An Informal Transportation As a Feeder of the Rapid Transit System. Spatial Analysis of the E- Bike Taxi Service in Shenzhen, China

An informal transportation as a feeder of the rapid transit system. Spatial analysis of the e- bike taxi service in Shenzhen, China

Talamini, Gianni; Pires Ferreira, Diogo

Published in: Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives

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Publication details: Talamini, G., & Pires Ferreira, D. (2019). An informal transportation as a feeder of the rapid transit system. Spatial analysis of the e-bike taxi service in Shenzhen, China. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 1, [100002]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2019.100002

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An informal transportation as a feeder of the rapid transit system. Spatial analysis of the e-bike taxi service in Shenzhen, China ⁎ Gianni Talamini a, , Diogo Pires Ferreira b,c a Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Yeung Kin Man Academic Building, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong b Federal University of Bahia, Polytechnic School, Department of Transport Engineering and Geodesy (DETG), Rua Aristides Novis, No.2, 6 andar, Federação Salvador, Bahia, Brazil c Urban Mobility Management (GEMOP), Transport Planning Board, Municipal Secretariat of Mobility (SEMOB), Rua Visconde de Itaborahy, No.97, Amaralina Salvador, Bahia, Brazil

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: Despite recent Chinese legislative restrictions on the use of electric two-wheelers (e-bikes), this transportation Received 9 February 2019 method is still very popular in Chinese cities. In China, e-bikes currently provide an informal transportation ser- Received in revised form 12 May 2019 vice (e-bike taxi). Very little research has been conducted to study how this informal transportation service is or- Accepted 16 May 2019 ganized. This study aims to fill this gap by offering an understanding of the spatial distribution of informal Available online 10 June 2019 transportation providers in relation to rapid transit systems and urban villages. Using remote-sensing and geo- graphical information systems (GIS), this study demonstrates that in Shenzhen, this common Chinese e-bike taxi- Keywords: Electric bicycle cab service survives in a tight relationship with the existence of rural areas within the city's urban fabric. E-bike taxi Auxiliary field observations and in-depth interviews provide this study with information regarding service fea- Informal transport tures and spatial distributions at the district scale. This paper shows how this informal transportation service Paratransit is enlarging the catchment area of the rapidtransitsystemandthusreducingthesocialexclusionofruralen- Shenzhen claves in the city. The findings that are reported in this study may be useful for planners and policymakers Village in the city from the perspective of regulating this informal transportation service for its integration with the existing transportation infrastructure.

1. Introduction on-demand supply (Cervero and Golub, 2007). On the one hand, these paratransit1 services enlarge the coverage area of mass transit Over the past five decades, the urban areas of developing countries systems and are beneficial for both low-income transit dependents have undergone rapid growth in size. In these contexts, local adminis- andlow-skilledserviceproviders.On the other hand, they cause traffic trations commonly employ mass rapid transit systems as primary congestion and accidents. This article provides empirical evidence of transportation infrastructures. Mass rapid transit systems are informal transportation serving as a flexible supply of last-mile trans- widely considered the most efficient and cost-effective modes of portation demand in areas where public services fail to meet the de- transportation, and they serve a large portion of the fast-growing mand of the marketplace by looking at the stationing points of urban population. However, in cases of newly constructed public informal transportation in the areas served by the Shenzhen Metro transit infrastructures superimposed upon pre-existing informal settle- (SM). The study focuses on the most popular Chinese informal trans- ments, last-mile public transportation provision is frequently inade- port system in relation to Chinese urban informal settlements, namely, quate. In these cases, informal transportation services function as e-bike taxis (dake zai)and‘villages in the city’ (cheng zhongcun). The feeders of the mass transit system and offer quick and low-cost primary aim of this paper is to understand the association between mass rapid transit systems, informal transportation services and

