Introduction

INTRODUCTION

transformation” of what was to be buzzing electrical wires—crowned Villages in the the largest redevelopment project with a small strip of daylight, called by of its kind in the Pearl River Delta, locals “thin line sky.” City: A Guide to aspiring to become a national model for upgrading older urban areas. The emergence and proliferation China’s Informal of these urban villages is a unique The local press did not question these phenomenon of urban China that Settlements empty slogans, nor the eviction of the occurs in many regions and in Stefan Al countless politically disadvantaged different forms, as a consequence migrants. Rather, they framed the of the rapid urbanization that has In 2011, bulldozers tore down redevelopment as a conflict between resulted from land reform, the dual nearly the entire village of Dachong, the real estate company and the urban and rural land ownership destroying over 10 million square village households owning the land. A and management system, and the feet of village housing and evicting few families had refused to transfer large influx of an underprivileged more than 70,000 residents, many of their property rights, but after migrant population. At the cusp of them migrants.1 In what was called the district government approved the economic reform in China in the one of the key urban “upgrades” of eminent domain, the remaining 1980s, in a process that continues the decade, a vibrant community had homes were razed as well. Those until today, municipal governments been turned into a rubble-ridden who had agreed to transfer their could only achieve partial land demolition site. Only a few old trees, land rights were given more than acquisition in the countryside. Since historic temples, and ancient wells 100 million RMB compensation to at the time villagers were too costly were preserved, further accentuating sell their properties, propelling the to compensate and relocate, they the bleak new hole that formed amid former farmers into the nouveau riche: could only transfer the farmland the skyscrapers of Shenzhen. some of the villagers even made it to surrounding the villages into industrial the ranks of RMB millionaires.2 areas and housing. The now landless Located inside the Shenzhen Special villagers had to find another source Economic Zone, Dachong Village Dachong Village is just one of the of revenue and went from growing had become a prime real estate countless villages wedged within vegetables to leasing out apartments location when it was engulfed new urban areas and is now being to a steady stream of migrant by the explosive development of eliminated. But what the local workers, who sought employment the surrounding city. Developers people call a “village” is in reality in the newly built nearby factories. and government officials saw the an urbanized version of a village: an Since their collectively owned villages village’s adjacency with a new high- “urban village.” Literally “villages were unconstrained by city building tech industrial zone as both a major within the city,” or chengzhongcun, laws and set-back regulations, villagers nuisance and business opportunity. these are previously agricultural were able to add story after story Following the familiar tabula rasa villages that have been engulfed by to their homes, leading to the literal approach to planning, the village the city. Parallel with the surrounding extrusion of the village’s narrow would be subsumed in the anonymity urbanization, these villages have too building lots from low-rise to high- of the surrounding city only after it become “urban,” but in their own rise. As a result, disproportionally was razed. Billboards with images way. They no longer consist of the narrow streets delineate the new

of corporate office towers, a five- picturesque farms of rural China, but high-rise version of the village. At Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright star hotel, and a colossal mall of high-rises so close to one another times, buildings stand so close to one already visualized the future of the that they create dark claustrophobic another that they are dubbed “kissing village on the demolition site, while alleys—jammed with dripping air- buildings” or “handshake houses”— banners celebrated the “scientific conditioning units, hanging clothes, you can literally reach out from one urban planning” and the “collective caged balconies and bundles of building and shake hands with your Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong Universityneighbor. Press, HKU, 2014.1 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. For a moment, the “kissing buildings” with their burgeoning economies, native villagers who successfully worked out for all stakeholders. places to work as well. negotiate their transfer of land use They helped the government to rights for housing, moving costs, and transfer large portions of collective Their success seems to be short- loss of livelihood. Moreover, unless land to urban property ownership, lived, however; urban villages are the villagers are able to negotiate while supplying the villagers with a being wiped almost as soon as for an urban hukou (the household new livelihood because they could they pop up. The Dachong Village, registration system that privileges no longer farm. The villagers were one of the largest urban villages in urban over rural residents), they promoted to landlords, and many south China until the bulldozers could end up having no access to chose to enjoy their new affluence rolled in, is paradigmatic of the social security or health care. And in in more opulent parts of the city demolition of urban villages all over spite of their organization in Village and moved out of the village. In China. More than a thousand village Collectives (VC), the government their place came migrants from all redevelopment plans exist all over can exercise eminent domain at any over China, in search for cheap rent. China, affecting millions of people. time. Migrants end up losing most, Largely excluded from the general left with few or no alternative to housing distribution system as well As urban villages have become affordable housing. They are also the as homeownership because of their valuable real estate in current last to be considered, as they suffer limited rights and low incomes, their urban locations, city governments under a rural hukou, an inferior form housing options were limited. Often, aspire to deal with the “problem” of citizenship. Urbanization in China they preferred living in urban villages of the villages permanently, eager certainly helps create wealth, but to the monotonous dormitories in to transfer the collective village- the wealth is unequally distributed, the factory compounds, since the held land use rights back to the and is forced through land evictions villages, in close proximity to the state. The village redevelopment and the maintenance of political factories, offered many services benefits the government and the inequalities systematically produced including different types of shops and developers, who make a fortune in the household registration system. restaurants.3 To them, urban villages by developing large swaths of land

provided a suitable place to live, and in prime locations, and only those Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

VillagesImage in the 1.City Bulldozers : A Guide onlyto South leave China’s a few Informal trees on Settlements, the site that edited was by previouslyStefan Al, Hong Dachong Kong Village,University one Press, of the HKU, largest urban 2014.villages ProQuest in south Ebook China. Central, Photo http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. by dcmaster, Flickr. 2 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. In the process, the city as a whole modernist mega-blocks outside a peek into the villagers’ homes and loses unique histories and places of the villages. For these reasons daily lives in the village. in exchange for the relentless alone, people in the urban villages repetition of cookie-cutter office mostly travel on foot or use public In order to give a balanced view and blocks and residential enclaves. It is transit rather than a car. Walking not to idealize urban villages, we poignant that Chinese city planners, through their undulating streets have documented a wide variety of desperately pondering ways to gives an interesting experience, villages throughout the Pearl River infuse identity into their newly built enhanced by the variability of village Delta, in cities such as Dongguan, homogeneous cities, overlook the buildings. As much as urban villages Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Foshan, and urban village. Their unique urbanisms, play an important role in providing Zhuhai. We looked for villages that histories, spatial experiences, culture, affordable housing to a disadvantaged were all very different, whether and cosmopolitanism could bring a migrant population, they can also in size, density, history, dominant more diverse texture to the future offer a vital mixed-use, spatially industry, wealth, and reputation, so as of the city. diverse, and pedestrian alternative to avoid stereotypes. Often, a village to the prevailing car-oriented and is dominated by a special industry, This book argues for the value of monotonous modernist-planning be it information technology, shoe urban villages as places. Although paradigm in China. manufacturing, ceramic production, much academic research has focused replica products, or massage parlors. on their role in providing affordable To reveal these qualities, this book Some villages are well-known housing to a migrant population, depicts several urban villages in a backdrops for filming Chinese they have insufficiently been series of drawings and photographs operas, while others have a more approached from an urban design that range from large scale to infamous status, thanks to a red-light perspective. It is this urban design small scale. An aerial photo and district. Some villages display wealth argument that could potentially figure ground drawing show their and even build their own plazas and help persuade city governments to unique morphologies and incredible museums to celebrate the village’s integrate villages into, rather than to densities, particularly in relation to history and future, while others expel them from, their cities. the monochrome city context. The are less prosperous with unpaved “architour” provides a balanced streets that are littered with rubble While few urban design professionals architectural view, pointing to and trees filled with drying clothes. have been involved in their design, cultural heritage highlights as much the urban design merits of the as to dilapidated buildings. A section By sampling in different cities urban villages are plentiful. Their through each of the village’s main we were able to see differences, densely grouped, compact footprints streets—inspired by Terasawa as well as similarities, of urban are highly efficient, with much Hitomi’s vivacious illustrations villages in the five cities. These higher population densities than for the Japanese book Daizukan variations can partially be explained the surrounding city. Since most Kyuryujyou, which provides a final by the differences among their of the ground level of the villages record of the now destroyed surrounding cities. Many villages in has a commercial function, urban Kowloon Walled City in Hong Dongguan and Foshan, for example, villages are truly mixed use, giving Kong4 —uncovers the immense are engaged with electronics and local residents the convenient concentration of social life in the ceramics, respectively, giving a proximity to neighborhood stores, dense structures. The commerce hint of the dominant industries restaurants, and places to work. map highlights the small shops of the of these two cities. In addition, This also contributes to an active mixed-use villages, which provide counting the number of stories of street life with plenty of “eyes on the services to the local population buildings in urban villages almost street.” The fine-grain urban fabric and tourists. These shops are also literally enumerates various levels provides more intimate and human- opportunities to many small business of urbanization of the enclosing owners and entrepreneurs, and Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright scaled urban spaces. The streets are cities. The ones in Shenzhen and usually too narrow to accommodate supply work to residents. These give Guangzhou are the tallest, since cars, and the small blocks provide a clue of how each village has its these cities were urbanized first, a denser network of pedestrian unique industry. Finally, close-ups of while Guangzhou’s villages are older, connections than the oversized, a housing unit and a resident provide because of the city’s long history.

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.3 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

VillagesImage in the 2. City Like : A many Guide other to South urban China’s villages, Informal the buildings Settlements, in Xiasha edited Village by Stefan stand Al, so Hong close Kong to anotherUniversity that Press, they HKU, create a 2014.“thin ProQuest line sky.” EbookPhoto Central, by Stefan http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Al. 4 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. The height of the urban village even murderers. The reporters’ favelas in Rio de Janerio, the barrios buildings is thus a barometer of quotes of unsanitary conditions and in Mexico, and the shantytowns urbanization, a marker of the lack crime rates help authorities justify in India.7 Developed nations, too, of affordable housing, and sadly, their destruction. The government have their forms of extralegal and also an indicator of impending perceives them as a messy threat unplanned communities, for instance, demolition; as the higher they get, to their more sterile vision of the colonias border settlements in the more prominent they become modernity. Even some of Hong Kong Texas. As research shows, these prey to developers and governments. University’s graduate students of communities are not marginal, but Knowing that many of the urban urban design, many of whom come fully embedded into the economy.8 villages featured in this book are from China, hesitated to visit the The study of Chinese urban villages on the brink of destruction, the urban villages at the beginning of can contribute to this scholarship, following chapters will provide a our study. particularly because urban villages valuable documentation of this are not synonymous with the urban unique accident in China’s maelstrom Although many villages have dirty poor. Urban villages are anything of urbanization—a premature eulogy alleys and dilapidated buildings but marginal; they are integral to an if their demolition cannot be avoided. with poor lighting and ventilation economy that relies on low value- (and sometimes a 15-story building added labor, created by the state’s Looking across cases also reveals topped with roof shacks goes inability to provide adequate housing similarities in terms of their without an elevator), the people to millions of blue-collar workers urban features. In an urban China living in these buildings are not the who are playing an important part in dominated by drones of generic urban poor.5 They are productive, the economic development of China. skyscrapers, traveling through these if politically disadvantaged, citizens urban villages presents an alternative with jobs. Many urban villagers Moreover, the poor condition of vision of modernity that reminds have television sets, refrigerators, individual buildings in the urban village one of Marco Polo’s journeys in and occasionally, even cars. For does not justify the eradication of Invisible Cities. Typically, you can them, the place is not a “slum” but the entire village area. As in any city, access them only by going through a an important, affordable, and well- buildings come and go, but streets, gateway, which doubles as a security located entry point into the city open spaces, and everything else that gate since villages have their own where they can become full urban give long-term identity to a place private police force. Once inside, citizens after a few years of steady can be sustained and even integrated there is an air of cosmopolitanism jobs. They can eventually receive into the future of the city. They could with dialects heard from all over decent health care and social be treated like the older historical China, and restaurants with cuisines benefits, and send their children to villages that some Western cities from many regions. The narrow and proper schools. Furthermore, even have been smart to incorporate into populated streets in the markets in white-collar workers or college their greater urban fabric—places some villages, with their open display students frequent the urban villages such as Gràcia in Barcelona, or the of exotic products, appear more to enjoy their many services, or West Village in New York City. Their like souks than hutongs. These lead sometimes even prefer to live in the irregular and small grain of urban to unexpected open spaces with urban villages. fabric provides a welcome variety children rollicking outside, or to to the larger homogeneous city ancient temples where the elderly From this perspective, the grid, whereas the small lots bring are playing mahjong. emergence of urban villages in opportunities to smaller businesses. China fits in a worldwide trend It is easy to misperceive these places of “urban informality.”6 Much of Total demolition, the default option as slums. Dickensian nightmares the world’s urbanization occurs of the state, is problematic because portrayed by the local press often in the informal sector, outside of of the lack of proper substitutes.

