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The Weddell Sea Case Study Ecosystem Services 22 (2016) 174–192 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ecosystem Services journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoser Towards mapping and assessing antarctic marine ecosystem services – The weddell sea case study crossmark ⁎ Michaela Deiningera, , Thomas Koellnera, Thomas Breyb, Katharina Teschkeb a Professorship of Ecological Services, Faculty of Biology, Chemistry and Earth Sciences, BayCEER, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstr. 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany b Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Division Biosciences/Functional Ecology, Germany ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: This study is the first to quantify and to map the provision of ecosystem core services (ES) – tourism, genetic Southern Ocean diversity and carbon sequestration – for a large Antarctic marine area, the Weddell Sea. Additionally, synergies Ecosystem services and trade-offs between the ES were explored. The analyses conducted during this study covered both spatial and fi Bene ciaries temporal correlations between pairs of ES, and between individual ES and sea ice coverage. Overall, service Tourism delivery in the studied seascape is distinctly heterogeneous, albeit there are areas where multiple benefits are Genetic diversity provided simultaneously (“super hotspots”). Our findings indicate that in wide parts of the Weddell Sea, small- Carbon sequestration scale conservation efforts may not achieve their intended goals. They also show that particularly sea ice cover restrains tourism, i.e. this sector may expect strong growth in a future of global warming driven sea ice retreat. 1. Introduction global economic importance for pharmaceutical industries. Regulating services provided by the Weddell Sea are also beneficial In recent years, considerable attention has been drawn to the to human populations on a global scale (see Table 1). For instance, the ecosystem services (ES) framework (Fisher et al., 2009; Gómez- Weddell Sea plays an important role for driving global thermohaline Baggethun et al., 2010). This framework aligns economy with nature circulation and ventilating the abyssal ocean as a considerable part of conservation and thereby addresses more diverse and powerful institu- the Antarctic Bottom Water is generated in the Weddell Sea (Knox, tions and a larger source of conservation funding than past approaches 2007; Orsi et al., 1999). Furthermore, the Weddell Sea significantly (Daily and Matson, 2008; Simpson, 2011; Tallis and Kareiva, 2005). contributes to the regulation of the global sea level just by the fact that However, Burkhard et al. (2012) perceive the quantification of ES as the second largest ice shelf in Antarctica with more than 430.000 km2, one of the biggest challenges of current ecosystem science. The reason the Filchner-Rønne Ice Shelf, is situated in the southern part of the for this is not only a lack of appropriate methods, but also the spatial Weddell Sea. Regional modelling illustrates that a potential melting of and temporal variability of ecosystems. This is especially true for the the Filchner-Rønne Ice Shelf in the second half of the 21st century marine domain (e.g. Barbier, 2012; Costanza, 1999). The situation is would boost average basal melting of Antarctic ice shelves from 0.2 m aggravated by the fact that many seascapes are under-represented in per year to almost 4 m per year (Hellmer et al., 2013). Similarly, the global ecosystem assessments (e.g. TEEB, 2012; UNEP, 2010), and not Weddell Sea is a globally significant contributor to deep-sea sequestra- yet the subject of any detailed regional ES assessment (Grant et al., tion of natural CO2 (Hoppema, 2004a, 2004b; see Table 1). Besides a 2013). Furthermore, the complexity of the topic lies in the fact that long-term trend for carbon uptake, a major influencing factor on air- most ES provided by the oceans, particularly by far-off marine areas sea CO2 exchange in the Weddell Sea is the seasonal course of such as the Antarctic Weddell Sea, seldom have on-site beneficiaries biological activity (Lenton et al., 2013; Takahashi et al., 2009). The (Grant et al., 2013). Instead, ES may support, as an example, high phytoplankton growth in spring and early summer leads to a CO2 consumption in the most diverse places in the world. For instance, uptake, thereby lowering surface layer CO2-levels, and allowing more markets for Weddell Sea fisheries products, such as toothfish, are atmospheric CO2 to be solved in the ocean (Hoppema et al., 2000). mainly in Japan and North America (Catarci, 2004; see Table 1). Even if only a small amount of carbon fixed by phytoplankton attains Similarly, the Weddell Sea wildlife may contribute to the maintenance long-term storage, more than a quarter ends up in deep waters where it of human health, e.g. by providing chemicals that potentially have is transported over large distances and only re-emerges in upwelling ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Deininger). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2016.11.001 Received 10 February 2016; Received in revised form 30 October 2016; Accepted 2 November 2016 2212-0416/ © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. M. Deininger et al. Ecosystem Services 22 (2016) 174–192 Table 1 Table 1 (continued) Summary of ecosystem services provided by the Weddell Sea adapted from Costanza et al. (1997), de Groot et al. (2002) and Grant et al. (2013). Note that we evaluated the Ecosystem Description Regional/ Beneficiaries provision of ecosystem services in the Weddell Sea for an extended Weddell Sea area services Global including the Bellingshausen Sea along the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula and the significance Lazarev Sea until 25°E (see Fig. 1). Antarctic ice Ecosystem Description Regional/ Beneficiaries shelves (Hellmer services Global et al., 2013). significance Uptake of Uptake of Global pollutants from the pollutants Provisioning services atmosphere. contributes to global air quality. Fisheries Toothfish Total catch of South Africa and products (Dissostichus spp.) 189 t in 2014/15 Japan operating Carbon Sequestration of At present-day Global sold mainly as high (Subarea 48.6; in 2014/15 (SC- sequestra- CO2 by the Weddell the Weddell Sea value fish for direct SC-CAMLR, CAMLR, 2015). tion Sea. acts as a carbon human 2015). Fish sold mainly sink (Hoppema, consumption. Equivalent to in Japanese and 2004a). The 1.6% of total US markets amount involved reported catch in (Catarci, 2004). is 1.9×1013 gC − the CAMLR Additional yr 1 that is Convention Area. economic equivalent to at importance for least 6% of the (i) nations which presently profit from estimated world- fishing licences, wide natural CO2 (ii) port states, sequestration in and (iii) others the abyssal involved related oceans industries (Grant (Hoppema, et al., 2013). 2004b). Fresh water Fresh water stored Not currently Unknown In future, climate Global in icebergs and ice used as a change may affect shelves. resource but has the carbon been proposed as uptake by a future source of stronger freshwater for upwelling in the other regions Weddell Sea that (Grant et al., brings more 2013). carbon-rich deep Photosynthesis Photosynthesis and Maintains Global water to the nutrient uptake by Weddell Sea food surface and phytoplankton, as a webs, including might moderate food source for harvested the expected higher trophic species. increase of the levels. carbon sink (Le Medical Plants or animals Unknown future Unknown, but Quéré et al., resources which provide medical and potentially global 2007). chemicals for economic value Nutrient Cycling of nutrients Required for Global developing or (Jabour-Green cycling required for plant maintenance of a producing and Nicol, 2003). production such as ‘healthy’ and pharmaceuticals or nitrogen, productive industrial products. phosphorus and Weddell Sea silicon (Knox, ecosystem. Regulating services 2007). Waste Decomposition of Required for Global Climate and air Weddell Sea Bottom 25–60% of the Global treatment organic wastes by maintenance of a quality Water, a precursor total production the biological ‘healthy’ and regulation of Antarctic Bottom of bottom water activity of productive Water, as a driver of in the Southern microorganisms. Weddell Sea global thermohaline Ocean is newly ecosystem. circulation and formed in the ventilation of the Weddell Sea Supporting services abyssal ocean (Orsi (Foldvik et al., Habitats Suitable living Required for Unknown, but et al., 1999). 2004; Teschke space and/or contributing to potentially global et al., 2016a). reproduction conservation of Regulation of global Melting of the Global habitat for wild biological and sea level. Filchner-Rønne plants and animals. genetic diversity Ice Shelf during Some habitats have and evolutionary the 2nd half of an exceptionally processes. the 21st century high number of would contribute species which significantly to makes them more global sea level genetically diverse rise by a 20-fold than others and are increase in known as average basal ‘biodiversity melting of hotspots'. (continued on next page) (continued on next page) 175 M. Deininger et al. Ecosystem Services 22 (2016) 174–192 Table 1 (continued) Table 1 (continued) Ecosystem Description Regional/ Beneficiaries services Global Ecosystem Description Regional/ Beneficiaries significance services Global significance Genetic Genetic diversity in Maintenance of Unknown, but diversity all marine species, genetic diversity potentially global including harvested to improve the Science & Use of the Weddell Since
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