1 In the literature, the meaning of the term ‘paratransit’ often overlaps with the definition of ‘in- Abbreviations: EBT, e-bike taxi; EBT-IS, e-bike taxi informal stand; SM, Shenzhen Metro; formal transportation’. It conventionally refers to an informal or formalized mode of passenger ViC, village in the city. transportation that is flexible in terms of routes or schedule and is normally operated by small- ⁎ Corresponding author at: P6424 Yeung Kin Man Academic Building, Department of to medium-sized buses. In this paper, the term ‘informal transportation services’ is used to mean Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, “paratransit-type services provided without official sanction” (Cervero and Golub, 2007)andis Kowloon, Hong Kong. preferred to ‘paratransit’, as the services under analysis here are informal and operated by e- E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Talamini). bikes and not by buses. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2019.100002 2590-1982/© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc-nd/4.0/). G. Talamini, D. Pires Ferreira / Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 1 (2019) 100002 informal settlements. A proposition underpinning this study is that the in the 1990s, and became a globally significant sector in the early 2000s. analysis of the informal transportation supply offers an understanding With over 200 million e-bikes, China is by far the largest market in the of a demand that needs to be formally addressed. world; a market dominated by small Chinese firms (e.g. Jiangsu Xinri, This paper is divided into six sections. The section following the intro- Yadea Technology Group, and Zhejiang Luyuan) stimulated to innovate duction reviews the literature regarding informal transportation services by a fierce domestic competition (Ruan et al., 2014; Wells and Lin, 2015). in developing countries, with a specific focus on the last mile, electric There are no direct positive policy intervention at support of this sector two-wheelers and the e-bike taxi service. In Section 3, Shenzhen is intro- from the Chinese government; differently from Taiwan and many duced as a case study for empirical analysis. Section 4 focuses on the mate- European countries (e.g. Austria, Belgium, France and Netherlands) China rials and methods employed in this study. Section 5 discusses the results is not subsidizing the purchase or the use of e-bikes as well as the construc- with respect to the evidence of a last-mile issue. Section 6 concludes with tion of a dedicated public infrastructure (Zuev et al., 2019). The rapid ex- a discussion on the policy implications of the empirical evidence herein pansion of this sector of the Chinese market is due to various factors, such presented. as a rising income level (C. Cherry and Cervero, 2007) and policy regulations—specifically, the ban on internal combustion motorcycles in various 2. Literature review cities (C. J. Yang, 2010) —as well as demographics, the built environment and infrastructure (Weinert et al., 2007). E-bike sales are forecasted to in- 2.1. Informal transportation services in developing countries crease in the rest of the world, while slowing down in China, partially as a consequence of the bans on their use in several major Chinese cities Informal transportation services are indigenous paratransit services that such as Beijing, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Xiamen (Zuev et al., 2019). E- lack official endorsement. They are beneficial for transit-dependent popula- bikes have several benefits when they are adopted to replace motor vehi- tions and provide low-skilled jobs (Cervero and Golub, 2007; Iles, 2005). cles: they lower urban air pollution at the local level (C. R. Cherry et al., Informal transportation services on two-wheelers are common in many de- 2009; Rose, 2012) and can reduce diseases that are associated with seden- veloping countries, particularly in Africa, Latin America, and South and tary lifestyles (Gojanovic et al., 2011; Simons et al., 2009). E-bikes allow Southeast Asia. Unlicensed taxicabs that consist of a motorcycle with a car- users to mitigate various factors that normally disincentivize bike employ- riage are a common practice in China, particularly in small towns and vil- ment, such as topography, distance, climatic conditions and air quality lages (J. Xu, 2010). A growing body of