Social Sciences Review P-ISSN 2664-0422 December 2019, Vol. 3, No.2 [279-296] O-ISSN 2664-0430

RESEARCH PAPER Pakistan-China Military and Security Ties: A Qualitative Analysis Muhammad Jawad Hashmi 1 Sobia Jamil 2 Dr. Ashfaq Ahmed 3

1. Lecturer, Department of Political Science and International Relations, University of Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan 2. Ph. D Scholar, Department of Law and International Relations, University Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu Malaysia 3. Assistant Professor, Department of Politics and International Relations (DPIR), University of Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan PAPER INFO ABSTRACT Received: After China’s emergence as a global power, military September 12 , 2019 modernization, strengthening military ties with other states in Accepted: different regions of the world, and enhancement in arms exports December 25, 2019 are some of China’s objectives to achieve.This research paper Online: focuses on analyzing China and Pakistan’s cooperation in December 31, 2019 defense sector as it is one of the leading elements of Pakistan- Keywords: China strategic relations. This paper analyzes the Pakistan-China China-Pakistan defense cooperation in all three branches (Army, Air Force, and Strategic Navy).This research study has employed the qualitative method Partnership, in which secondary sources of data have taken from existing China, Defence, literature, published and unpublished research works and Pakistan, Security primary data was collected by conducting interviews of Corresponding International Relations experts’ to analyze Chin’s defence and Author: security cooperation with Pakistan. The outcome of discussion Danalyst@hotm reflects that in the post 9/11 period, Pakistan and China have ail.com strengthen their military and security ties Introduction

In the 21st century, Pakistan-China bilateral partnership has risen to the highest level, and they consider themselves as “All-weather strategic partners.” The Chinese government has consolidated its defense ties with Pakistan by developing multidimensional military technology, development of Gwadar port, joint military and naval exercises, the joint production of fighter jets, and cooperation in the nuclear sphere.

In the year of 2014, China exported military weapons worth $394 million to Pakistan. In the very next year, this export was increased by 70 percent, and China supplied arms to Pakistan worth $565 million. It is noteworthy that the US Pakistan-China Military and Security Ties: A Qualitative Analysis decreased its arms sale to Pakistan from $189 million in 2014 to $66 million in 2015 (Tribune, 2016). In its study on the world arms trade from 2011 to 2015, According to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), in the period of 2013- 2017, Pakistan is the largest buyer of these arms with 35 percent of China’s arms exports among 48 recipient countries. (Pubby, 2019). Pakistan has been the biggest importer of Chinese arms sales for all five-year periods since 1991 (pieter d. wezeman, March 2018). Chinese troops Special Service Group visited Pakistan in December 2018 to participate in sixth joint exercise which is an important element of China-Pakistan defense and military cooperation (Pubby, 2019).

Sino Pak defense and security ties are enduring and highly thriving. This strong partnership is exceptional and strategic interdependence between the two countries and convergence of interests have further given a boost to this existing relationship that has developed over the last sixty years. Along with many significant factors that have been discussed in the earlier part of the chapter, initially the -Pakistan’s 65 and 71 wars and China’s border conflict with India in 1962 laid the foundation for China-Pakistan security relations. Many Chinese scholars used the term “common strategy” Pakistan-China strategic relations especially after 1965 and 1971 wars, but particularly in the latter half of 1970s. The Soviet Union invasion in Afghanistan made Pakistan-China strategic relations stronger.(Singh & Sciences, 2007).

After 9/11, due to various developments and emergence of new threats, China and Pakistan are consolidating their collaboration in regional and national security matters. China has assured Pakistan that it will continue to support Pakistan in every possible manner. There are frequent political and military high level visits from both countries in past few years. Qamar Javed Bajwa visited China in 2018 after his appointment as Chief of army staff of Pakistan where he met with Chinese military and political officials. He discussed regional security, economy, defense and other agendas of common interests. After the meeting, Chinese media reported that China has plans to strengthen military ties with Pakistan by developing ballistic missiles, cruise and multi-role combat crafts. According to a Chinese military expert Song Zhongping, “China’s authorization to Pakistan to produce ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, anti-aircraft missiles, anti- ship missiles and main battle tanks in Pakistan is on the agenda.” (T. E. Times, 2018).