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright describe the urban village in institutional structures such as Not only does it erase the unique pathological terms, for instance, as building regulations, zoning laws, or historical and cultural traces of an “eye sore,” “scar,” “ill,” or even land tenure. Hundreds of millions the village, the redevelopment can “cancer” of the city. They further of people around the world are put pressure on the surrounding stigmatize the migrant residents excluded from formal housing, infrastructure and is also expensive. as filthy, as burglars, drug users, or explaining the existence of the In addition, demolition eventually Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.5 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. forces migrants to resettle in better to redirect their anxieties to Yet, as Margaret Crawford and suburban areas that have potential even more threatening disruptions Jiong Wu write in this volume, “the for trouble. China’s 12th Five-Year of their vision of modernity: the beginning of the end” of urban Plan announced the building of 36 newly constructed ghost towns and villages in Guangzhou is a fait million of affordable housing units by malls. These are the empty and high- accompli. Planning groups dedicated 2015, but most of them are located end antitheses of the urban villages, to their destruction have already on the outskirts of the city. These such as Ordos City in Mongolia and demolished the 800-year-old Liede are lesser alternatives to the urban the South China Mall in Dongguan, Village, and turned it into a paradigm villages, since the villagers will need which is the largest mall in the of village redevelopment. Despite this, to make long commutes to work. world and also the emptiest, with a Crawford and Wu remain optimistic Their isolation from the city and 70% vacancy rate (Beijing’s Sanlitun that a new generation of planners and the lack of social diversity would Village, on the other hand, is a officials will offer more progressive easily turn them into ghettos, much thriving outdoor retail center, thanks planning for the villages. They could like the banlieues in Paris. Instead to its village-inspired open spaces). be guided by important counter

of urban villages, cities would be paradigms to the Dachong and Liede Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 3. Visitors Ebook and Central,villagers http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. in Daxin Village play pool outdoors. Photo by Stefan Al. 6 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. redevelopments, such as the Dafen a richer, more variegated pathway political geography and skewed arena and Huanggang Villages. of urbanization in the Pearl River of representation. Instead of what Delta, one that is evoked by his map the Shenzhen Daily claims to be a Dafen Village in Shenzhen is “Villages in Greater Guangzhou” “gloomy picture” of the urban village, internationally infamous for its that accentuates the rich patchwork with “rampant burglary, drug abuse production of “fake” paintings of hundreds of villages. and trafficking, prostitution, organized ranging from Da Vinci to Warhol, crime and even murder,” this book which are exhibited in countless And as Laurence Liauw argues in attempts to paint a fairer picture exhibition alleys that make the his essay, the upgrading of urban that depicts the urban villages’ village a popular tourist attraction. villages is necessary from a housing uniqueness, pedestrian friendliness, As Jiang Jun’s chapter shows, Dafen perspective, not in the least for the human-scale, accessibility, vibrancy, represents hope for urban villages lack of an appropriate alternative. and spontaneity—in short, all the not only because of its economic China’s current social housing policy, elements that make up a good city.9 success, but also because of the fact he critiques, is incapable of housing that the village is recognized as a the people it plans to accommodate. model by city officials, who agreed While the living conditions in urban 1. “Works starts on Dachong renovation,” Shenzhen Daily, December to feature Dafen in the Shenzhen villages are currently substandard, 22, 2011. Pavilion of the 2010 World Expo in tested village upgrading strategies 2. “Villagers to get billions from Shenzhen Shanghai. to overcome villages’ persistent demolition,” Global Times, January 25, ailments offer a more viable 2010. Nick R. Smith’s chapter illustrates alternative to out-right demolition. 3. For some examples of factory workers how Huanggang Village, also in living in urban villages, see Factory Shenzhen, has been inventively and Finally, one way of reorienting the Towns of South China, edited by Stefan independently redesigned by its own urban village debate from stigma Al (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University village shareholding corporation. to strength has been through the Press, 2012). The village managed to redevelop, application of a photographic lens. 4. Terasawa Hitomi, Daizukan Kyuryujyou [Kowloon Walled City] (Tokyo: achieving balance between a respect The twelve case studies featured Iwanami Shoten, 1997). for its rural past and aspirations in this book are photographed in 5. Fulong Wu, Chris Webster, Shenjing He, to an urban future that includes a “lomography” style, which finds and Yuting Liu, Urban Poverty in China 40-story towers and ubiquitous its origin in the mass-produced (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2010), 74. closed circuit television. The village inexpensive cameras of the 1950s. 6. The theoretical notion of urban became, according to one city The leakage in the inexpensive informality has been advanced by planner, “even more urbanized than plastic bodies led to partial over- AlSayyad and Roy, for instance, in the city,” which led Smith to reverse exposure, creating unpredictable Transnational Perspectives from the the understanding of Huanggang and dramatic effects in the photos, Middle East, Latin America, and South from a “village in the city” to a “city including vibrant and saturated Asia, edited by Ananya Roy and Nezar AlSayyad (Lanham, MD: Lexington in the village.” colors, high-contrast images Books, 2004). with vignette and film grain, and 7. See, for instance, Illegal Cities: Law and Marco Cenzatti argues for a similar cross processed colors. The low- Urban Change in Developing Countries, epistemological shift for the region tech cameras have regained their edited by Edesio Fernandes and of Guangzhou as a whole, that is, popularity particularly in Asia, where Ann Varley (London and New York: to invert our understanding of “the amateur photographers appreciate Zed Books, 1998), and Rethinking village in the city” to “the city in the spontaneous, artistic, and the Informal City: Critical Perspectives between the villages.” Challenging unpredictable photos as an exciting from Latin America, edited by Felipe the urban-rural dichotomy, he alternative to the predictable Hernandez, Peter Kellett, and Lea Allan shows that villages, like cities, can precision of the digital SLR. (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2010). 8. See, for instance, Janice Perlman,

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright be key actors of urbanization, as The Myth of Marginality (Berkeley: they were in ancient Greece, and By doing so, it can shed a more University of California Press, 1976). as they have been in the Pearl River adequate light on the urban village, 9. Wu Guangqiang, “Urban villages, an ill Delta until recently. Reinstating the commensurate with the subject of the city,” Shenzhen Daily, April 18, focus on the village could lead to matter, as a counter to the uneven 2011.

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.7 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

VillagesImage in the 4. City Dafen : A VillageGuide tois Southknown China’s for the Informal numerous Settlements, “fake” paintings edited bythat Stefan are exhibited Al, Hong throughoutKong University the village,Press, HKU,including in its alleys. 2014.Photo ProQuest by Stefan Ebook Al. Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. 8 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. of the village changed not only its of the villages of the Pearl River The City in economic base, but also its physical Delta (PRD). Second, villages, in and appearance and social makeup. without the city, are not only the between the “Villages in the city,” with their victims of urbanization—although in entrance gates, old houses, and most cases they are. They are also Villages crowded and narrow alleys, are still a starting point of urbanization and Marco Cenzatti easily recognizable. Yet, they have lost a key element in a process of urban their social homogeneity, as urban change that is markedly different The phrase “Village in the City” immigrants move into villages, where from the dominant Western model. is widely used to summarize a they find cheap housing and often condition in Chinese cities that, as end up outnumbering the villagers In the West, explanations of urban urbanization proceeds, is becoming themselves; villagers, on the other development for a long time have increasingly common. Following hand, add four or five stories to their been dominated by the narrative the economic success of the last residences, and rent the additional that began with the Chicago School decades, cities such as Beijing, space to migrants. It even happens of Urban Sociology and saw urban Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou that an entire village is rented out to expansion characterized, at least have been expanding, encroaching on, migrants, while villagers have moved since the industrial revolution, by and surrounding once isolated rural to new residential towers. rings radiating out from the original villages. By means that have changed commercial, industrial, or financial over time, and usually change from The focus on the metropolis and city into the countryside. Over case to case, the agricultural fields on “villages in the city,” however, the last fifty years this model has of the villages are transformed hides two related considerations. been complicated with the addition into new parts of the expanding First, villages in the city are just the of satellite towns, suburbs and metropolis—residential towers, most emblematic and extreme in exurbs, edge cities, polynucleated commercial centers, industrial and a wide range of changes that have metropolises, but its basic narrative

business parks. The residential part been occurring in most, if not all, has not changed: urbanization Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the CityImage : A Guide1. The tovillage South of China’s Baishan Informal is completely Settlements, engulfed edited in bythe Stefan city of Al, Shenzhen, Hong Kong but University it still maintains Press, HKU, its nucleus of older houses, 2014.9 ProQuestsurrounded Ebook Central,by the village’s http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. new apartment buildings. The city’s residential towers hover over them in the background. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. continues to expand from the city them by their closeness to major villages are not relics of the past that outwards and, by the same token, the metropolises, a mix of (mostly should be modernized, eliminated, countryside is still left at the loosing small-scale) agricultural and non- or preserved as museums. As end of the story, systematically agricultural activities, the availability recently as in the period between eroded by (sub-)urban growth. of cheap labor, close relations and the establishment of PRD’s Special good transportation linkages through Economic Zones to the mid-1990s— It is tempting to assume that the the region, and participation in the in the period that Ma and Fan called same dynamic has been at work global economy. In short, seeing “urbanization from below” and Shen, in China in the post-Mao era: the them as a spatial organization where Feng, and Wong named “dual-track (modern) city is the motor of urban and rural coexist, rather than urbanization”2 —they have been the urbanization and (pre-modern) clashing.1 driving force of the industrialization villages are representatives of the and urbanization of the region. It is countryside, inexorably surrounded This type of development can be only over the last fifteen years or so by, assimilated into, and erased by recognized around Guangzhou, that the metropolis has asserted its the urban. Yet, until recently, Chinese beginning in the late 1970s, with the dominance over the urbanization of regions such as the PRD have shown progressive rural industrialization its surroundings, in the process that that the urbanization of a region and changes of agricultural activities George Lin called “city-based and originated in the industrialization and in the PRD. The urbanization of land-centered development.” Thus, densification of villages and towns, Guangzhou, however, suggests a rather than a contradiction between rather than from the expansion of larger-scale, unfinished synoikism. The city and countryside, the Pearl River the central city. If anything, Chinese ten districts that compose Greater Delta faces a contradiction between urbanization (and we should Guangzhou today are dotted with two types of urbanization, a village- perhaps use a term different from a myriad of villages that, since the based urbanization “from below’ and “urbanization”), from the beginning beginning of the post-Mao era, have a “center-based” one that echoes of the opening-up policies to the participated in the industrialization the metropolization of the Western mid-1990s, started with a pattern and urbanization of the region, but model. of urbanization that recalls the are not part of the city. Thus, while in synoikism of ancient Greece, where Guangzhou’s central districts there In this sense, villages-in-the-city are urbanization started with villages, are many cases of “villages in the not an isolated phenomenon. They growing, encroaching on one another, city,” there is a much greater number are the extreme form of a broader and coalescing into towns. Different of villages that surround Guangzhou and more general dynamic that is from the Greek antecedent, however, and on which the city depends. changing the relationship between villages and towns of the PRD did the city and all the villages. In this not become a single city. Rather, they Spatially, this has resulted in a change, villages are denied a voice in developed into a region of diffused growing urban form that, rather the type of urbanization in progress, urbanization. Geographer Terry than radiating out of a center, and perhaps the opportunity to help McGee (1991) called similar regions produces a center-less (or village- to develop a regional urbanization in Southeast Asia desakota, identifying and-town-centered) region. These that is more variegated and more appropriate for the PRD.