studies has focused on the (Campbell, 2012; Heinen et al., 2010), and they allow users to reach their informal transportation services of two-wheelers in Africa (Del Mistro and final destinations in more comfortable conditions (Popovich et al., 2014). Behrens, 2015; Diaz Olvera et al., 2016; Kisaalita and Sentongo-Kibalama, Despite these advantages, e-bikes represent a growing concern in terms of 2007), Latin America (Golub et al., 2009; Hagen et al., 2016), South Asia safety. A growing body of studies shows a negative attitude towards safety (Kumar et al., 2016) and Southeast Asia (Guillen, 2009; Mateo-Babiano (Yao and Wu, 2012) and aberrant behaviors, particularly at intersections et al., 2011; Oshima et al., 2007; Phun and Yai, 2016). Very few studies (Du et al., 2013; C. Wu et al., 2012; J. Yang et al., 2014). Evidence of a cor- have investigated this subject matter regarding either the use of electric ve- relation between the growth in e-bike use and an increase in associated in- hicles or in China (C. Y. H. Wu and Loo, 2016; J. Xu, 2010). The illegality of jury episodes (Du et al., 2014; Feng et al., 2010) contributed to the wide such informal services greatly impedes the availability of official data and ban on their use in many Chinese urban areas. Chinese e-bike users are complicates field investigations. mostly middle-income and low-income, and this mobility mode is mostly used for commuting on travel time minor than 40 min (An et al., 2013). 2.2. Informal transportation services and the last mile in South and Southeast In China e-bikes appear to compete with public transports, traditional mo- Asia torcycles, traditional bicycles, and walking. They promote mobility- dependent lifestyles, becoming an intermediary mode to automobiles (X. Despite the large body of literature on these topics, a limited number of Lin et al., 2017, 2018; Ling et al., 2015). studies have been conducted on the addressing of last-mile issues through informal transportation services. Many studies have focused on the role of 2.4. E-bike taxis (EBTs) paratransit as a feeder of the transit system (Del Mistro and Behrens, 2015; Loo, 2007; Phun and Yai, 2016; Shimazaki and Rahman, 1996; Despite the recent government bans and a large provision of bike- Tangphaisankun et al., 2009). Others have discussed the essential role of in- sharing services, in China, e-bikes are still used to provide an informal digenous transport modes in offering flexible service provision to supple- transportation service known as theEBTservice.Theperseveranceof ment the existing transport system and their capacity to adapt to peculiar this service, which is still offered regardless of its current illegal condi- contexts and settings (Iles, 2005; Mateo-Babiano et al., 2011). Although tion, can be understood as an indicator of a consistent demand and the functioning of paratransit is well documented, there is still a paucity therefore a lack of alternative transportation provisions. E-bike is a ge- of scientific research on the association between informal transportation neric term that refers to various types of vehicles with different perfor- services and the last mile. Iles (2005) observed that the low capital invest- mances and cosmetic designs (Fishman and Cherry, 2016). This study ment for purchasing, operating and maintaining the vehicles employed focuses on the hybrid style of e-bike, which undergoes a series of modi- drives the high competitiveness of such services. When operated for the fications to be employed as a taxicab (Fig. 1). Within the scope of this use of individual travelers, informal transportation services are very effec- paper, the stationing points for an EBT operator are called “e-bike taxi tive in filling the gaps in public transportation service provision, meeting informal stands” (EBT-ISs), which are normally stationed in front of a demand not supplied by public transportation in terms of cost- transit stops or in other strategic locations where they are available to effectiveness, or in areas devoid of public transportation (Cervero and potential clients. They are recognizable because of their cosmetic design Golub, 2007; Iles, 2005). In these contexts, unlicensed operators on electric and common e-bike modifications. two-wheelers address last-mile issues, potentially reduce social exclusion and enlarge the coverage area of transit stops. 3. Shenzhen case study