The most significant visit was made by Prime Minister Imran Khan in November 2018 when both countries pledged to strengthen their defense and security ties. In this visit, China and Pakistan agreed to enhance military

280 Pakistan Social Sciences Review (PSSR) December, 2019 Volume 3, Issue 2 cooperation between two countries and continue their joint efforts to counter terrorism, extremism and separatism. Both sides believe that these joint efforts are required for stable security environment. According to security analysts, Pakistan is replacing its western suppliers with China as its main defense supplier due to China’s low prices and loose financial terms because Pakistan is a cost conscious customer because of its economic challenges (F. Times, 2016).

In a personal interview, Brigadier (Retired) Naeem Saalik and Salma Malik agreed on this point that China is the only country who is willing to transfer the technology to Pakistan in recent times at cost effective price as Pakistan is facing resistance for getting F-16 fighter planes from US while other options require hard cash. So buying from China is cost effective for the country like Pakistan who is facing security and economic challenges. Brig. (Retired) Naeem Saalik said:“One important factor is that this inequitable system based on political considerations in which some countries are given access to advance technologies where as countries like Pakistan are denied access to advance technology .We have seen in the past that when United States congress completed rejected to finance the deal of giving eight F16 to Pakistan which Pakistan is still trying to get, so if you have to buy cutting edge technologies from other sources, that one is very costly ,for instance if you get it from France, they will ask for hard cash which Pakistan Does not have, US had political strings attached to this deal as they forced Pakistan to act against Haqqani Network and Pakistan rejected those conditions So, China is now the major provider of the defense equipment to Pakistan , China is exporting to other countries as well but Pakistan is the largest client. China is one country that this is a reliable source of supply and is the only country who is willing to transfer all the technology to Pakistan as we have seen in the case of joint development JF17 Thunder, we have seen this cooperation in terms of tanks, missiles, so they are willing to transfer sophisticated technology, Pakistan and China have entered into submarine deal some of those will be manufactured and assembled in . Chinese technology is still affordable for the country like Pakistan and they are also willing to provide loans on soft terms. We need to enhance our capabilities because India is getting sophisticated and up to date technology from all major arms exporters”(Saalik, Personal Communication November 12, 2018).

As there are serious security threats to Pakistan from Afghanistan and Indian fronts so it needs to enhance its defense capabilities. Initially America was the main arms provider to Pakistan but with the ups and down in this relationship, Pakistan understood this point that it needs to diversity its relations for its defense needs and China became a continuous source of support for Pakistan. As India is getting defense support from all the major powers and

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Pakistan is denied to all the new and sophisticated technologies, China is the only country which is ready to enhance Pakistan’s defense capabilities and it is cost effective too as Pakistan is unable to afford expensive arms due to its economic crisis.

Salma Malik has mentioned the same reasons for Pakistan‘s reliance on China. She said, “For Pakistan the access to Chinese technology or cost effective Chinese technology, I would not call cheaper because that gives a different message, cost effective technology has been very beneficial because of Pakistan’s limited purchase capacity. The second aspect is that the China and Pakistan are geographically very close to each other so having assembly lines, collaborations and the proximity also helps in a certain passion. It is also need base thing that China is willing to relax a lot of things when it comes to defense collaboration. And that is something which is always beneficial for a country like Pakistan as it was struggling to attain good technology at a cost effective price and that is something that China has done to Pakistan”.(Malik, Personal Communication November 19, 2018) China has as always and traditionally provided Pakistan with intermediate range weaponry, small weapons and light arms, helped in establishing the Heavy Industries Taxila (HIT), the KAMRA heavier aeronautic complex and so many other things speak for itself plus the fact that the type of purchases Pakistan had made in the past when they required refurbishing, going to the western countries and getting extremely expensive spare parts, all was very difficult for cash a challenged Pakistan. So for Pakistan, having great cooperation with China in defense sector is a great source of strength and China got very strong consistent customer in form of Pakistan so that is something which really works for them.