Urbanization from Below

. . . Migration to towns and the growth of town population are creating a new track of ‘urbanization from below’ whose processes and control mechanisms differ greatly from those of the dominant city-based track of urbanization from above. (Ma and Fan, 1994: 1629–30)

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright In part this “urbanization from remained below 30 percent for and towns while discouraging the below” has its historical roots in the entire Maoist period. More growth of large cities. For example, the Chinese leaders’ traditional significantly, several key policies of the Agricultural Responsibility mistrust of large cities, resulting Deng Xiaoping’s reform package System3 and other economic in a level of urban population that supported the growth of villages reforms that de-collectivized land

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. use, allowed diversification of unique character of development of Not surprisingly, the growing agricultural products, gave access TVEs in the delta. Until the end of economic importance of rural to open markets, produced a rapid the 1980s, in most of the country industry attracted immigrants and growth of agricultural productivity, TVEs remained limited to production was accompanied by a sort of improved living conditions in for national consumption, eschewing “Village and Township Urbanization” many villages, and increased the international markets. In the PRD, that largely ignored Guangzhou: importance of market towns. by contrast, they were almost while the average growth rate of Similarly, after 1978, when rural immediately geared to investment urban population was minimal in collectives, families and individuals from abroad and production for the Maoist period (0.75% annually were allowed to engage in artisanal export. On the one hand, the between 1957 and 1978), the and small-scale industrial activities, connection with foreign countries rate increased to 7.70% (per year, a new wave of industrialization was favored by the establishment between 1978 and 1986) after the started across villages. By the mid- of the Special Economic Zones of opening of the SEZs. This growth 1980s, many of these small-scale Zhuhai and Shenzhen in 1978 as the was, indeed, concentrated in the enterprises had become Township first test of Deng Xiaoping’s opening- Special Economic Zones, which grew and Village Enterprises (TVEs), the up policies, and by the expansion of at a 30.88% annual rate. By contrast, most successful and rapidly growing the SEZs to the entire PRD by1985. the rate of growth for Guangzhou component of the Chinese economy, On the other hand, many village was 3.17% and its share of urban accounting for over 30 percent of residents who had emigrated to population declined from over 67% China’s GNP by 1990. Hong Kong and Taiwan during the to 50.33% (Xu and Li 1990). Maoist era had maintained contacts On the other hand, large cities with their village. Thus, the open- At a smaller scale, Panyu County were deliberately left out of these door policy created the conditions well exemplifies the rapid township changes. The increase in agricultural for successful émigrés to invest in and village-based urbanization of the productivity had created a large their village of origin. As a result, PRD. Despite its central location, surplus rural population, but the TVEs in the PRD thrived, with their within easy reach of Hong Kong, central government believed that export increasing from less than 0.5 Shenzhen, Guangzhou, and Macao, cities would be unable to sustain percent of total Guangdong exports for the first half of the 1980s, the influx of the rural migrants in 1978 to 17 percent in 1985, and Panyu’s rate of economic growth and directed, via the residence 66 percent in 1991 (Ho 1995). was limited, reaching 15.94% in 1985. permit system,4 migration towards The following year, however, the rate villages and designated towns. The Although data for the growth of of industrial and agricultural output convergence of these two sets of industrial production is not available jumped to 32.38% and remained policies led to both the growth at the village level, the difference there for the rest of the decade, of villages and to the number of in the period 1978–1984 between second only to Dongguan, a few designated towns which jumped the growth of industrial output in miles away, in the entire country. from fewer than 3,000 in 1980 to Guangzhou (10.3%) and the small Similarly, migrant population, which about 9,000 ten years later. and medium-sized towns of the had never before exceeded 5,000, PRD (averaged at 22.4%) is a clear jumped to 15,751 in 1986, and by The PRD is a prime example of indicator that the economic growth 1991 reached 89,167 (Lin 1999). urbanization and industrialization of the region was not centered in Between 2000 and 2008, Panyu’s from below. The first factor was the the metropolis. official population increased from 650,000 to 1,600,000.

Image 2 (p. 11). Villages in Greater Guangzhou. The highest density of villages and the highest industrial concentration in Greater

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright Guangzhou are found in the districts of Huadu (to the north), Baiyun, Yuexiu, Tianhe, Huangpu, Liwan, and the part of Panyu north of the Shawan Shuidao branch of the Pearl River (running west-east, at the bottom of this map).

Most villages in the Pearl River Delta are “lineage villages,” i.e., villages established by common ancestors and whose residents share the same surname even today. By contrast, villages in the south part of Panyu, usually stretched along a river or canal bank and only marginally industrialized, were established after the 1949 by the Maoist government. © Marco Cenzatti.

City-Based and Land-Centered Development

Since the mid-1990s, however, a new wave of urbanization or, more precisely, a city-based and land-centered urban revolution, has gradually taken place through which cities, particularly large cities, have managed dramatically to upgrade and expand their urban built environment as a means of reasserting their central position in the rapidly globalizing Chinese economy. (Lin 2007: 1832)

This “urban revolution” and “land- “land-centered” dynamics are woven the implementation of a regional centered development” started with together: the development of place- master plan, top-down control the separation, in 1988, between making projects raises the value of over regional growth. To begin with, land ownership—which remained the surrounding land, and land-use in June 2000, the city boundaries in the hands of the state—and land- rights transactions provide the local were extended to incorporate the use rights—which could be bought government with capital to finance previously independent counties of and sold. The latter possibility those projects. Panyu in the south and Huadu in the created a de facto land market. In north.6 Second, the city undertook turn, the market of land-use rights Guangzhou’s growth over the last the construction of a vast network offered municipal governments two decades has been driven by this of new roads and railways that a way to raise capital by selling process. Between 1988 and 2000 promoted its reach throughout the (leasing, to be precise) urban land in Guangzhou non-agricultural land region. This also facilitated access to private developers. This was doubled from 35,000 hectares to to the deep-water port under and is particularly important for about 70,000 and increased from construction at the southern tip of the local government, since urban less than 10% of Guangzhou’s total the newly created Nansha District. land is the only stable asset on land to 19%, while agricultural Finally, it began several large place- which city governments can rely— land decreased from 78% to 65% making interventions that expanded by expropriation, allocation, or (Lin 2007: 1842). The decrease of its urban core. Among them, the conveyance—to generate revenue agricultural land indicates that a large city planned a new central business by changing the designation of part of the new development did not district (CBD) in the Tianhe District, rural land to urban. “City-based,” occur as restructuring of the already followed by the even newer cultural on the other hand, refers to the urbanized “old” Guangzhou, but as and business center of New Zhujiang large projects, often signed by new development in rural areas. City (with the Guangzhou Opera star architects, which a city needs House designed by Zaha Hadid and From the 1990s onwards, this the Guangdong Museum designed

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright in order to promote itself and establish an identity that allows it to coincided with Guangzhou’s by Rocco Yim) at the southern “to get on the map” and meet the multi-prong effort to restore its border of the district. Between competition of other regional and dominant position on the Pearl 2002 and 2008, it also built new global centers. Thus “city-based” and River Delta and to re-establish, via monumental structures for the

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.13 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Image 3. Panyu. This slice (at the northern end of the district, closest to the older part of Guangzhou) shows the mixed landscape of the district. Villages (outlined in red), industrial buildings (most of the buildings with blue roofs), agricultural fields, and fish ponds

Canton International Trade Fair in The villages on the island exemplify as the sole agent of urbanization. the Haizhu District. the different destinies that villages in As a result, place-making, place- the city often face (see Images 4–8). promotion, and land-centered As a final example of place-making, development will be the path it may be worthwhile to mention Conclusion towards further modernization and the construction of the University urbanization, even if this means to City between 2000 and 2004. Returning to the initial differentiation ignore—in fact, to erase—the urban The city is composed by ten between the characteristics of fabric in which they are immersed. university campuses, either new or urbanization in the West and in relocated from the older districts of China, one could conclude that the The recent history of urbanization Guangzhou. Located on an island at period of “urbanization from below” in the Pearl River Delta, however, the northern tip of Panyu District has been an interlude that is now also demonstrates a pathway to and on the border with Haizhu, the concluded, that Panyu is becoming a urbanization that is different from complex suggests that the center is suburb of Guangzhou, and that what the West, both in the way an urban now truly expanding into a district looked like a desakota region was territory is organized and in the that was an independent county just a moment of passage towards a actors who have a voice in the

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright only twelve years ago and that still fully urbanized condition increasingly process. Recognizing the viability has a desakota character. In the four similar to the Western model. Such a of the desakota region provides a years of construction the island has position, however, would fall back on different reading of the region and lost all its agricultural fields and has the presumed urban-rural dichotomy offers a new focus and direction for produced its own villages in the city. and would again identify the city intervention. From this perspective

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.15 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. villages and local towns, rather similar to the urbanization from Lin, George C. S. 1999. “Transportation than either remaining invisible below and a simultaneous dynamic and metropolitan development or regarded as remnants of the from the center where, villages in in China’s Pearl River Delta: The past, should be considered as key the city, as suppliers of housing for experience of Panyu.” Habitat migrants, remain a key factor. For the International 23(2): 249–270. actors in the current urbanization purpose of this essay “urbanization ———. 2001. “Evolving spatial form of process. Far from being leftovers from below” better focuses on the urban-rural interaction in the Pearl of a premodern time, villages are overall presence of villages in the River Delta, China.” Professional very much an active part of the urbanization process. Geographer 53(1): 56–70. changes that the Pearl River Delta 3. Experiments with the Household ———. 2007. “Reproducing spaces of is undergoing. In fact, they are the Responsibility System began in 1978. Chinese urbanization: New city- economic base of the region. For Wide implementation followed by based and land-centered urban example, villages are the main, if not 1980–81. The system allowed rural transformation.” Urban Studies 44 (9): the only, providers of housing for households to contract land plots and 1827–1855. migrants; villages have changed their machinery from the village. Under the Lin, George C. S., and P. S. Ho. 2005. system, farmers were free to decide “The state, land system, and agricultural production, responding what to grow on their plot and keep land development processes in to the mounting demand for fresh the land’s output, after paying a share contemporary China.” Annals of the produce and fish from the markets to the state. Association of American Geographers 95 and restaurants of the delta; they 4. The residence permit system (hukou) (2): 411–436. are also the location of the myriad was introduced in 1958 (for the Ma, Laurence J. C., and Ming Fan. 1994. of firms in the region, in sectors history of hukou, see Chan 2009). “Urbanisation from below: The as diverse as furniture making, 5. Administrative villages are growth of towns in Jiangsu, China.” electronic games, and car assembly. bureaucratic entities, with an official Urban Studies 31(10): 1625–1645. With these multiple roles and their local government. Natural villages are Norton, Ginsburg, Bruce Koppel, T. G. ubiquity across the delta, villages are villages that formed “naturally,” i.e. McGee, eds. 1991. The Extended without state intervention. A natural Metropolis: Settlement Transition in Asia. also the natural starting point for the village may also be an administrative Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. maintenance and strengthening of one, if it is recognized by the state. Shen, Janfa, Zhiqiang Feng, Kwuan-yiu linkages between the rural and the 6. In 2005 the district of Nansha was Wong. 2006. “Dual-track urbanization urban that a desakota region offers formed by separating the southern in a transitional economy: The case of and requires. They have the part of Panyu. the Pearl River Delta in south China.” potential to be important actors in Habitat International 30: 690–705.

establishing a distinctively Chinese References Sui, Daniel Z., and Zeng Hui. 2001. way to urbanization. “Modeling the dynamics of landscape Chan, Kam Wing. 2009. “The Chinese structure in Asia’s emerging desakota hukou system at 50.” Eurasian regions: A case study in Shenzhen.” Landscape and Urban Planning 53 (1–4): 1. McGee and Ginzburg coined the term Geography and Economics 50 (2): 37–52. desakota using the two Indonesian 197–221. Xie, Yichun, Michael Batty, and Kang Zhao. words desa (village) and kota (town) Heikkila, E. J., T. Y. Shen, and K. Z. Yang. 2005. “Simulating emergent urban with the intent to underline the 2003. “Fuzzy urban sets: Theory and form: Desakota in China.” Working difference between these regions and application to desakota regions in Paper, Center for Advanced Spatial the traditional Western dichotomic China.” Environment and Planning B— Studies, University College London. view of urban vs. rural. The term Planning and Design 30 (2): 239–254. Xu, Xue-qiang, and Si-ming Li. 1990. and the concept have been picked Ho, Samuel P. S. 1995. “Rural non- “China’s open door policy and up by several scholars of China’s agricultural development in post- urbanization in the Pearl River urbanization (e.g., Johnson and Woon reform China: Growth, development Region.” International Journal of Urban 1997; Lin 2001; Sui and Zeng 2001; patterns, and issues.” Public Affairs and Regional Research 14(1): 49–69. Heikkila, Shen, and Yang 2003; Xie, 68(1): 360–391. Batty, and Zhao 2005). Johnson, Graham E., and Yuen-fong Woon. 2. “Dual-track urbanization” (cf. Shen, “Rural development patterns in post- Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright Feng, and Wong 2006) identifies reform China: The Pearl River Delta two dynamics of urbanization: region in the 1990s.” Development and one of spontaneous urbanization Change 28: 731–752.

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.17 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.Image 7. The Lingnan Impression Park has replaced the original village of Lianxi. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07.

