTS OF BUSHMEAT EXPLOITATION IN AFRICA .......................................................... 5 Introduction ................................................................................................... 5 Materials and methods .................................................................................. 8 Study area .......................................................................................... 8 Data collection and statistical analyses ............................................. 9 Results ........................................................................................................... 12 Characteristics of hunters and their hunting methods ....................... 12 Composition, condition, selling price, and destination, of hunted species ............................................................................................... 12 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER III DNA BARCODING OF CAMEROON SAMPLES ENHANCES OUR KNOWLEDGE ON THE DISTRIBUTIONAL LIMITS OF PUTATIVE SPECIES OF AFRICAN DWARF CROCODILES (OSTEOLAEMUS SPP.) ......... 24 Introduction ................................................................................................... 24 Materials and methods .................................................................................. 26 Results ........................................................................................................... 29 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 32 CHAPTER IV CO-OCCURRING CRYPTIC SPECIES POSE CHALLENGES FOR CONSERVATION: A CASE STUDY OF THE AFRICAN DWARF CROCODILE (OSTEOLAEMUS SPP.) POPULATIONS IN CAMEROON .......... 34 Introduction ................................................................................................... 34 vii Materials and methods .................................................................................. 36 Study area .......................................................................................... 36 Survey methods ................................................................................. 39 Statistical analyses ............................................................................. 40 Results ........................................................................................................... 40 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 43 CHAPTER V TROPHIC ECOLOGY OF AFRICAN CROCODILES (OSTEOLAEMUS SPP.) IN PERENNIAL AND EPHEMERAL AQUATIC HABITATS ............................................................................................................... 48 Introduction ................................................................................................... 48 Materials and methods .................................................................................. 51 Study region .....................................................................................
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