2.3. Electric two-wheelers Located in the South-East coastal region of China, Shenzhen is one of the fastest-growing urban areas in the world. The statutory condition that fos- Electric two-wheelers, or most commonly “e-bikes,” are a common tered this rapid transformation was the establishment of a special economic means of transportation in China, where over the last two decades, they zone in 1980. This designation made Shenzhen the ﬁrst experimental have recorded astonishing growth (Fishman and Cherry, 2016; Weinert ground for the attraction of foreign direct investment following the Chinese et al., 2007). E-bike industry started to develop during the 1980s, emerged Economic Reform that was promulgated by the Chinese government under

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Fig. 1. Common changes adopted to transform an e-bike into an EBT.

the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. Located on the north-east side of the Pearl Table 1 River Delta (PRD), adjoining the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Summary of Shenzhen transportation legislation concerning e-bikes Shenzhen changed from a rural area with a population of 20,000 to a city Year Norm with 16 million inhabitants in less than four decades (Chen et al., 2016). 2012 Revision of “Regulations of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone on The urbanization process and the rapid economic growth of Shenzhen Punishments in Roads and Traffic Control” have created a unique socioeconomic and demographic area for the study Art. 36 Authority for road-competent departments to restrict or prohibit of mobility patterns (Y. Xu et al., 2015). The scattered Shenzhen urban e-bike transit area, in addition to the humid subtropical climate, discourages commuting Prohibition of e-bike alteration/forgery E-bikes produced and sold must comply with national standards by foot. Consequently, the attractiveness of e-bikes and EBTs is increased. Announcements of prohibited models or accessories must be posted Furthermore, to understand the potential of the EBT service, it is necessary by sellers to comprehend the hasty expansion of the urban area and its effects on the Art. Sanctions for violations of Art. 36 composition of the urban fabric. The diverse land regimes within the city 112 2012 Notice of “Electric Bicycles Restriction” by Shenzhen Municipal Traffic Police territory have given rise to a dual urban-rural land ownership system (Lai Bureau et al., 2014). The rapid urban development process swallowed rural Restriction of e-bike use on main roads areas, which became known as ‘villages in the city’ (ViCs) or ‘urban villages’ 2015 Revision of the “Regulations of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone on (Hao et al., 2011; Y. Lin et al., 2014). ViCs are controversial areas that are Punishments in Roads and Traffic Control” commonly considered dirty and chaotic environments that lack basic sani- Art.114 Revision of the sanction for violations of Art. 36 tation standards and are often associated with various illegal or informal practices (Li et al., 2014). Conversely, with their narrow streets and mixed uses in street-level retail activities, they create the proper conditions for walkability. The large majority of ViC inhabitants are low-income 3.2. EBTs in Shenzhen workers who depend heavily on public transportation. One of the most extensive rapid transit train systems worldwide serves Despite a recent ban on e-bikes and their illegal status, informal EBT the city; it was developed in less than two decades and currently covers transportation service is still offered in many areas within the city's admin- 285 km (Shenzhen Metro Group Co., 2016). Shenzhen's subway system is istrative territory. The presence of EBTs in Shenzhen—one of the most de- expected to grow exponentially, almost doubling in length by the end of veloped regions in the country—can be regarded as a legacy of the city's 2020 and reaching 1000 km in 2025 (Shenzhen Metro Group Co., 2016). recent rural past, which is still part of its present condition (Hao et al., Shaped on a grid pattern, the SM constitutes the backbone infrastructure 2011; Hao et al., 2012). In Shenzhen, the number of legal taxicabs is rela- for sustainable transit-oriented developments. Additionally, the system pro- tively low compared to that in other cities of similar size and importance, vides public transportation to low-income residents of the rural enclaves at approximately 1 for every 1000 inhabitants (Shenzhen Local Bureau of within the city's territory. Statistics, 2015). In the areas selected for this study, which considers a maximum operating radius of 1 km and uses the 2010 population census as a 3.1. Local regulations restricting the use of e-bikes reference, the ratio of EBTs to the population served is approximately 0.5 EBTs to every 1000 inhabitants on average. This value aligns with the cur- In compliance with Chinese Central Government directions, the rent prevalence of indigenous transport services in developing countries Shenzhen Government has progressively introduced restrictive regula- and is an indicator of their important role in providing essential low-cost tions on the use of e-bikes (J. Xu, 2010). In 2012, the first revision of on-demand services in areas with limited access (Cervero and Golub, the “Regulations of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone on Punish- 2007; Mateo-Babiano et al., 2011). ments in Roads and Traffic Control” included two articles concerning e-bikes.Basedonthislegislativeframework, local police seized 4. Materials and methods 1,248,263 motorcycles and electric vehicles between 2013 and 2016 (Shenzhen City Public Security Bureau Traffic Police Department, This research originates from the following two hypotheses: 1) there is a 2017)(Table 1). spatial relationship, at the city level, among transit stops, EBT-ISs and ViCs Contemporary with this deterring legislative framework, starting in late and 2) the distribution of EBT-ISs in relation to the transit stops demon- 2016, various bike-sharing providers have been offering their services in strates that this informal transportation service addresses last-mile issues. central urban areas, often near transit stops. This paper examines this Chinese context to define how this specific