U.S was the biggest seller of defence supplies to Pakistan but current equation between US and Pakistan has been changed. U.S has accused Pakistan repeatedly for harbouring militant groups like Haqqani Network and Afghan Taliban. US suspended coalition support fund and military training programs for Pakistani military officials despite of fighting a war for Americans at a very high cost of military personals, civilian lives and it has also affected the economy.

Dr Muhammad Khan expressed his views regarding US’s allegations on Pakistan and suspending support fund as: “It is a tactic that US is using to pressurize Pakistan to do more. As Pakistan said that it is no more dependent on US and relationship should be based on equality and mutual interests. Pakistan is fighting against the terrorism and US is still accusing Pakistan that they are providing safe heavens to the terrorists and it is a known fact that Pakistan has provided evidence to US and UN and India that Afghanistan soil has been used

282 Pakistan Social Sciences Review (PSSR) December, 2019 Volume 3, Issue 2 against Pakistan and Pakistan is fighting against these non state actors by launching military operations Zarb-e- Azab and Radd-ul-Fasaad. Pakistan has told the international community that terrorists are terrorists. Pakistan has no favorites. Haqqani has been killed in Afghanistan and their network is operating from Afghanistan. Whatever USA has given us it is because we were fighting on their behalf. But if we look at China, China is also supporting us because of its own interests. National Interests come first. China is not doing anything extra. They have their stake in Pakistan and if we take a look at history, Pak did more extra for China than China did for Pakistan.”(D. M. Khan, Personal Communication October 23, 2018). The US suspension of coalition funds and training programs for Pakistan is not the first time. They have used this tactic several times in the past to pressurize Pakistan to act accordingly to their desires. The current situation is quite different from the pastas Pakistan has learnt from its past mistakes and now it relies more on China for its economic and defense needs than US. Pakistan has made it very clear under the new government that the relationship between US and Pakistan will be based on mutual interests and respect. China has its own interests as well as every state has its own interests when it comes to partnerships and relationship in international politics. If we analyze the whole situation, Pakistan is more significant for China than China for Pakistan due to China’s regional and global agendas which it needs to achieve.

In a personal interview with former Ambassador of Pakistan to United Nations and Executive Director of Centre for International Strategic Studies, Ali Sarwar Naqvi argue that growing mistrust in Pakistan-US relations is also one of the factor that is pushing Pakistan more towards China for defence supplies. Riffat Hussain and Imtiaz Gul expressed similar views. Ali Sarwar Naqvi said: “Since the US was the bigger defense supplier to Pakistan and as Pakistan fully understand now that Pakistan cannot fully depend on US anymore because there have been some sanctions by the US and there have been interruptions, there are certain suspensions on their programs , so in that scenario yes Pakistan does turn towards china more than it used to before.”(Naqvi, Personal Communication November 14, 2018).

Dr Riffat Hussain argued: “The two developments that I had in mind among others are first of all there is mark deterioration in U.S. Pak ties. And that’s quite evident from Trump’s South Asian strategy in which they have singled out Pakistan as the main hurdle in America’s desire to pull back from Afghanistan. In fact they have accused Pakistan of promoting terrorism and the second indication of that is American action for example they have suspended coalition support fund to Pakistan and secondly they have decided not to provide any further defense

283 Pakistan-China Military and Security Ties: A Qualitative Analysis assistance to Pakistan so this aid cut off to Pakistan along with the American closing up to India is a clear indication to Pakistan that U.S is no longer available to Pakistan as a strategic partner to them which to Americans used to be ever since the period of cold war. As a result of these two developments the Pakistanis have decided to firmly move to consolidate their security relationship with China.”(Husain, Personal Communication November 6, 2018).

In the view of Imtiaz Gul; “Pakistan has moved away from US and Pakistan has embraced china as a strategic partner based on the lessons of past seventeen year because all Pakistan has got in last seventeen years putting after the unfolding of war on terror is condemnation, criticism and this blame of double game etc so gradually Pakistan has realized that looking up to the United States wouldn’t helped particularly because after the 2006,2007 nuclear cooperation deal between India and united states so I think Pakistan has been consciously chosen to tilt towards china for not only for security but also for strategic framework.”(Gul, Personal Communication October 29, 2018) In a personal interview with Ghulam Ali, Farhan Siddiqi, Manzoor Afridi, Brig. (Retired) Naeem Saalik and Salma Malik, they all mentioned the same point that initially Pakistani military was getting American technology while the present rift between US and Pakistan forced Pakistan to look for other options not only toward China but also Russia. Ghulam Ali said, “Yes Pakistan’s current equation with US has forced Pakistan to look towards China more because we are dependent economically and militarily on foreign sources since our independence so when Pakistan’s resources are cut down by one source it certainly pushes Pakistan more towards China.” (D. G. Ali, Personal Communication January 12, 2019).