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. 18 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. at contradictory conclusions.1 or more shared surnames. Tracing The Beginning of Architects and planners from all the history of their village to a over the world brought students to common ancestor, they continuously the End: Planning document and analyze their intricate recorded extensive genealogies and morphology.2 kept them in their village ancestral the Destruction halls. Scholars have emphasized However, in 2000, the Guangzhou how the close connection between of Guangzhou’s municipal government mandated lineage structures and landholding Urban Villages their destruction. Their stated goal produced a powerful bond between was to eliminate all 138 of the urban culture and territory, shared by both Margaret Crawford and Jiong Wu villages in Guangzhou’s central landlords and peasants.4 districts by 2015.3 They slated a During the mid-1980s, a new subgroup of villages including such The tumultuous changes of the phenomenon appeared in the large and prominent villages as Leide, Maoist era, characterized by abrupt central districts of Guangzhou City: Linhe, and Shipai for immediate shifts in agricultural and political the urban village (chengzhongcun). destruction, a task that became policies imposed from above, added These distinctive settlements, whose more urgent as the city began to a strong legacy of rural collective dense clusters of tiny buildings prepare for the 2010 Asian Games. ownership. In 1956 the Central were immediately recognizable in The prestige brought by hosting the Government collectivized village the skyline, were an anomaly in a games intensified the government’s farmland and organized villagers rapidly modernizing city. They were upgrading and beautification efforts. into cooperatives. The “Great Leap remnants of the agricultural villages Based on the city’s timetable, these Forward” consolidated numerous that had once occupied most of the villages had survived as urban entities village collectives into huge “people’s territory surrounding Guangzhou’s for only three decades. This chapter communes” with disastrous results relatively small urban core. As the describes the processes that led for agriculture. In response, the municipal government appropriated to their disappearance, illuminates government redrew the boundaries their farmland, the city grew around Chinese urban planning initiatives of existing villages (now called the villages, leaving them trapped and looks ahead towards the future “natural” villages) in 1961, in inside their new boundaries. of thousands of villages within the order to create smaller units or The former peasants reinvented Guangzhou’s borders. We argue “production brigades,” which were themselves as landlords, catering to that the destruction of these village composed of a series of “production the waves of migrants who regularly represents a major loss to the city teams.” arrived in Guanzhou from rural and its inhabitants, and propose new villages all over China. These two urban values to guide Guangzhou’s After 1978, the Central Government groups of officially rural residents continuing development. partially privatized land-use rights lived in the most urban condition through the household responsibility imaginable. From Rural to Urban, system.5 They dismantled the communes to create townships, The villages’ visibility and unique from Lineage to villages, and village groups. Village form, completely at odds with every Corporation collectives retained ownership of other urban dynamic in China, village land but allowed individual The unique social, spatial, economic attracted considerable attention. households to build their own and political circumstances of urban Although many Guangzhou natives houses and control their allocated villages are the product of a complex regarded them with suspicion as farmland. In 1982, as part of market and layered past. The key elements hotbeds of crime and disorder, they reforms, all land in China was of this history are briefly sketched became an object of fascination designated as either urban land that here. Before 1949, most existed as

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright for social scientists, urban scholars, was owned by the state, or rural small but productive agricultural and even tourists. Researchers land owned by rural collectives. settlements. As “lineage villages,” from China and abroad probed the These rights established a village’s typical of the Pearl River Delta, their unusual set of circumstances that claim to own and control its own residents defined themselves by one had produced them and arrived land, at least in principle.

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.19 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Equally significant was the Central allocates municipal funding, the which was legally recognized but still Government’s imposition of a only way a municipal government ambiguous in practice, the municipal household registration system can generate its own revenue is by government asserted its control over (hukou) in 1958, with two categories, obtaining low-value agricultural land, the land before rezoning it and giving “urban” and “rural.” This was declaring it “development land,” and it over to village control. After this, intended to regulate the movement then selling it for a much higher the village operated largely outside of labor. As part of the state’s drive price to factories or developers. of any local planning mandates.10 towards industrialization, urban The difference goes directly into residents had preferential access the city’s coffers. Initial attempts As rural migrants from all over to economic, social, and cultural to simply seize village land while China poured into Guangzhou to benefits. For rural families, the hukou forcibly relocating villagers produced find work, the newly urbanized system effectively bound them to confrontation and even violent villagers extruded their small housing their village and rural identities. In resistance. These events convinced sites vertically. Using reinforced the case of urban villagers, as the the Guangzhou government, always concrete frames, they added new city grew around them, the hukou fearful of social unrest, to take a rooms, apartments, and ground floor paradoxically reinforced their already more conciliatory stance. shops to rent to the newcomers.11 strong territorial bond. Since the city In the densest villages, Linhe and came to them, they did not have to They invented a series of policies to Shipai, they built up to as many as leave their land to participate in the allow them to obtain officially “rural” twelve stories—three or four times new urban economy.6 territory legally, involving notable the legal limit of three stories. As concessions on their part. After they grew, the villages turned into Finally, in the 1990s, village-level appropriating all of a village’s land, labyrinths of narrow lanes, snaked elections—the only elections in the Guangzhou government would with electric wires. Automobiles China—allowed villagers to elect not only compensate the village could not enter these pedestrian their own village committee and for its agricultural land but would spaces which were so congested leaders directly. Elections have not then return a certain percentage of that residents immediately occupied necessarily resulted in empowering the appropriated land as “reserved any open areas as public spaces. villagers since party cadres often land.” Part of this was designated Migrants usually outnumbered hold considerable power. However, as “reserved housing sites,” which villagers. Leide’s residents included in many cases, elected village continued the rural practice of only 4,000 villagers to an estimated committees have been able to take individual village households owning 20,000 migrants. Such urban villages control of and manage the village’s and building their own houses. This provided the only low-cost housing common property.7 Accumulated allowed villagers to continue living in an increasingly expensive city over decades, this combination of in the village. Another portion of as well as offering a full range of rights and restrictions has provided land was “reserved construction shops and services. As the villages villagers with a degree of economic land.” This was collectively owned grew, they became more specialized. and political autonomy not shared and could profitably be leased or Liede’s tenants were mostly male by Guangzhou’s “official” urban built on for industrial or commercial workers in low-skilled jobs, primarily residents. purposes. Thus, in addition to from Hunan and Sichuan Provinces. a house site and monetary Linhe, located next to a metro After 1978, as Guangzhou began its compensation, each villager also station and in close proximity to explosive growth, the agricultural received a share of the rent from six universities, attracted college villages surrounding the city’s these construction lands.9 Over time, students as well as young white- built-up core constituted the only as land in Guangzhou became more collar workers who worked in the obstacle to its continuing urban valuable, villagers began to demand Tianhe District. Although its rents expansion.8 However, acquiring a considerably larger amount of the were higher than those of other appropriated land and the percentage urban villages, its living conditions Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright land for factories and urban development was not the city’s only grew from 5 to 12 percent. This were better and the rent was still or even most important incentive arrangement was purely pragmatic. one-third to half of those in the for appropriating village farmland. Rather than acknowledging the surrounding area. Shipai established Since the Central Government collective ownership of village land, itself as Guangzhou’s sales center

collective land—into shares. As and lack of cultural and commercial heads of government departments Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.21 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.Image 1. Liede: Ancestor hall in the remaining old village, 2010. Photo by Marco Cenzatti. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. such as the Municipal Construction hukou. A thousand and four hundred beautification efforts. Located just Committee, the Planning Bureau, and villages had established shareholding east of the new cultural district, it the Land Bureau. Since villages were companies.17 was adjacent to two key proposed excluded from the national planning monumental public projects, the structure, the Central Government Changing land ownership and Opera House, designed by Zaha gave local municipalities considerable implementing the reconstruction Hadid, and the Guangdong Museum, freedom in dealing with the process was more challenging designed by Rocco Yim. It was redevelopment planning and allowed since both required a financial across the street from an important them to experiment with negotiation committment that the city was stadium site to be constructed for and compensation practices. In unwilling to make. The high value of the Asian Games, which were held Guangzhou, the increasing wealth of village “reserve land” deterred the in Guangzhou in 2010. In spite of the urban villages helped improve city from buying it, leaving it in the its current condition, Liede was their negotiating power. They also hands of the village. Reconstruction an ancient village that traced its employed delaying tactics, as they planning also faltered on financing. 800-year history back to the Song were aware that protests and publicity Government restrictions had dynasty. It housed three different would strengthen their bargaining explicitly excluded real estate lineages—the Li, Liang, and Lin, each power. This forced the government to developers from involvement, and with its own ancestor halls.19 In proceed through persuasion rather the city did not want to directly 1994, the city had appropriated its than outright coercion. invest themselves. This left financing farmland, formerly known for its fruit up to the villagers, but they saw no production, leaving the villagers with To counter their demands, the reason to invest since they were a small tract along the river. They planning group proposed a two- earning a significant income from developed this area intensively with pronged approach. The first step their rents and shares, which they a lucrative industrial zone, rental would be to integrate villagers did not want to lose. housing, and shops. With a rising into the urban governance and return from their shares and rentals, control system, using the “Four In response to these difficulties, prosperous villagers had no interest Transformations Principle.” The the planning group decided to in participating in the reconstruction second step was to institute “urban demolish and reconstruct seven scheme, which they saw as a threat village reconstruction planning” to villages as “models” for subsequent to their incomes. eliminate the urban village physically. efforts. They selected Leide, Linhe, The four transformations, while Shipai, Xiancun, Yuancun, Yangji, In 2002 the government had offering villagers some benefits, were and Sanyuanli, all located in central succeeded in implementing two of designed to effectively terminate Gunagzhou.18 Two of these villages the “four transformations” in Liede. their unique spatial and political were major obstacles to the An urban neigborhood committee “rights”, thus undermining much of new developments. Liede Village, replaced the village committee and their power to negotiate with the located on the Pearl River, at the the Liede Economic Development municipal government. This would be northern end of the New Pearl City Ltd. replaced the village collective accomplished by (1) giving villagers development and Linhe, located corporation. But this was as far urban hukou; (2) replacing the village just behind the new Guangzhou as they could go; without major committee with a city resident East train station, the gateway to financial incentives, the Economic committee;15 (3) transforming the the Tianhe District. Although the Development company, now the village collective shareholding system goal was the same to eliminate the village’s negotiating agent, continued into a corporation with individual villages, the municipal government to resist reconstruction.20 Although shareholders; and (4) transforming had to proceed differently in each it was clear that the city would collectively owned “village reserved” village. ultimately succeed and villagers land to state-owned land.16 The began to add extra stories to their government had some success with houses in order to receive increased Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright Redeveloping Liede the first three transformations. By compensation, the villagers held out the end of 2005, 30 urban villages By 2007, the need to redevelop for a strong compensation package. had transformed their village Liede was urgent. The municipality committees into city residents’ perceived the village as an eyesore By May 2007, they had convinced committees and had acquired urban in the midst of its intensive Liede’s village committee to agree Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. 22 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. to reconstruction. The city would the rest of the land. Two Guangzhou from 50 to 240 square meters, with compensate them according to the and one Hong Kong developers the average around 120 meters. A rule, “deconstruct one square meter, successfully bid for the land, which typical apartment type was a three- compensate one square meter” (chai came with planning permissions for bedroom, two-bath unit with an yi bu yi 拆一補一 ). In exchange for intensive development with a high entrance garden and an L-shaped every square foot of legal village floor area ratio (FAR). The eastern balcony. These were certainly far dwelling, a villager received the same end of the site was allocated to the higher quality accommodation than square footage in a new apartment. villagers as new apartments. The anything in the old village and were For illegal property (anything over middle site went to the villagers’ comparable to what developers four stories, a widespread practice) collectively owned Star Hotel. And at the time advertised as “luxury they received 1,000 RMB per square the west site went to the developers housing.”24 meter as a “material compensation for building commercial and fee.” In addition, villagers could buy residential projects.22 The design institute also designed extra square footage at a very low five enormous and elaborately cost (3,500 RMB per square meter In October 2007, the village reconstructed ancestor halls, loosely compared to the market price of started tearing itself down one based on the village originals.25 12,000 to 30,000 RMB per square section at a time. All of the existing Villagers drew straws to distribute meter). If they preferred cash, the buildings in the village were the apartments and on September compensation was 1,000 RMB per demolished, including the 800-year- 28, 2010, one month before the square meter. In addition, they would old Lingnan-style ancestor hall. Asian Games began, they moved in. receive compensation to cover their Four households briefly held out At this point they received urban move.21 In order to move ahead, the for higher compensation until the hukou, the final erasure of their government lifted its restrictions on Liede Economic Development rural village identity. The new hukou developers. The new mayor (Zhang Company sued them.23 By 2008, allowed them the same access to Guangning) made a trip to Hong the new apartments were under education and social services as Kong to invite developers to take construction. Designed by the Guangzhou’s urban residents.26 part in reconstructing urban villages. Guangdong Design Institute, they The city divided the village site into consisted of 37 closely packed high- This project was universally three parcels and auctioned off the rise apartment towers ranging from applauded in Guangzhou. The Xinhua