3 G. Talamini, D. Pires Ferreira / Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 1 (2019) 100002 paratransit system is structured from the perspective of future rationaliza- 5.2. Presence of EBT service at subway station exits tion. This study employs a combined set of methods (Table 2) for the sys- tematic analysis of the spatial distribution of EBT-ISs in relation to rapid Images provided by the street-view service of Baidu Maps were col- transit stops and ViCs. lected and analyzed to detect the presence of EBT-ISs. Out of 132 consid- This study comprises three levels of analysis, namely, the 1) city ered stations, 50% revealed the presence of one or more EBT-ISs in scale, 2) district level, and 3) common characteristics of EBT vehicles proximity to one or more of their exits. Overall, 83.2% of the stations and operators. The analysis comprised the following five stages: i) the are located within a 1 km radius of a ViC, and 55% of these stations distribution of ViCs in Shenzhen in relation to rapid transit stops; ii) are provided with EBT informal transportation services with one or the presence of EBT services at subway station exits; iii) the spatial dis- more operators that are stationed around their exits. Only 16.8% of tribution of EBT services that surround selected transit stops; iv) the the stations are located >1 km from a ViC, and just 4.6% of them are pro- characteristics of the employed vehicles; and v) the operators' back- vided with EBT-ISs (Fig. 3). The distance between the station and the ground and behaviors. The spatial distribution of ViCs was based on of- nearest ViC is associated with the presence of EBT-ISs at the station ficial data provided by a local government agency (UPLRCSM, 2016). exits. The data breakdown shows a dramatic decrease in the ratio be- The spatial analysis was conducted by collecting and modelling second- tween the numbers of stations with and without EBT-ISs when the dis- ary data, as well as through direct on-site observation. The presence of tance between the station and the nearest ViC exceeds 1000 m. The the EBTs at rapid transit stops was quantified by analyzing remote- ratio of stops with and without EBT-ISs is 1.25 for the stations that are sensing images that were provided by the street-view service of Baidu located at <500 m from a ViC, 1.15 for the stations that are located be- Maps. When this research was conducted—the second quarter of 2017 tween 500 m and 1000 m from a ViC, and 0.38 for the stations that are —the available database of the street-view service of Baidu Maps located >1000 m from the nearest ViC (Fig. 3). contained images that were captured between November 2013 and Au- The data breakdown by metro lines shows a relatively equal distribution gust 2016. During this time, SM lines 7, 9 and 11 were under construc- of EBT-ISs in the sample group, with a mean average deviation of 7.9% tion. Therefore, these metro lines were not included in the analysis of from the arithmetic mean (expected value: 50%). Metro Line 3 has the the presence of EBTs that corresponded with metro-system access. The highest presence of EBT-ISs, while Metro Line 4 has the smallest presence spatial distribution of EBT-ISs around selected transit stops was defined (Fig. 4). by using data that were collected through direct observation in the last quarter of 2016 and the second quarter of 2017. The data were collected 5.3. Spatial distribution of EBT services surrounding selected transit stops by surveying all the streets within a 1 km radius from the selected stations. The data are conveyed through proportional symbols and distrib- The third level of examination that is presented here is based on the spa- utive flow maps. Direct observation and face-to-face qualitative tial analysis of the primary data that were collected in three selected cases interviews were the primary sources of describing the EBT studies. The criteria that were adopted for the selection are 1) stations that characteristics. ArcGIS was employed for the spatial analysis of the were located <500 m from a ViC and 2) the presence of EBT-ISs observed EBT-IS distribution. through remote sensing. The selected cases were Xili, Yitian and Ailian Sta- tions. The selected stations commenced operation between December 2010 and June 2011. They are located in different areas of the city, and they are 5. Calculation and results different in terms of size, the number of users and the surrounding built environment. The data were collected during three campaigns on October 2, 5.1. Distribution of ViCs in Shenzhen in relation to rapid transit stops 2016, May 25, 2017, and May 26, 2017. The first on-site observation was conducted around Xili Station, the second was conducted around Yitian The distribution of ViCs that was provided by the Urban Planning, Station and the third was conducted around Ailian Station. All the cam- Land and Resources Commission of Shenzhen Municipality (UPLRCSM, paigns were conducted by one or two investigators who were provided 2016) was superimposed on the rapid transit network, which allowed a with a standard camera and an ordinary bike. An area within an approxi- cross-check of spatial interrelation (Fig. 2). At the time of this study, mately 1-km radius from the selected stations was checked. The scope of SM comprised 197 stations and 8 lines. In all, 119 stations, which are the field observation was limited to the operators who were waiting for cli- 60.4% of the total, are within a 0.5 km radius from a ViC, 20.8% (41 ents (EBT-ISs), while the EBTs who were carrying a client were not re- station) are located between a 0.5 km and 1 km radius, and only corded. The data are delivered through mapping to graphically visualize 18.8% (37 stations) are located at a distance of >1kmfromtheclosest the distribution pattern of EBT-ISs (Figs. 5–7). ViC.Afternarrowingthesamplesizebyincludingonlythefirst five lines of the metro system, the percentages are 61.8 for 81 stations at less than a 0.5 km distance from a ViC, 21.4 for 28 stations between 5.3.1. Case study no. 1: Xili Station 0.5 km and 1 km away from a ViC, and 16.8 for 22 stations that are Xili Station was the first selected case study, and it served as a pilot to >1kmfromaViC. test the feasibility of the empirical research. Xili is a sub-district of the