In the view of Farhan Siddiqi, “The more of Pakistan’s relationship with United States of America is based on friction which is one of the reasons that push Pakistan towards China more”. (Siddiqi, Personal Communication December 27, 2018) According to Manzoor Afridi, “Recent US policies towards Pakistan are the repetition of its policies, when john Kennedy came in 1961 and cut the military assistance, then Pakistan became closer to china. Pakistan and China signed big agreements for which USA was not happy then. And even after that in 1965 war with India, USA imposed economic and military sanctions on Pakistan. So that’s why Pak get much closer to china. In recent times, same thing has repeated as Trump administration has suspended coalition support fund and military trainings so without any doubt Pak gets closer to China in getting any military assistance, military training and military hardware and one more imp thing is that Pakistan is also getting closer to Russia. And the Russian troops have come to Pakistan for joint military exercises. So Pakistan is not only getting closer to china 284 Pakistan Social Sciences Review (PSSR) December, 2019 Volume 3, Issue 2 but also looking for further options like Russia.”(Afridi, Personal Communication October 24, 2018) Brig. (Retired) Naeem Saalik said, “It is very obvious because when one to run out of choices then what ever the option is available to you, you go for that that is why Pakistan along with China, is trying to open up to the Russians.”(Saalik, Personal Communication November 12, 2018).

According to Dr Salma, “Pakistan has very strong and solid defense needs because of the extremism and rise in terrorism especially in post 9/11 era, and whatever was provided by US, it was because Pakistan was fighting its war at the very high cost and US now is no longer there as a party with Pakistan side rather it is adding to the tensions in the region and this is making the case between Pakistan and china stronger than it was ever before.”(Malik, Personal Communication November 19, 2018). According to Former foreign Secretary Riaz Muhammad Khan, Pakistan’s defense relations with China do not affect by Pakistan’s equation with America as they are always remain steady. China–Pakistan military cooperation is steady and remains unaffected by other factors including ups and down in our relations with the US. America suspended our reimbursements under Coalition Support Fund (CSF) for our deployment of forces in US led war on terror which was an agreement between the two sides in 2002. The suspension could affect somewhat Pakistan’s capacity to fight terrorism and extremism which in any event Pakistan needs to continue in its own interest. In fact CSF was a bad arrangement from Pakistan’s point of view. While we agreed to get reimbursements for our deployment, Pakistan allowed free of charge the use of ALOCs and GLOCs (Air Logistics Communications and Ground Logistics Communications) as well as the use of three air bases. As far as suspension of training is concerned, this is a controversial step even within the US establishment, because many American officials believe that the arrangement generated goodwill among personnel of the two militaries and that a similar suspension earlier in the 1990s was harmful from the US point of view.”(R. M. khan, Personal Communication January 16,2019).

Most of the scholars in Pakistan believe that the money Pakistan was getting from America was not enough and Pakistan has spent a lot more than these reimbursements and have given more support to American and NATO forces than any other country. Pakistan’s relations with US do not affect Pakistan-China strategic partnership due to China’s consistent policies towards has Pakistan.

Aizaz Ahmad Chaudhry said:“In military aspects China is Pakistan’s largest supplier of defense equipment. Pakistani military services (army, navy and air force) train closely with Chinese military forces. Pakistan’s military relationship

285 Pakistan-China Military and Security Ties: A Qualitative Analysis with China was already close, by the time U.S. cut military aids, suspended training programs and denied f16 supplies in recent years.”(Chaudhry, Personal Communication December 3, 2018) Initially, Pakistan and China came closer because both countries wanted to counter India’s hegemony in the region because of their territorial conflicts with India. Some scholars called Pakistan-China relations an Indian Centric relationship. Later on and especially in post 9/11 era, new dimensions have been added to this bilateral cooperation due to the changing scenarios and most importantly due to rise in terrorism and extremism in the region. China’s strong defense cooperation with Pakistan serves China’s interests in South Asia which include peaceful security environment in Pakistan and Afghanistan, curtail the influence of militants and separatists, securing energy and trade routes.