largest to fund the reconstruction on 20 to 40 stories. Apartments ranged News Agency called it a “triple-win Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.23 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.Image 2. Liede: Demolition begins, 2009. Photo by Marco Cenzatti. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. success: the government successfully Properties from Hong Kong. Their the area outside of the six central financed the reconstruction, main concern was to avoid the city districts covered by the urban funded some public service, the “rotten tail” problem visible all over redevelopment planning track, developers got prime land to build Guangzhou, as developers ran out contained 1,100 administrative on in the heart of the new CBD, of money and abandoned partially villages, or 4,300 natural villages. and the villagers got large modern completed projects. To assure the From 2006 to 2009, planners apartments.” Better still, given the project’s completion, they asked surveyed and created plans for all need for fast-tracking important Sun Hung Kai Properties to pay 940 of the villages, enlisting assistance projects, the whole project had taken million RMB as deposit. The sum from not only the planning bureaus less than three years to complete. would guarantee the completion of but also design institutes, private Leide became a paradigm for future the village’s new housing towers.28 firms, and even students from local village reconstruction: elimination of Linhe’s shareholders got an even universities. In spite of this different old village, reallocation of housing better deal than Leide’s. Many administrative structure, the widely to villagers on site, based on equal received multiple apartments. The scattered locations of the villages, floor area compensation, in high- village was destroyed in 2010 and and their highly diverse histories, the rise luxury towers with a high FAR, villagers moved into the new project plans for the “Socialist New Villages” all financed by an auction of village in 2012.29 envision futures that are remarkably land.27 similar to those of the urban villages. Although the pace was slower than With the exception of historically New Planning Institutions what the officials and planners and architecturally significant villages, anticipated, the process of village which will be preserved, the long- In 2009, with Leide’s reconstruction elimination was inexorable. As this term goal is to eliminate existing well underway, the city established essay was written, out of the nine villages and resettle villagers in high- a new local government agency, the designated villages, only Linhe and rise towers on a portion of their Guangzhou Urban Redevelopment Liede had been reconstructed. Yangji village land. Guangzhou will then Office, which was responsible for and Xiancun were in the demolition acquire the remaining land and the demolition and redevelopment process at the time of writing; Shipai transform it into “construction land” of “old city, old villages, and old had completed the negotiation for urban development, which will factories.” In spite of its successful phase and the remaining villages bring additional revenue to the city. outcome, the Leide process had were still negotiating. The other 129 One important goal is to eliminate been inefficient, time-consuming, urban villages left in Guangzhou’s the possibility of new urban villages, and expensive. The new agency central city areas30 will remain in a process already underway in the would regularize and streamline this “urban redevelopment planning peri-urban areas of the city. the process. The director of the track,” slated for destruction and office, Su Zequn, stated his goal redevelopment in the next decade. Winners and Losers as eliminating nine urban villages before the Asian Games, to open In 2006, a major new village Readers may ask, as one member up 10,000 square meters for planning mandate appeared at the of the audience did at a recent development. Linhe Village, close national level, spurred by continuing presentation about Guangzhou’s to the Tianhe Stadium, would be protests over land acquisition and urban villages, given by Helen Siu at the first to go. The new agency compensation. The fourth session of UC Berkeley’s Center for Chinese closely followed Leide’s example, as the 11th National People’s Congress Studies, “What’s the problem? The outlined above, with one significant proposed guidelines for “constructing city government got land to develop, exception. Instead of managing a new socialist countryside.” This the villagers got new apartments the redevelopment process, the formally assigned village planning to and money. Nobody seems to have 32 government stepped back into an local planning bureaus and officially lost.” oversight role and allowed the village

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright established the village as the smallest corporation, the Linhe Runyang unit of Chinese planning. At the However, on closer examination, Economic Development Company, local level, following the Congress’ several categories of losers can be Ltd., to take the lead in the process. guidelines, this generated an identified. The most obvious are the The company worked directly enormous planning mobilization. The large number of migrant workers with the developers, Sun Hung Kai “Greater Guangzhou Metropolis,”31 who have resided and continue to Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. 24 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. reside in urban villages, typically villages are successful settlements, planning curriculum in Guangzhou outnumbering their village landlords. contributing to the city’s economy universities, yet its arguments against In Greater Guangzhou, there are and culture. In many cases, their urban renewal do not appear to villages completely inhabited by dense fabric and low rents have have influenced discussions of migrants, whose rents support encouraged the development of urban villages. Measured against the the villagers living in modern successful commercial districts significant financial rewards that apartments nearby. Since the only catering to either specialized redeveloping village land can bring the new housing being built in the city groups or selling specialized goods. city, these urban values and cultural are luxury apartments, villages Immigrants from other parts of values may appear trivial. Yet in the provide the only source of low- China sell local products and open long run, it is likely that, as time passes, cost accommodation. Although regional restaurants, introducing Guangzhou’s planners and official will small and sometimes substandard, a new diversity into the city’s recognize and regret the loss of these these dwellings are popular not overwhelmingly Cantonese culture. irreplacable urban spaces. only with low-wage migrants but This has led many observers to also attract young middle-class remark that villages are the only Finally and most tragically, the residents, other newcomers to the cosmopolitan spaces in Guangzhou. villagers also lost. With the demise city, and even foreigners such as of their village, their village identities African merchants. The continuing Perhaps even more important, the will gradually dissolve. They may destruction of urban villages forces eradication of old villages and their remain in their modern apartments them to relocate to other urban replacement with high-rise buildings, on the site of the former village for villages. The already overcrowded disposed in super-blocks according a generation or two, but as they melt conditions will become worse. Since to modernist site planning principles, into Guangzhou’s urban life, they can renters receive no compensation eliminated every trace of settlement be expected to join the city’s frantic and many lost the deposits and patterns that went back centuries real estate market and move on to fees they paid for their apartments, and physically embodied the Lingnan other, less exceptional ways of living. most ended up losing money as well culture of southern China. Their Their village identities were double- as housing. Similarly, the migrants narrow lanes, small-scale urban edged. On the one hand, as “rural” who operated most of the villages’ fabric, enormous trees, and ancestor residents in an urban setting, they retail and service enterprises have halls set along rivers or ponds had fewer benefits and opportunities also lost their businesses which are were all emblematic of the lineage than holders of Guangzhou hukou. difficult to relocate to new sites. village, even if the housing had been Urbanites looked down upon them Finally, the migrant’s children, already replaced multiple times. The total as uncultured and uneducated. But disadvantaged in finding schools, have erasure of such traditional spaces in on the other hand, their unique great difficulty in enrolling in new Leide signaled that the mayor and territorial histories, ambiguous yet schools elsewhere. Where will they municipal government considered material claims to the land they go when there are no urban villages them culturally meaningless. occupied, electoral structure and left? The Guangzhou government lineage culture provided them with a has begun to construct public Many of the urban village redesigns degree of spatial, social, and financial housing, but it is doubtful that it will produced by foreign and local autonomy rare in the contemporary accommodate even a fraction of the architecture and planning studios Chinese city. These circumstances residents who have been expelled proposed improving infrastructure and provided them with agency to shape from villages. It is also unlikely that it upgrading and replacing substandard the conditions of their lives and use will be available to migrants without dwellings while preserving the scale, them to their benefit, even if, in many Guangzhou hukou. street patterns, and historical buildings cases, their power was potential in these villages, but neither the city rather than actualized. Even so, this The city of Guangzhou is therefore nor the planning bureaus appear to constituted a genuine “bottom-up” urbanism in a city where top-down

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright also a loser, since it will have to have considered these alternatives. cope with the social tensions and This is surprising, considering that mandates play an ever-increasing economic consequences created by most Chinese planners are familiar role in city building. A further irony the absence of affordable housing. It with Western planning principles. Jane is the fact that, just as urban lineage could also be argued that, apart from Jacob’s Death and Life of Great American villages are disappearing, interest in appearance, in most cases urban Cities is a required text in the urban lineages, traditional practices and Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.25 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. ancestral villages is reemerging, villagers have left is the ability to recognizing that villages can become among both local residents and negotiate the conditions of their active agents in the development overseas Chinese.You-Tien Hsing’s own demise. of the region. In Guangzhou, as in study of Shipai village, based on her the rest of China, the only constant research done in 2003, ends with a The fate of the urban villages is is change. Given enough time, it is cautiously optimistic evaluation of sealed. But in Greater Guangzhou, not only conceivable but likely that the possibilities of the new village given the sheer numbers of villages, planners, officials, villagers, and city corporations to control and maintain the complex logistics involved in their residents will reexamine the past and their spatial identity. However, ten redevelopment, and the significant present circumstances of urbanizing years later, the subsequent events resistance that can be expected to villages and, it is to be hoped, rethink described in this chapter make emerge, there is still the possibility their futures. it clear that the only power the of changing the urban values and

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 4. Leide Ebookin 2010. Central, Note http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.the completed megaprojects to the left of the former village. Photo by Google Earth. 26 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Image 5. Liede: New village housing and reconstructed ancestor hall, 2011. Photo by Marco Cenzatti.

1. The literature on urban villages in villages” ( 快速城市化地區城鄉關 Government ( 中共廣州市委廣州市 English and Chinese is enormous. 係協調研究：以廣州市「城中村」人民政府關於加快村鎮建設步伐， Some examples include: You-tien 改造為例 ) , City Planning ( 城市規推進城市化進程的若干意見 ), 2000. Hsing, The Great Urban Transformation: 劃 ) 28(3) (2004): 30–38; Liu, “On 4. David Faure and Helen Siu, Politics of Land and Property in China the hampers of redevelopment of “Conclusion,” in Down to Earth: (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ‘transitional community’under the The Territorial Bond in South China 2010); L. Tian, “The chengzhongcun high-speed urbanization in China: (Stanford: Stanford University Press, land market in China: Boon or Cases in Guangzhou and Shenzhen,” 1990), 1–20, 209–224. bane? A persepective of property Geographical Research 129(14) (2010); 5. William L. Parish, Chinese Rural rights,” International Journal of Urban L. Li, “Research on Guangzhou urban Development: The Great Transformation and Regional Research 32(2) (2008): villages’ formation and transformation (Armonk NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2000); 282–304; W. P. We, “Migrant housing in mechanism” ( 廣州市城中村形成及 Jonathan Unter, The Transformation of urban China: Choices and constraints,” 改造機制研究 ) (Guangzhou: Sun Yat- Rural China (Armonk NY: M.E. Sharpe, Urban Affairs Review 38 (1) (2002): sen University, 2001). 2002); Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, 90–110; X. P. Yan and L. H. Wei, 2. A partial list includes the Graduate and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village: “The persistence or transformation School of Design, Harvard University, Revolution to Globalization (Berkeley: of urban villages in urban China,” the College of Environmental University of California Press, 2009). Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen Design, UC Berkeley, National 6. Gregory Guldin, What’s a Peasant to 148 (5) (2004): 60–70; Lie Zhang, University of Singapore, the Berlage Do? Village Becoming Town in Southern “Migrant enclaves and impacts of Institute (Netherlands), the Faculty China (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, redevelopment policy in Chinese of Architecture, University of 2001). cities,” in Lawrence Ma and Fulong Ferrarra, Italy, the Aarhus School 7. Larry Diamond and Ramon H. Wu (eds.), Restructuring the Chinese of Architecture, Denmark, and the Meyers, Elections and Democracy