Table 2 Analytical framework. Analytical Stages Data source Analytical methods Computational level software

City Distribution of ViCs in Shenzhen in relation to rapid Secondary data from the local governmenta; Spatial analysis ArcGIS; Microsoft transit stops remote sensingb Excel Presence of EBT services at subway station exits District Spatial distribution of EBT services surrounding Primary data collection Field observations; spatial analysis ArcGIS; Microsoft selected transit stops Excel EBT Characteristics of the employed vehicles Primary data collection Field observations; face-to-face Operators' background and behaviors qualitative interviews a Urban Planning, Land and Resources Commission of Shenzhen Municipality (UPLRCSM, 2016). b Street-view service of Baidu Maps (available at: http://map.baidu.com).

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Fig. 2. Distribution of the rapid transit stops with EBT-IS.

Nanshan District, with a complex urban structure that surrounds the station The data analysis clearly shows a high concentration of EBT-ISs in (Fig. 5). In a radius of 1 km, several different zones can be found such as proximitytothemetroexits(Figs. 5 and 6). Nearly half (44.6%) of commercial streets, ViCs, residential compounds, hotels, parks, hospitals, the total EBT volume is located within 120 m from the SM station, parks and other community services. Xili Station is located underground. and 26.8% is located at a maximum distance of 5 m from the station Two metro lines serve the station, which has six exits. At the time of the sur- exits. Between 120 m and 375 m from the SM station, no EBT-ISs are vey, Metro Line 7 was still under construction and only Exits A and F were detected. In all, 55.4% of the EBTs are diffusely located in the neigh- operating. In the Xili case study, EBTs are diffusely present in the area, not borhood and are dispersed at several EBT-ISs, but they show a peak only in proximity to the station. During the survey, 56 EBT-ISs were concentration in the range between 375 m and 680 m from the station detected. (Table 3).

5.3.2. Case study no. 2: Yitian Station Yitian Station is an underground terminal station on Metro Line 3. It is located near the border with Hong Kong in the southern part of the Futian District within a dense mixed-use development. Yitian Sta- tion has 4 exits. The data were captured on a weekday in May 2017, and21EBTswereidentiﬁed. The data analysis shows 5 EBTs that are locatedwithin5mfromtheSMexitsandanother15EBTsthatare distributed in a range between 413 m and 914 m from the station. Two EBT-IS concentration peaks can be found at 413 m and 914 m. Although the EBT-ISs are located within a 1-km radius from the station, this second peak comprises EBTs that serve a different station, and one is located directly in front of a Shawei Station exit on Metro Line 7. Subsequently, these 9 EBTs have not been included further in the analysis, which results in a distribution pattern where 41.7% of the EBTs are located at the station entrance and 58.3% are located at a distance that is >400 m from the station.

5.3.3. Case study no. 3: Ailian Station Ailian Station is also on Metro Line 3, and it has 4 exits. Differ- ently from the other considered cases, the station is located above Fig. 3. Presence or absence of EBT-IS in proximity to metro exits; data breakdown ground. It serves a peripheral area of Shenzhen and is located in the by distance (x) from the closest ViC. fast-growing Longgang District (Fig. 7). In this case, 56 EBTs were

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Fig. 4. Proportional presence of EBT-IS at metro exits; data breakdown by metro lines.