According to Manzoor Afridi, China’s defense cooperation with Pakistan is not just because of the fact that China wants to make Pakistan stronger but also it serves China’s own strategic interests in South Asia (Afridi, Personal Communication October 24, 2018). There are number of objectives which China wants to achieve and Pakistan is a reliable partner to achieve its goals. Firstly, China is directly threatened by Uighur separatists in its western province Xinjiang and strongly feels that these Uighur Muslims have direct links the militants who are operating from Pakistan and Afghanistan’s soil. So China feels that Pakistan can curtail terrorism. Pakistan has made an every possibly effort to avert the use of Pakistan’s soil against China in any manner. Many religious organizations which alleged to have connections with militants in Xinjiang (western part of China) were banned by the Pakistani government. Pakistan also caught many Uighur separatists and they were given to China. All the political parties in Pakistan were agreed over the issue of not to support any terrorist group in China. To fight against terrorism, Pakistani armed forces entered in tribal areas of Pakistan to destroy militants’ hideouts and these efforts were acknowledged by Chinese government at various International platforms. Secondly, instability in Pakistan and Afghanistan poses serious threats to China’s grand economic and strategic ambitions. In the past several years, many agreements for various development projects were signed by both countries but security issues within Pakistan were not satisfactory for the Chinese workers so the progress on these projects remained slow. Pakistan’s law enforcement forces have made a lot of efforts to make internal security situation better so the working environment could be peaceful and secure foreign workers and investors. Thirdly, if there would be a peaceful and secure environment in this region, China’s strategic interests would be served. China’s

286 Pakistan Social Sciences Review (PSSR) December, 2019 Volume 3, Issue 2 main focus is to enhance cooperation among regional states to fight against nontraditional security threats.

In 2004, China mediated India-Pakistan peace talks because it knew that cooperation among regional states is must in a struggle against emerging non- traditional security threats and this could not be possible until India and Pakistan would not cooperate to resolve their bilateral issues. Therefore, to formulate a strong and joint comprehensive strategy tofight against non-traditional security threats has also given a new direction to Pakistan-China’s existing security cooperation.

During Cold war, both countries established their defense ties and since then, China is the most reliable defense partner of Pakistan. From 1960 to 1980, Pakistan got one third of its arms supplies from China. This was more than what US and other countries supplies to Pakistan. China continued exporting arms to Pakistan even in the post cold war era when arms transfers were in decline. Until mid-2010, according to a defense source, Pakistan received almost 70 percent of its military aircrafts and battle tanks which includes 36 ballistic missiles (1992), 1600 Main Battle Tanks (MBT), 400 fighter aircrafts and 40 naval ships from China (Defence, 24 August, 2010).

During 1980’s and 1990’s US and western countries imposed economic and military sanctions on Pakistan and at that time China really helped Pakistan in terms of fulfilling its defense needs by supplying defense supplies, small weapons and technical assistance. (Siddique, 2014) Along with the joint production of JF 17 Thunder, there are number of important projects which include Al Khalid Tank (Main Battle Tank), K-8 training aircraft, F-22P frigates, naval warships, F-85 Tanks and production assistance for JF 17 (Gady, April 28, 2015). Western countries believed that China has also developed a manufacturing compound for building “turnkey ballistic missile” in Rawalpindi, a city of Pakistan closer to its Capital. In addition, China helped Pakistan by providing assistance in developing Shaheen-I ballistic missile which is a 750KM range missile (Hussain & M Heritiana, 2015). Furthermore, China and Pakistan are committed on new joint projects and work closely to consolidate defense collaboration (Z. A. Khan & Ahmad, 2015).