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright City: Changing Society, Economy, and Bergen School of Architecture, in Greater China (Oxford: Oxford Space (New York: Routledge, 2005), Norway. University Press, 2001); Lianjiang Li 243–259; Yan Xiaopei, Lihua Wei, 3. Guangzhou Government Office, and Kevin O’Brien, “The struggle over and Zhou Ruibo, “Transformation Several Opinions on Village and Town village elections,” in Merle Goldman of urban village and feasible mode: Construction and Improving Urbanization and Roderick MacFarquahar (eds.), Case studies of Guangzhou urban by CCP Guangzhou Municipal The Paradox of China’s Post-Mao Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.27 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Development (Cambridge: Harvard 權登記規定〉, “Guangzhou village 23. Xinhua News, “Guangzhou Liede University Press, 1999), 129–144. planning management regulation” Village’s ‘nail household’” ( 廣州獵 8. Between 1979 and 2003, the built- 〈廣州市村莊規劃管理規定〉, 德村的「釘子戶」), Xinhua News, up area grew from 87 sq. km to 240 “Guangzhou urban village temporary December 5, 2007. sq. km, almost completely agricultural redevelopment regulation”〈廣州市 24. Tao Huang, “Allocation apartment land obtained from villages. The 城中村改造管理暫行規定〉. types: Comparison of three urban Central Government gave Guangzhou 17. Yuanyuan Lian, “The research on villages in Tianhe” ( 天河三城中村： the right to extend its administrative ‘The Mode of Compensation and 獵德、林和村、冼村回遷房戶型大 boundaries and it continued to grow. Resettlement’ in Liede VIC reform” 比拼 ), April 4, 2010. In 2005, it swallowed up most of the ( 城中村改造模式研究：以廣 25. Yan et al., “New Liede Village will surrounding counties, becoming the 州市天河區獵德村為例 ) (Jinan construct new ancestors halls” “Greater Guangzhou Metropolis.” University, 2009): 8–18. ( 新獵德村將建宗祠區 ), Sina 9. You-tien Hsing, The Great Urban 18. Guangzhou Government Office, News, November 30, 2007, http:// Transformation: Politics of Land and Several Opinions about “Urban Village” news.sina.com.cn/c/2007–11- Property in China (Oxford: Oxford Redevelopment from Guangzhou 30/033412994242s.shtml. University Press, 2010), 122–145. Municipality (Guangzhou Government 26. Dayoo News, “From Liede Village 10. An excellent description of this Office 2002, No. 17) ( 廣州市關 to New Lingnan water town” process can be found in Lanchih Po, 於「城中村」改制工作的若干意 ( 獵德村改造變嶺南新水鄉 ), “Property rights reforms in China,” 見 ( 穗辦 2002 第 17 號 )), 2002. September 2010, http://news.dayoo. Urban Studies 48(3) (February 2011): “Preservation and reconstruction com/guangzhou/201009/02/73437_ 509–528. urban villages in Guangzhou,” http:// 13762568.htm. 11. J. Fan and W. Taubmann, “Migrant www.newsgd.com/news/GDNews/ 27. Xinhua News, “Past, the old village; enclaves in large Chinese cities,” in content/2011–06. Accessed now, the new city landmark: In help J. R. Logan (ed.), The New Chinese December 9, 2012. with Asia Games wave, Liede Village City: Globalization and Market Reform 19. Apart from the three main got reconstructed” ( 昔日城中村 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002), 157–183. lineages, Liede also had a history 今日羊城新地標：廣州天河區獵德 12. Lanchih Po, “Redefining rural of absorting migrants. According to 村借力亞運改造紀實 ), Xinhua News, collectives in China: Land conversion the goveronment’s census, in 2004, January 5, 2011. and the emergence of rural the total villagers’ population was 28. Xinhua News, “Sun Hung Kai takes shareholding co-operatives,” Urban 4,741(not including the migrants who part in Guangzhou and Foshan urban Studies 45(8): 1603–1623. do not hold Liede rural hukou), with redevelopment, Linhe Village project 13. Michael J. Enright, Edith E. Scott, Ka- 81 different family names. will be carried out in 2012” ( 新鴻基 mun Chang (ed.), Regional Powerhouse: 20. Dong Cao and Rongjun Cai, 高調參與廣佛舊城改造林和項目 The Greater Pearl River Delta and the “Guangzhou urban village 2012 年推出 ), Xinhua News, May 17, Rise of China (Singapore: John Wiley reconstruction dilemma and strategy” 2012. and Sons, 2005). ( 廣州城中村改造的困境和對策 ), 29. Xibao Tan, “Linhe Village 14. Nanfang Daily, “Records of ‘medium Commerce Modernization, no. 2006(5) reconstruction: Skycrapers ( 林和村 changes’ of Guangzhou city (May 2006). 改造堪比摩天大樓 ), Nandu Daily, construction event” ( 廣州城市建設 21. Lian Yuanyuan, “The research on March 26, 2010. 「中變」大事記 ), October 19, 2001, ‘The Mode of Compensation and 30. Including Baiyun District ( 白雲區 ), http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2001–10- Resettlement’ in Liede VIC reform” Yuexiu Distrct ( 越秀區 ), Tianhe 19/381715.html. ( 城中村改造模式研究：以廣 District ( 天河區 ), Luogang District 15. Unlike the village committees, the urban 州市天河區獵德村為例 ) (Jinan ( 蘿崗區 ), and Panyu District ( 番禺 citizens’ committee was not directly University, 2009), 10–30. 區 ). elected and had much less power. 22. West of bridge site: 93,928 31. In April 2005, Guangzhou expanded 16. The “four transformations” were square meters, with 6 to 7 FAR, its administrative area. The “Greater translated into the following for commercial and residential Guangzhou Metropolis” area covers government documents and buildings; east of bridge site: 127,883 the Guangzhou Central City Area regulations: “Guangzhou village and square meters, with 5.2 FAR, for 37 (previously called Guangzhou City), town management regulations” residential towers and public service; Panyu District (which was Panyu 〈廣州市村鎮建設管理規定〉, southwest of bridge site: 32,446 City), Huadu District (which was

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright “Guangzhou villagers construction square meters, with 5.3 FAR, for Liede Huadu City), Zengcheng City, and land management regulation”〈廣 Company’s Star Hotel. The calculation Conghua City. 州市農村村民住宅建設用地 is based on “Planning scheme of 32. “Financial tsunami meets village,” 管理規定〉, “Guangzhou village Liede village reconstruction” by the lecture given by Professor Helen Siu real estate ownership registration Architecture Design and Research of Yale University, at the Center for regulation”〈廣州市農村房地產產 Institute of Guangdong Province. Chinese Studies, UC Berkeley, April Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University10, Press,2010. HKU, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. 28 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. focused on both the positive and This shift in focus is reflected in the City-in- negative effects of urbanization within metaphors and imagery that are still such villages, while the potential used to describe “villages-in-the- the-Village: challenge they posed to cities city,” particularly their portrayal as remained a distant future possibility “malignant tumors” (duliu) in the Huanggang and (Ren and Cheng 1989). city’s organic body (Yang 1996; Lü and Zhou 2006). They are “dirty, China’s Urban By the mid-1990s, this possibility messy, and inferior” (zang luan cha) Renewal had become reality, and urban spaces that degrade the city’s “form” villages were identified as an urban (xingxiang) and harbor urban ills such Nick R. Smith “problem” (wenti) in need of a as crime and vice (Zheng 1997; Shen solution. This change coincided with and Zhong 2007; Shao 2010). This Rooted in the urban-rural dualism the emergence of the neologism “infection” adversely influences the of the nation’s administrative system “village-in-the-city” (chengzhongcun), city’s healthy development, including and catalyzed by rapid urbanization which inscribed the newly pejorative land use efficiency, land values, safety, unleashed by post-1978 reforms, view of urban villages into the very urban competitiveness, globalization, China’s “urban villages” have been language of the discourse (Yang modernization, sustainability, and decades in the making. As these 1996; Zheng 1997). Through its capital accumulation (Li and Lin villages became more widespread in concatenation of the characters for 2007; Xu 2007; Xu and Liu 2007; the late 1980s, scholars and policy- city (cheng) and village (cun), the Chen 2008; Shao 2010). makers began to refer to them as new term de-emphasized urban “villages inside the city” (dushi li de villages’ functioning as villages per se It should therefore come as no cunzhuang). This phrase, descriptive and instead highlighted their role as surprise that proposed solutions and matter-of-fact, reflected a contradictory, illogical, and aberrant have drawn heavily on the precedent relatively non-normative discourse, pieces of the city. Attention turned of mid-twentieth-century urban which treated such villages as isolated away from the internal logic of these renewal in Europe and the United “phenomena” (xianxiang) that needed villages and towards their negative States. Urban surgery is prescribed

to be better understood. Attention influence on the surrounding city. in order to “remake” (gaizao) and Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.29 ProQuestImage Ebook 1. Security Central, guards http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. monitor incoming and outgoing traffic at the entrance to the village center. Photo by Nick R. Smith. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 2. A traditional Ebook Central, gate marks http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. the transition from the Shenzhen street grid to the village center. Photo by Nick R. Smith. 30 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. “renew” (gengxin) these cancerous served by such villages, particularly dense, crowded housing, as well as nodes of spatial and social disorder. the provision of inexpensive housing public spaces, which are understood This renewal aims at transforming for large numbers of migrant to be nearly non-existent (Li and the “perverse” urbanization of the laborers, without whom cities would Lin 2007). Though redevelopment villages into the “true urbanization” struggle to grow (Zhang et al. 2003; policies offer options for non- (zhenzheng chengshihua) of the city Tian 2008). As a consequence, the renewal and partial-renewal in (Shen and Zhong 2007). Urban debate over the urban renewal of villages that are already up to code, villages will be turned into new “villages-in-the-city” has increasingly renewal advocates observe that such urban neighborhoods (xiaoqu) shifted to social issues, such as land instances are rare. Even when these seamlessly integrated into the formal rights, compensation, re-housing, and strategies are possible, the needs urban fabric (Xu 2007; Chen 2008). migration policy (Cai and Ma 2012; of the city take precedence; for Implementation of these ideas He et al. 2011). This has culminated instance, code-compliant villages in began in Shenzhen as early as 1997, in a movement for “organic renewal,” the central business district may be but these efforts were then scaled which calls for social programs to demolished anyway to allow higher- up in 2004 with the introduction complement spatial rebuilding (Yang value land use (Tian 2005). These of new planning regulations for et al. 2011). caveats make clear the preference urban villages (Chung 2009; for a for total clearance and tabula rasa discussion of similar planning efforts While the urban renewal of “villages- development, with existing village in Guangzhou, see Crawford and in-the-city” has been increasingly spaces retained only when cost or Wu’s chapter in this volume). challenged on social grounds, the historic preservation necessitate need for the city to plan, design, and it (Xu and Liu 2007; He 2011). In Critics have subsequently rehearsed order the space of these villages both cases, village-produced space is the arguments of Jane Jacobs, Paul has gone largely unquestioned (Xu something to be tolerated, but rarely Davidoff, and others to counter 2007; Shao 2010; exceptions are prized. these campaigns (Wang and Dai rare and primarily limited to the 2006; Ma 2007). They have also English-language literature, such In this process of urban design, the

pointed to the unique functions as Wang et al. 2009). This includes agency of the municipality and its Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.31 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.Image 3. A fountain leads up to the ancestral hall in the distance. Photo by Nick R. Smith. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 4. Rows Ebook of palm Central, trees leadhttp://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. towards the ancestral hall. Photo by Nick R. Smith. 32 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. planning apparatus is paramount antidote to such a view, this chapter has been rooted in the collective (Ma 2007; Wang 2011). Real estate proposes a search for the “city- control of village land in the midst of development companies and village in-the-village” (cunzhongcheng), an rapid urbanization and skyrocketing entities, such as shareholding equally oxymoronic turn of phrase land values. Registered villagers have corporations, frequently participate (see Cenzatti’s chapter for a further reaped the benefits of this windfall in in the implementation of renewal discussion of the inadequacy of two primary ways. On the one hand, by organizing demolition and received urban vocabulary) that land parcels within the village have construction activities, but these highlights urban villages’ potential to been allotted to village households actors are thought to lack the skills, originate creative and valuable spaces for the construction of apartment expertise, and concern for the public that are not only compatible with buildings for rent to migrant laborers, welfare that are needed to lead and but absolutely indispensable for the resulting in the dense, self-built plan such projects (Cheng 2003; future of the surrounding city. The residential fabric that is a hallmark Tian 2005). In particular, village-led following discussion illustrates this of such villages. On the other hand, renewal risks recreating the spatial possibility through the exploration villagers have been issued shares in disorder it sets out to replace (Shi of Huanggang Village, located in the a village shareholding corporation, 2011). The result is the reification Futian District of Shenzhen. Through the Shenzhen Huanggang Holdings of urban villages as passive spaces the redesign of its public space, led by Company Limited (Shenzhen Shi that lack even the potential to the village shareholding corporation, Huanggang Shiye Gufen Youxian contribute value to the city; instead, Huanggang promises to revalorize Gongsi), which has undertaken a municipal intervention is needed to the space of downtown Shenzhen variety of commercial and real estate rescue them through renewal and by infusing it with the identity and activities. revalorization. meaning it currently lacks. Under the leadership of this This latent urban bias is reflected The Village as Urban shareholding corporation, Huanggang in the continued, unreflective use has achieved a level of development of the term “village-in-the-city,” Laboratory far beyond that of most urban which implicitly sustains the formal Like other urban villages in villages, with high-rise office buildings, critique first used to indict urban Shenzhen, Huanggang’s development platform residential developments,