Fig. 5. EBT-IS surrounding Xili Station; proportional symbol map.

detected, similar to the Xili case study. The analysis emphasizes provided by specialized shops that are usually located in ViCs. These mod- 21.4% of the EBTs are within 5 m from the station exits, while an- ifications are described as follows. other 78.6% are distributed in a range between 275 m and 785 m from the station. Two peaks can be noticed; the first peak is between 1) The extra seat is stretched to approximately 75 cm, which makes it 380 m and 496 m and the second peak is at 780 m. possible to carry two passengers behind the driver or a single passenger while avoiding body contact. Single passengers often sitwithtwolegsonthesamesideofthebike,amodalitythatis 5.4. Characteristics of employed vehicles especially convenient for passengers who wear dresses or skirts. 2) An approximately 35-cm foot peg is added for passengers. It supports No operator used a standard e-bike to carry passengers. The modifica- and provides sufficient space for two feet for either two passengers tions to the e-bike allow more room for passengers and protection from who sit one in front of the other or for one passenger who has both weather and are relatively uniform (Fig. 1). These modifications are feetonthesameside.

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Fig. 6. EBT-IS surrounding Xili Station: volume range to the station; the distributive ﬂow map of EBT volume on the commuting path heading to the SM station shows a high coverage in proximity to the metro station.

3) An extended 1.8 m umbrella is added. It covers the entire e-bike and and protects it from weather, either sunshine or rain. The umbrella is re- 5) none of the drivers used a helmet. tractable and is either hidden in a tube below the bike or closed between the legs of the driver. 6. Discussion 5.5. Operators' background and behaviors 6.1. Spatial relationship at the city level among transit stops, ViCs and EBT-ISs Two on-site in-depth interviews that were conducted in August 2016 provided an understanding of service provider origins and job charac- The location of transit stops in relation to ViCs shows a high proxim- teristics. The interviewees were self-employed, lived in the closest vil- ity: 81.2% of the stations are located within a 1-km radius from the clos- lage and provided the service in their spare time to increase their estViC.EBT-ISpresenceatstationexits is different on different lines. wages. Single-trip prices ranged from 5 RMB to 10 RMB. Although ac- Among all SM lines, Metro Line 4 has the smallest number of stops cording to current regulations, the e-bike speed should not exceed that are provided with EBT-ISs, while at Metro Line 3, the informal 20 km/h, previous surveys acknowledged that they can reach 30 km/h transportation service is mostly offered directly at the station exits. (Lin et al., 2008). A maximum speed of 40 km/h of an EBT during ser- Metro Line 4 is the only line of the SM that is operated by the Shenzhen vice was observed on October 23, 2016. While conducting field observa- branch of the Hong Kong-based MTR Corporation, and it was one of the tions, the following common aberrant behaviors of EBT drivers were first two metro lines to be opened in Shenzhen in 2004. It passes through noticed: the Futian District, which is one of the core areas of Shenzhen that in- cludesthemainseatofcitygovernmentandthemostimportantCBD 1) lack of organization among drivers; of the city. Metro Line 3, which opened in 2010, connects the peripheral 2) aggressive driving skills; Longgang District to the historical center of the city that is located in the 3) driving on sidewalks and honking at pedestrians to increase EBT space; Luohu District. The difference in the number of EBT-ISs between the two 4) driving along roads in the opposite direction of the normal traffic flow; lines could be interpreted as an indicator of a higher concentration of