Defense Cooperation between Ground Forces

Pakistan and China enjoy closer defense ties as this relationship serves interests of both countries. The salient features of Sino-Pak defense cooperation are:

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1. Pakistan always enjoys China’s support in terms of weapons and technology and fulfills its defense needs especially at times when it faced military sanctions from major power (U.S and western countries) during Indo-Pak wars. 2. Beijing’s main objective of providing military weapons is not just to make Pakistan more dependent on China, but also to make it stronger and self- reliant. Hence such assistance helped in establishing Pakistan’s own Heavy Industries Taxila for the production of arms and ammunition, spare parts, license production and joint production of fighter aircrafts for enhancing its military capabilities. 3. Pakistan’s defense sector was strengthened by China’s continued arms sale and it helped Pakistan in improving its defense posture. China’s continuous support in defense sector instigated other defense suppliers to sell their defense technology to Pakistan. 4. There is a trust factor involved in Pakistan-China relations particularly in military terms because it has been very smooth since the beginning. Both countries prefer to keep all the details related to agreements only between the two and reveal the details only when expedient. 5. As Pakistan does not have domestic, technological, scientific and financial capabilities, defense collaboration with China is more beneficial for Pakistan (Munir, 2018).

Geo- strategic Alliances are one of the important features in global politics and security system; as a result it has made this partnership an important one. China has been a very reliable partner in terms of military as well as political support to Pakistan since 1962. Pakistan’s army was supported by China in building arms and ammunition industries, modernizing existing defense facilities and providing technological assistance (Jamal Afridi, July 6, 2010). A border settlement agreement was signed by two countries on 3rd of March, 1963; a great step towards establishing close ties and a first step that was taken by both countries against Indian interests (Akhtar, 2014). With the passage of time, due to mutual interests and objectives, China-Pakistan became reliable partners. For China, Pakistan was a reliable buyer for its low quality weapons, comparatively to western and American technologies. Due to its close partnership with Pakistan, China attained an access to American and Western military weapons and technologies which Pakistan bought from them. For China, Pakistan was also a strong ally against India. In return of all these benefits, China provided Pakistan low cost yet effective and extensive military technologies and support.

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The first and foremost important step in military cooperation was taken by both countries soon after 1965 India-Pakistan war. Pakistan received support from China against India as China set its own forces on high alert on Indo-China border and threatened India of calamitous consequences (McGarr, 2013). Pakistan and China consolidate their defense in the wake of new developments and security challenges in the region and they are committed to further strengthen defense ties as it serves mutual interests of both countries. The two counterparts conducted a formal meeting at Joint Staff Headquarter Chaklala on June 22, 2011. Both countries emphasized to enhance mutual cooperation in various field of defense, training programs, countering extremism and terrorism, technology transfer, joint military exercises and acquiring military equipment and defense supplies. In this meeting, China and Pakistan signed two important agreements to consolidate the strategic partnership between two countries (Munir, 2018).

Chang Wanquan, the Chinese Defense Minister, visited Pakistan to meet Pakistan’s high military and political officials. During his visit, Chang met the Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, Defense Minister Khawaja Asif, Chief of army staff Gen. Raheel Sharif in February 2014 (Dawn, Februaray 28, 2014). In his meeting, he assured Pakistani officials that China is committed to further strengthen a defense and security relation which is a significant step towards regional peace. In addition to these meetings, defense delegation from both countries arranged a joint session to discuss joint production programs and China assistance to Pakistan in attaining self-sufficiency in defense production. Different issues related to naval support, joint military exercises and defense cooperation were also discussed.(M. U.-H. Khan, 2014) Both countries are determined to strengthen their strategic cooperation by initiating several joint projects and joint military exercises.

Air Defense Cooperation

China and Pakistan’s cooperation in air defense is commendable. Establishment of Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) for assembling and production of fighter and trainer aircrafts by both countries is remarkable example of great relationship between two countries. Pakistan acquired assistance from China to build PAC for rejuvenation of air planes in fleet which includes Henyang F-6 (now retired), Nanchang A-5, F-7 fighter aircraft, and Shenyang FT-5, FT-6 Jet trainer aircraft (Munir, 2018). For the production of ground-based radar systems, avionics and electronics, Kamra Avionics and Radar Factory (KARF) also present in Pakistan Aeronautical Complex which is the third biggest assembling plant in the world.