villages in the mid-1990s. As an and public parks. This is in part due Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.33 ProQuestImage Ebook5. The villageCentral, center http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. is dominated by an arcade punctuated by a clock tower and a jumbo-tron. Photo by Nick R. Smith. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. to its unique location, straddling priorities—but each intervention Less evident to the naked eye are the city’s central north-south in some way mediates between the the myriad closed-circuit security axis in the middle of downtown spiritual and historical center of the cameras monitoring every square Shenzhen. Blessed with such valuable village, the ancestral hall, and the meter of the village center. In a land, Huanggang’s shareholding surrounding urban environment. fitting coincidence, these cameras corporation has transformed Together, these spaces weave a are routed to a security center itself into a modern real estate narrative about Huanggang’s (and, located in the base of a clock tower development firm, one that wields by extension, Shenzhen’s) journey of that overlooks the village center, significant power in negotiations transformation. a modern-day panopticon. These with the district and the municipality. cameras ensure that the space of the The result has been a village that, in The beginning of this sequence is village center is “civilized” (wenming), the words of one municipal planner, symbolically marked by a traditional cleansed of the vices and dangers of is “even more urbanized than the gate (paifang), a historical simulacrum “villages-in-the-city.” As the leader city” (bi chengshi geng chengshihua). that announces Huanggang’s of Huanggang pointed to the wall of village center as a separate space, television screens displaying video This chapter focuses on Huanggang’s infused with a cultural, social, and footage from every corner of the village center, much of which was historical meaning distinct from the village, he proudly claimed, “It’s safer redesigned in the late 1990s. The surrounding city. Actual entrance into in Huanggang than it is in the rest of redesign process turned the center the village is granted a few meters the city.” into a kind of urban laboratory, a later, where uniformed guards man space where the village experiments a security gate and monitor all This clock tower is also the visual with its evolving identity as it seeks incoming and outgoing traffic. This focal point of the village’s pedestrian to resolve its rural past with its checkpoint marks the transition center, Huanggang’s “culture plaza” urban future. Not all of these design from municipal to village territory, (wenhua guangchang). A quotation experiments have been successful— not unlike other urban fiefdoms in of a European town hall, the tower many are derivative imitations and China, such as corporate campuses sits atop an arcade of columns

some raise questions about village and residential communities. rendered in marble and stucco, not Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 6. Platforming Ebook outsideCentral, thehttp://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. ancestral hall achieves small-scale modal separation. Photo by Nick R. Smith. 34 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.35 ProQuest EbookImage Central, 7. Huanggang’s http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. rebuilt ancestral hall, overlooked by high-rise residential developments. Photo by Nick R. Smith. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. unlike the eclectic “postmodern” a design element that references of a different spatial and temporal design one might find in an American the modal separation of pedestrian rhythm. festival marketplace. A jumbo-tron walkways in nearby Hong Kong. is attached at one end, facing the Though hardly necessary from a While the spectacle of the village village entrance. In what has become functional perspective (the road center displays Huanggang’s urban a universal symbol of centrality (for underneath is a minor, two-lane aspirations, the ancestral hall instance, Times Square or Shibuya), access road), the platform facilitates represents the village identity it the giant television screen broadcasts a seamless connection between seeks to preserve. These values, such images of the village’s modernity. the village center below and the as filiality and consanguinity, are in Meanwhile, the traditional half-moon ancestral hall above. stark contrast with the ills of vice pool that lies at the center of many and crime with which “villages-in-the- southern Chinese villages has been From the entrance gate, to the semi- city” are associated. The importance transformed into a fountain worthy circular arcade, to the pedestrian that Huanggang attaches to these of the Las Vegas Strip. The result is a platform, each successive design values is reflected in the care it took space of spectacle and aspiration— element tells a story about to rebuild the hall after it was torn the yearning to be recognized as a Huanggang’s evolving identity, and down during the construction of “truly” urban place is palpable. As each also leads the visitor deeper Fumin Road, which now bisects the explained by the inscription at the into the village’s space, transitioning village. In the process, the ancestral base of the bull statue that marks from the rush of Shenzhen’s hall was designated as the nation’s the edge of this space, Huanggang downtown to the spiritual and first village-level museum, and it now villagers are united and unwavering historical heart of Huanggang, serves to document and display the in their pursuit of progress. the ancestral hall. Separated from history of the village and its recent the noise and bustle of traffic and development. This reverence for The fountain, lined by rows of palm shopping below, the space around the past is further reinforced by the trees, leads past the arcade to the ancestral hall is reverently quiet. fact that the only extant buildings another plaza raised on a platform Apartment buildings and skyscrapers predating the reform period are that separates the pedestrian tower overhead, but the ancestral preserved just to the south of the

corridor from vehicular traffic below, hall feels separate from the city, part ancestral hall. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

VillagesImage in the 8. City Two : Aoffice Guide buildingsto South China’sbuilt by Informalthe Huanggang Settlements, shareholding edited by corporation,Stefan Al, Hong with Kong the Universityrebuilt ancestral Press, HKU,hall in the foreground. 2014.Photo ProQuest by Nick Ebook R. Smith. Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. 36 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : AImage Guide 9. to Pre-reform South China’s housing Informal is preserved Settlements, to editedthe south by Stefan of the Al, ancestral Hong Kong hall, University with villagers’ Press, self-built HKU, apartment buildings 2014.37 ProQuestin Ebook the background. Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Photo by Nick R. Smith. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Through the redesign of its village collaboration with the district and Like civic centers elsewhere in center, Huanggang has revalorized municipal governments, Huanggang China, Shenzhen’s central axis is its space. By invoking what it sees as has designed a new southern axis monumentally scaled: vast plazas are the best of both the urban (spectacle, for the city of Shenzhen. This plan populated by isolated avant-garde centrality, commerce) and the rural envisions a series of skyscrapers buildings and transected by multi- (filiality, consanguinity, memory), and high-rise apartment buildings lane boulevards that make the space Huanggang seeks to fashion a new that extend the city’s central axis more easily traversed by car than by identity that transcends the two. south from the convention center foot. While such a space effectively Indeed, the very meaning of values into the territory of Huanggang. Two brands the city center, it bears little such as filiality has been transformed of the office towers, glass-and-steel relationship to the citizens (shimin) in the process. While much of the structures that would blend into any for whom it is named. Indeed, ancestral hall museum documents modern urban skyline, have already much of Shenzhen’s urban fabric is the history of the village, pride of been built. similarly disassociated from everyday place is now given to a scale model life. It often feels like a patchwork depicting Huanggang’s next phase of To make way for this new vision, of disjointed spaces, hastily thrown development. Glorifying the ancestors Huanggang plans to demolish together as the city’s development is now just as much a matter of much of the current building stock, careens ahead. It is an exciting space, turning Huanggang into a sparkling including villagers’ self-built housing. breathtaking at times, filled with icon of urban modernity as it is about The village center, meanwhile, will be the thrill of opportunity pursued offering sacrifices to the dead. preserved, forming a minor east-west at breakneck speed; but it can also axis that intersects with the city’s be alienating, with the city’s shallow The Village and Urban north-south axis at the ancestral roots, its lack of history, laid bare. hall. Huanggang’s ancestral hall will Renewal become the southern anchor of a It is in Shenzhen’s urban villages Huanggang’s more recent plans series of municipal institutions that that one gets a sense of the city’s for development take this search comprise the city’s Civic Center historical roots, of spaces invested

for a new identity even further. In (shimin zhongxin). with affective meaning. These Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 10. The villageEbook Central,security http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.center, located in the base of the clock tower. Photo by Nick R. Smith. 38 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. villages are not a panacea for the and the promise of its urban future. Nevertheless, Huanggang’s abstract space of Shenzhen, and Writ large, this story of tension shareholding corporation has they should be neither nostalgized and mutuality between rural and succeeded in leading a collaboration nor romanticized—many of the urban is the story of Shenzhen (Bach of village, district, and municipal problems cited by urban reformers 2010). Not only will the village offer actors in a project that promises are real. But neither can Shenzhen a welcome human-scaled reprieve to reinvigorate the space of central afford to erase them in the name from the monumentality of the city Shenzhen, a demonstration of the of urban renewal. With each village center, it will also inject the values positive and proactive role that renewal project, another piece of and identity it has cultivated directly “villages-in-the-city” are capable the city’s identity is swept clean, and into the heart of the city. of undertaking in renewing urban the abstract, monotonous space of space. This potential for the city’s “real urbanization” spreads. Instead Huanggang is in many ways urban villages to positively shape of “seamless” integration, Shenzhen unique, and the specifics of its the planning of the city has already needs to find the seams where these developmental path will not be begun to attract the attention of villages can be carefully woven into replicable in other urban villages some of Shenzhen’s forward-thinking the city fabric, transforming what with different locations, experiences, planners (Huang 2011), but the often are relatively isolated village and resources. Indeed, it would be majority of planners, scholars, and enclaves into sources of vitality and a mistake to treat Huanggang as policy-makers still view “villages-in- meaning. a model to be blindly imitated by the-city” as disorderly spaces that other villages. This is particularly true need to be renewed and revalorized This is why Huanggang is so because Huanggang’s success has not by the municipality. Huanggang important. Huanggang’s village center come without sacrifice, including, for challenges these deeply rooted preserves the essence of the village instance, the massive demolition and preconceptions about China’s urban but does not reify it. Rather, it tells dislocation necessary to make way renewal, suggesting instead that it is a story about the village’s search for skyscrapers and their high-paying the village that should be renewing for a new hybrid identity, one that corporate tenants. and revalorizing the space of the city.