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Fig. 7. EBT-IS surrounding Ailian Station; proportional symbol map. the service in peripheral areas, which is conﬁrmed by the extensive spa- 6.2. Distribution of EBT-ISs surrounding the transit stops in relation to last-mile tial analysis at the city scale (Fig. 2). issues When considering the selection of residential areas based on paratransit service offerings (Loo, 2007), the presence of EBT ser- As evidenced by the spatial analysis of selected case studies, the major- vices could lead to an increase in ViC attractiveness. Contrariwise, ity of EBTs gather either around the station exits or at a >5-min walk, which spatial and social marginalization may increase for the ViC resi- is a relevant parameter in last-mile or TOD models. This distribution pattern dents who are not conveniently connected to the public transit can be found in all the selected cases, with small variations (Table 4 and infrastructure. Fig. 8). Among the various factors that determine the distributions, the location of the ViCs and the commercial strips are among the most important, as shown by the analysis of cases 1 and 3 (Figs. 5 and 7). Table 3 Case No. 1, Xili Station; Distribution of EBT-IS and corresponding street distance to the station exit. 7. Conclusion EBT-IS Distance from EBTs at Percentage Assembled Distance SM exit (m) EBT-IS of EBTs (%) percentage from This paper sheds new light on the spatial features of the EBT informal (No.) (%) SM exit (m) transportation service, providing a better understanding of the reasons A 5 9 16.1 44.6 <120 B 5 6 10.7 C 20 3 5.4 Table 4 D 60 4 7.1 Range of EBT distances and percentage with maximum walking distance from the E 120 3 5.4 EBT-IS. J 375 4 7.1 55.4 >375 K 400 1 1.8 Range distance (x) from Presence of EBT-ISs (No. | %) Walking time to M 402 1 1.8 station exit station (min) Xili Yitian Ailian N 427 2 3.6 L 440 1 1.8 x ≤ 100 m 22 39.3 5 41.7 12 21.4 1 P 480 2 3.6 100 m≤ to ≤200 m 3 5.4 0 0 0 0 2 F 500 3 5.4 200 m≤ to ≤300 m 0 0 0 0 5 8.9 4 H 512 4 7.1 300 m≤ to ≤400 m 4 7.1 0 0 6 10.7 5 O 565 3 5.4 400 m≤ to ≤500 m 7 12.5 5 41.7 11 19.6 6 G 575 2 3.6 500 m≤ to ≤600 m 12 21.4 2 16.7 10 17.9 8 R 605 2 3.6 600 m≤ to ≤700 m 6 10.7 0 0 1 1.8 9 I 605 1 1.8 700 m≤ to ≤800m0 0001119.710 Q 680 3 5.4 800 m≤ to ≤900 m 2 3.6 0 0 0 0 12 S 890 2 3.6 900 m≤ to ≤1000 m 0 0 0 0 0 0 13

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Fig. 8. Distribution of EBT-IS (absolute value) compared with the distance from the transit stop. behind its persistence in one of the flagship cities in China. This research formal stands—and contemplation of commuter perceptions and intentions also shows how the physical form of cities plays a primary role in urban mo- (Guillen et al., 2013; Satiennam et al., 2006; Tangphaisankun et al., 2009). bility. This study analyzed the spatial distribution of EBTs in Shenzhen in Several positive benefits result from and successful examples exist of the relation to the distances between local rapid transit system stops and the lo- regulation of informal transportation services and the employment of tech- cations of rural enclaves within the urban fabric of the city. The integration nological innovations (Cervero and Golub, 2007; Golub et al., 2009; of data collected from remote sensing into GIS environment has proved Sengers and Raven, 2014). The benefits of policy regulation include a con- beneficial in the analysis of the dataset and its visualization. Although inte- trolled equilibrium between demand and supply, fixed fares and increased gration of secondary data being time consuming, the method here adopted safety (Phun and Yai, 2016). The beneficial potential of this system should is convenient in cases of informal spatial phenomena lacking of official re- be considered in extending the catchment area of the rapid transit system cord. The findings demonstrate that the offering of EBT services is highly and in enhancing the integration of the rural enclaves in the city structure. dependent on the distances between SM stations and ViCs, as the presence of EBT services at rapid transit stops sharply decreases over a threshold distance of 1 km. The spatial analysis at the district scale that was conducted Acknowledgements on selected areas shows a particular dynamic in the concentration pattern that is reasonably related to last-mile issues: operators mostly gather at The research reported in this paper was financially supported by China metro access points or at a distance from the transit stops that can be cov- Postdoctoral Science Foundation Grant (Grant No.: 2015M581452) and by ered in a walk of <5 min. The findings of this study can be generalized a grant from City University of Hong Kong (Project No. 7200531). We to Chinese and Asian cities with similar demographic factors, which are thank Xiaonan Hong, Ruoyu Guo and Ting Liu for their assistance in this served by a mass-transit system and have topographic conditions favorable research. to the use of e-bikes. Limitation of this research concern primarily the small number of cases considered at district-level. 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