For broadening its working capacity, PAC began production of aircrafts by building an industry (Aircraft Manufacturing Factory) in 1980. The Aircraft 289 Pakistan-China Military and Security Ties: A Qualitative Analysis

Manufacturing Factory got appreciation at regional level as it manufactured K-8 advanced trainer aircraft in collaboration with China’s Hongdu Aviation Industry Group. China and Pakistan manufactured JF-17 thunder, a combat aircraft at Aircraft Manufacturing Factory jointly ("JF-17 Aircraft,"). The AMF collaborated with China’s Chengdu Aircraft Industry (CAI) for JF-17 Thunder production. ("JF- 17 Aircraft,").

In the fields of research and development, nuclear weapons and aerospace technologies, Pakistan was assisted by China. Pakistan further acquired assistance from China in various fields such as joint production of combat aircrafts, building aircraft industries, engine designs and production of air jets. Various electronics warfare, radar and unmanned platforms were also supplied by China to Pakistan. China assured Pakistan that it would continue its cooperation. Along with JF-17 Thunder, joint production projects include; Karakoram-8 Trainer and Fighter aircraft, Super-7 Fighter (a substitute for existent F-6 fighter aircraft) and J-10 Fighter. J-10 is the most sophisticated fighter jet owned by Chinese as China gets 70 percent of its arms exports from j-10 sales. Pakistan was the first country with whom China shared this technology by giving 36 J-10 B to Pakistan. Lt. Gen. Waheed Arshad, Pakistan’s Army Chief of General Staff, visited China and Chinese officials promised Pakistan to strengthen defense relations by giving a squadron of J10-B advanced, all-weather, multi-role aircrafts. Pakistan Air force also has Karakoram Eagle which is a Chinese-built Airborne and Warning System. It can identify airborne and sea-surface enemy targets, prior to ground-based radar detection regardless of the height.

Pakistan also acquires assistance from China in space technology. Both countries are strengthening their collaboration in research and Development programs for information gathering from Space (G. Ali, September 09, 2011). Space agency of Pakistan SUPARCO (Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission) and China Great Wall Industry signed an agreement for the replacement of PAKSAT-1; Pakistan’s communication satellite in October 2008 in Beijing (Dawn, October 30, 2010). Pakistan’s Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani visited China in October 2009 and signed an agreement with China regarding satellite’s ground control system (Nation, October 11, 2009). In June 2010, an agreement was signed to finance a significant project Framework Loan Agreement according to which, China will provide RMB 86.5 million loan on concessional basis to start work on ground control system (Nation, October 11, 2009). China and Pakistan’s defense forces have already corroborated the project. Pakistani and Chinese experts from all three forces (ground, air and Naval) took part in the initial

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Research and Development phases and the on-ground initiation of the project (Masood, October 10, 2010).

China-Pakistan Naval Cooperation

In September 1971, Muzaffar Hassan, -in-Chief of visited China along with his delegation. Both countries began a formal naval cooperation as it was the first and significant visit to China by a Pakistan Naval Chief (Kane, 2016). During his visit, he held significant meetings with Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai. At that time, Pakistan was facing internal crisis in . A great security concern regarding situation in Pakistan was expressed by Zhou Enlai. H was in the view that if there would these tensions would increase; it could affect the security of entire region including China. He directed navy commander in chief to provide naval supplies and assistance to Pakistan in this hour of need. Pakistan needed to counter instability and turmoil in East-Pakistan. For this purpose, without any pre conditions over price or payment schedule, China agreed small petrol ships but these ships were delivered to Pakistan after the separation of East Pakistan due to repercussions of 1971 Indo- Pak war.

China and Pakistan started looking for the possibility of arms sale and transfer of technology of F22 frigates in 1985 (Dawn, April 07, 2005). Pakistani government approved an amount of $700-800 million to purchase four Chinese origin Jiangwei-II frigates ships in 1992 (Defence, August 01, 2009). In addition, Pakistan ratified an agreement with China for acquiring four F-22P frigates (Dawn, April 07, 2005). The detail of China-Pakistan Naval cooperation during 1990-2006 is given hereunder. Both China and Pakistan are determined to enhance this collaboration in developing eight F-22P warships (Munir, 2018) and utilizing the skills of experts from Hudong Zhonghua shipyard (Shanghai) and KSEW. The total cost of building these eight vessels is around US$ 1.4 billion (Niazi, December 16, 2009).

China is also manufacturing the most advanced naval frigate for Pakistan. It is reported that these advance frigates would be equipped with capabilities such as anti-ship, anti-submarine & air-defense operations. The vessel's class is Type 054AP, which means, it is based on the Type 054A of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) Navy (News, 2019). According to an expert in China's shipbuilding sector, this ship is the largest and strongest combating warship China has ever exported. He stated; "Based on pictures circulating on the internet, the ship will have vertical launch cells that can fire Chinese HQ-16 air-defense missiles and other kinds of

291 Pakistan-China Military and Security Ties: A Qualitative Analysis missiles. Vertical launch cells will bring flexibility to the user in terms of weapons portfolio, thus giving it a stronger fighting capability."(News, 2019) Once the construction would be completed, the vessel will be one of the biggest and technologically advanced additions to Pakistani Navy fleet and make the capabilities of Navy stronger to take action effectively against future security challenges, maintain regional peace and stability and maintain balance of Power in the Indian Ocean region.

Nuclear Cooperation

China supported Pakistan’s nuclear program since the beginning, at the initial stage, it faced equipment and necessary material shortage due to export restrictions from the West. According to few global security experts, China helped Pakistan in acquiring ‘Nuclear State’ status and presently it is estimated that Pakistan has 110 to 130 nukes in its strategic arsenal (DeYoung, January 31, 2011). For the development of nuclear infrastructure, Pakistan received assistance from China in terms of nuclear facilities and expertise. As a result, Pakistan was successful in establishing its first plutonium producing nuclear reactor at Khushab ("Federation of American Scientists (FAS) A Brief History of Pakistan's Nuclear Program,").

For the amplification of Uranium enrichment facility, China’s National Nuclear Corporation provided Pakistan 5.000 ring magnets- a high speed rotational component of centrifuge. China continued its support for Pakistan and provided extensive technical and material assistance for the development of Chashma Nuclear Power Complex and plutonium-reprocessing facility in mid 1990’s.("Federation of American Scientists (FAS) A Brief History of Pakistan's Nuclear Program,") On 15th October, 2008, an agreement was signed for building Chashma-3 and Chashma-4 nuclear power plants (NTI, 2011). For the validation of agreement, on 31st March 2010 the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) signed an agreement with two Chinese companies; Zhongyuan Engineering Corporation (ZEC) and China National Nuclear Corporation (NTI, 2011) On 30th September 2009, an agreement on fuel supply (NTI, 2011) was signed. Sindh Environmental Protection Agency approved the proposal of building K-2 and k- 3in 2015 (nuclear reactors) in the west of Karachi which would add 2200 MW of power in national energy grid (Technology).

Pakistan is the first importer of China’s ACP 1000 technology which China is building in Fujian province. In order to take more orders from other countries, China is keen to show the safety and efficiency of its cost cutting technology. China

292 Pakistan Social Sciences Review (PSSR) December, 2019 Volume 3, Issue 2 has been providing loans on softer term for this technology to Pakistan. As Pakistan is facing serious issue of power shortage, China is giving an affordable solution in the form of its latest Hualong-1 reactor technology (Malik, Personal Communication November 19, 2018).

Conclusion

The discussion presented in this research paper shows that since the beginning of the 21st century, China and Pakistan have been enhancing their defense cooperation and have initiated various joint defense projects such as fighter planes JF 17 Thunder and 22P-Frigates. China recognizes the fact that Pakistan owns the high-tech defense production industry, and vast human capital resources are available, so China is keen to invest in joint defense production. China and Pakistan expect to export their defense equipment to Middle Eastern states, Asia and Africa in near future. Pakistan and China are determined to enhance aviation and naval cooperation. The current regional security environment and the emergence of non-traditional threats compelled both countries to strengthen defense cooperation.

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