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.39 ProQuest Ebook Central,Image 11. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. The leader of Huanggang explains a model of the village’s future development. Photo by Nick R. Smith. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. References [Study on external space creation jianyi” [Recommendations on of city village in Shenzhen].” Shanxi the renewal of the residential Bach, Jonathan. 2010. “‘They come in Jianzhu [Shanxi Architecture] (29). environment of ‘villages-in-the-city’]. peasants and leave citizens’: Urban Lü, Bin, and Qi Zhou. 2006. “Shenzhen Keji Xinxi [Science and Technology villages and the making of Shenzhen, Shi jinqi ‘chengzhongcun’ gaizao de Information] (8): 594. China.” Cultural Anthropology 25 guihua kongzhi ji celüe sikao” [Some Wang, Ya Ping, Yanglin Wang, and Jiansheng (3): 421–458. doi:10.1111/j.1548– measures for planning control with Wu. 2009. “Urbanization and informal 1360.2010.01066.x. regard to the recent rebuilding for development in China: Urban villages Cai, Weihui, and Yongjun Ma. 2012. ‘the villages located inside the city in Shenzhen.” International Journal of “Chengzhongcun gaizao xin silu” proper’ in the city of Shenzhen]. Urban and Regional Research 33 (4) [New thinking on the reform of Zhongguo Guotu Ziyuan Jingji [Natural (December): 957–973. doi:10.1111/ villages-in-the-city].” Hezuo Jingji Resource Economics of China] (6). j.1468–2427.2009.00891.x. Yu Keji [Co-operative Economy and Ma, Hang. 2007. “Shenzhen chengzhongcun Wang, Yaowu, and Donghui Dai. Science] (1): 26–28. gaizao de chengshi shehuixue shiye 2006. “Shenzhen shi gao midu Chen, Liuqin. 2008. “Gaizao fenxi” [Renewal of city village in chengzhongcun gaizao de shiyanxing ‘chengzhongcun’ tuidong chengshihua Shenzhen from the perspective of yanjiu” [An experimental study of the jiankang fazhan” [Reforming villages- Urban Sociology]. Chengshi Guihua reconstruction of high-density city in-the-city promotes the healthy [City Planning Review] (1): 26–32. village in Shenzhen]. Chengshi Jianzhu development of urbanization]. Ren, Wenhui, and Fan Cheng. 1989. “‘Dushi [Urbanism and Architecture] (12): Chengshi Guanli Yu Keji [Urban li de cunzhuang’ de jintian he mingtian” 37–41. Management, Science and Technology] [The present and future of ‘villages Xu, Desen. 2007. “Chengzhongcun (5): 43–44. inside the city’]. Jianzhu Xuebao gaizao de Futian moshi” [The Futian Cheng, Jialong. 2003. “Shenzhen tequ [Architectural Journal] (3): 5–9. model of village-in-the-city reform]. chengzhongcun gaizao kaifa Shao, Renwei. 2010. “Lun chengzhongcun Zhongguo Dangzheng Ganbu Luntan moshi yanjiu” [Research of the de chengyin ji gaizao de biyaoxing: [China Cadres Tribune] (11): 53–54. reconstruction mode of villages inside Yi Shenzhen wei li” [A discussion Xu, Yuanming, and Yinan Liu. 2007. the city in the Special Economic Zone of the causes and the necessity for “‘Chengzhongcun’ gaizao de of Shenzhen]. Chengshi Guihua Huikan the modification of the village in biyaoxing ji duice” [The necessity [Urban Planning Forum] (3): 57–60. the city: A case study of Shenzhen of ‘village-in-the-city’ reform Chung, Him. 2009. “The planning of municipality]. Yichun Xueyuan Xuebao and countermeasures]. Jianzhu ‘villages-in-the-city’ in Shenzhen, [Journal of Yichun College] (7): 55–57. Keji [Construction Science and China: The significance of the new Shen, Lei, and Dexiang Zhong. 2007. Technology] (23): 24–25. state-led approach.” International “Chengzhongcun gaizao sheji shili Yang, An. 1996. “‘Chengzhongcun’ de Planning Studies 14(3): 253. fenxi” [Analysis of design practice in fangzhi” [The prevention of ‘villages- doi:10.1080/13563470903450606. rebuilding countryside-in-city]. Shanxi in-the-city’]. Chengxiang Jianshe [Urban He, Yiting. 2011. “Chengzhongcun zhengti Jianzhu [Shanxi Architecture] (17). and Rural Development] (8): 30–31. gaizao yu wenhua yichan baohu de Shi, Yingjun. 2011. “Chengzhongcun gaizao Yang, Haozhong, Jin Wang, and Zhaojun tanjiu” [On exploration for general moshi yanjiu” [Research on models Zhou. 2011. “‘Youji gengxin’ lilun reform in village of city and cultural of village-in-the-city reform]. Henan zai chengzhongcun gaizao zhong de heritage protection]. Shanxi Jianzhu Shehui Kexue [Henan Social Sciences] yingyong yuanze qianxi” [Preliminary [Shanxi Architecture] (16). (1): 206–207. analysis of the principles of application He, Zhe, Shiwan Zhang, Wei Zhou, and Tian, Li. 2008. “The chengzhongcun land of ‘organic renewal’ theory in the Pengfei Li. 2011. “Chengzhongcun market in China: Boon or bane? reform of villages-in-the-city]. Qianyan guihua gaizao de lilun jichu ji A perspective on property rights.” [Forward Position] (10). xiangguan zhengce fenxi” [Theoretical International Journal of Urban and Zhang, L., Simon X. B. Zhao, and J. P. foundations and related policy analysis Regional Research 32 (2) (June): Tian. 2003. “Self-help in housing regarding the planning and reform 282–304. doi:10.1111/j.1468– and chengzhongcun in China’s of villages-in-the-city]. Zhongxiao 2427.2008.00787.x. urbanization.” International Journal of Qiye Guanli yu Keji [Management Tian, Zhenyu. 2005. “Shenzhen Urban and Regional Research 27 (4) and Science for Small and Medium chengzhongcun jianzhu gaizao de (December): 912–937. doi:10.1111/ Enterprises] (12): 84. mubiao he fangshi” [Goals and j.0309–1317.2003.00491.x.

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright Huang, Weiwen. 2011. “Urban planning methods of architectural rebuilding Zheng, Jian. 1997. “‘Chengzhongcun’ and urban village: Who is reforming of villages-in-the-city in Shenzhen]. wenti ji duice” [‘Villages-in-the-city’ whom?” Community Design (5). Tequ Jingji [Special Zone Economy] (1): problems and countermeasures]. Li, Wei, and Yilin Lin. 2007. “Shenzhen 17–21. Dangdai Jianzhu [Modern chengzhongcun gaizao zhong de Wang, Huamei. 2011. “‘Chengzhongcun’ Architecture] (4): 20. waibu gonggong kongjian suzao” renju huanjing gengxin gaizao de Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. 40 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the CityImage : A Guide 12. The to South Shenzhen China’s Convention Informal Settlements, Center is currentlyedited by Stefanframed Al, by Hong self-built Kong housingUniversity that Press, will HKU,be torn down to make way 2014.41 ProQuestfor theEbook new Central, central http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. axis. Photo by Nick R. Smith. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. reform, rural migrant workers, “made- largest and youngest migrant city. A Village by the in-China” factories, the village-in- Because of the pioneering spirit of the-city, and the creative and cultural the SEZ, informal and spontaneous Special Economic industry. Selecting Dafen to participate risk-taking has been encouraged in the Expo also signals that China’s since its inception. The government Zone: The Dafen informal economy developed in the has carefully orchestrated the past three decades is gradually being development of Shenzhen. The SEZ Paradigm of recognized and incorporated into has been under strict surveillance official planning practices and policies. and control to ensure that only China’s Though predictably controversial, minor variations exist within the Urbanization the selection of Dafen was insightful, “common ground.” This area of as the village can be seen as a control is explicit, and for two Jiang Jun representative of China’s larger urban decades after the creation of the and social transformation process SEZ, people from the hinterland still At the Shanghai World Expo 2010, and is simultaneously a model for need to hold a “border permit” to a village named Dafen was selected development in the future. Dafen’s enter Shenzhen; they pass through to represent Shenzhen in the Urban success also suggests that it is the “second frontier” check-post Best Practices area. This village is possible to nurture locally sensitive guarded by the army, and undergo on the outskirts of Shenzhen and is “created-in-China” industries on the border checks. Shenzhen has best known for its reproduction of foundation of the previous “made-in- become a “beleaguered city” of oil painting masterpieces. But Dafen China” model. the new era, experiencing a free is also a typical town, and the major economy, and also the chaos brought development ideas and practices in SEZ, Second Frontier, by the reforms (Jiang 2006). The China that have emerged during the huge economic difference between last half century can be found here: Informal Economy Hong Kong and Shenzhen is destined the industrialization of rural areas, Shenzhen has rapidly developed from to breed adventure. Large-scale

special economic zones (SEZs), land an obscure fishing village into China’s smuggling once took place along the Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 1. Aerial Ebook photograph Central, of http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Dafen Village in Shenzhen. Photo by Underline Office and Yan Fei. 42 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Hong Kong-Shenzhen border before land reform in rural areas at export-oriented economy and the development of the SEZ. With the same time when the SEZs increasing labor costs. the establishment of the second were established. The practically frontier, the Dafen residents focused unlimited supply of rural surplus Made-in-China on setting up their own businesses. labor combined with the cheap The success of these ventures has land and foreign investment was China has produced two versions brought remarkable economic the fuel for China’s industrialization of the “made-in-China” models benefits to the population of this and urbanization in the first during the last sixty years of fast-growing city (Jiang 2007). three decades of reform. The industrialization. The first three industrialization and urbanization of decades saw a model dominated by One factor that has led to Dafen’s villages and towns were launched large, state-owned enterprises which success is its geographical location. in the 1980s and lasted for ten tended to focus on capital-intensive Shenzhen was surrounded by the years. After that, the agricultural heavy industries. In the last three first and second frontiers, where production marginalized by the decades, China has gradually added customs and security checkpoints long-lasting price scissors between another model in which private connected the SEZ, hinterland China industrial products and agricultural enterprises play a significant role and Hong Kong. In these areas, a produce took rural China back to an and labor-intensive light industries series of open or secret “economic unprofitable situation in the 1990s, are more typical. Dafen’s painting zones” involved in border trade during which Dafen started its oil industry is an example of the second gradually emerged. Dafen is directly painting industry. model. Although it is not a typical connected to Hong Kong through “industry,” the painting business the Buji checkpoint and the Luohu Similar to other township industries, in Dafen stresses “quantity” over customs (it has thus become the after training the peasant workers to “quality” and competes on price. most urbanized region outside the become competent and artistically While the industry ranks relatively border). Because of its proximity to skilled workers, Dafen integrates low in the global industrial chain, it is Hong Kong, the village has attracted the cheap labor from the hinterland still able to obtain decent economic considerable foreign investments and and cheap rent in the urban villages benefits. The manufacturing entities at the same time enjoys convenient into a vast amount of low-price oil are mainly small and medium-sized access to labor resources from the painting products. These products enterprises that are responsible for hinterland. These two factors help then enter the global market. their own profit and loss. Family Dafen establish an “informal special However, the special nature of fine workshops are still prevalent and zone” and an export-oriented arts to educate and cultivate human so are the monotonous tasks on economy. The oil painting industry beings through literature and culture the assembly lines. Scenes of labor- has gradually developed and grown distinguishes Dafen’s oil painting intensive manufacturing production, in the area. But the success of industry from others. At an earlier such as group dining halls and Dafen’s oil painting industry also stage, the artistic training in Dafen workers’ dormitories, have formed resulted from the “one brand in one was an assembly-line-type skill the “sweatshop” image that is central 1 village” policy, driven by the market training only for low-skilled workers. to the “made-in-China” paradigm. and guided by the government. Dafen But today, it has evolved into quality- is one example of many similarly oriented training that is open to Dafen’s oil painting industry also specialized industrial villages in rural students, craftsmen, and painters, brings developments to other China. making it possible for Dafen to both businesses such as frame-building, export its oil painting products and canvas-making, and other material Land Reform, Cheap nourish human resources specialized supplies. These businesses offer in fine arts. Dafen can now introduce different opportunities to the artists. Labor, and Labor- quality-oriented education to a pure The development of the oil painting Fordist art production, through industry helps stimulate growth in Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright Intensive Industry enriching workers’ skills so that they other sectors, including logistics, The other success of the Dafen can become more actively involved catering, and service-oriented model lies in the large supply in the creative industry, and cope businesses in and around Dafen. The of cheap labor transferred from with the Pearl River Delta’s shrinking informal economy of Dafen takes on the hinterland. China initiated

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.43 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. the formal images of Western fine is used for construction and the because of its notoriously crowded arts; its products cover almost all peasants become workers in the and untidy image, its development genres in Western art history, and industrial villages or landlords in the is informally planned according to the industry here processes them urban villages. the market’s demand. It meets most into artistic goods that are massively of the requirements of its nomadic assembled. The uniqueness of Dafen There is a gap between the rapid population and offers the residents lies in its ability to produce classical urbanization that takes place in the affordable accommodation, which is Western aesthetics in an Eastern current market economy and the a key element to maintaining a stable agricultural country. remaining urban-rural dual system city order. that went back to the planned Industrial Village, Urban economy period, and the “village- Dafen is the spatial result of in-the-city” is a product of this the successive collision of three Village, and Urban conflict. Due to the urban-rural elements: the land collectivization Community dual system established after the in rural areas, the clusterization founding of the People’s Republic of the oil painting industry, and Driven by the export-oriented of China, the “house sites” policy the integration of regions outside industry, China’s coastline has swiftly implemented in the rural areas and inside Shenzhen. In the past, transformed from a unitary industrial contrarily becomes the only Dafen was merely one of the cluster into polynary coastal city economic attraction to the peasants villages around the Pearl River groups, while urbanization gradually after the agricultural areas have Delta’s alluvial plain. Most of these spreads from state-owned land in been urbanized. Agricultural land has villages experienced fierce de- the city to the rural areas, resulting been used for urban construction; agriculturalization in the last three in the “de-agriculturalization” of villagers have begun to build private decades of reform. Villages on the suburban areas. Agriculture shifts houses and rent them to the sharply outskirts have transformed into into industry and commerce while increasing nomadic population in production-oriented industrial the collectively-owned land becomes the city. Although the village-in-city villages, while those located in state-owned. The farming land

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 2. Migrant Ebook family Central, in Dafen http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Village. Photo by Yu Haibo. 44 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. consumption-oriented urban institutions and public spaces, actually Dafen’s chief capital. Dafen villages. The urban-rural dual system, including the Dafen Art Museum, has successfully repositioned itself as including the house sites and the strengthens the village’s position a “created-in-China” model (Keane household registration system, as a landmark in city management 2007). isolates the industrial and urban (SUIADR, “The Environmental villages in a cluster of prehistoric Renovation of Dafen Oil Painting Dafen represents a paradigm solitary islands amid modern Village,” 2006). The public policies for urbanization in China’s more industrialization and urbanization. It planned especially for “artists” in mature economy. The district’s is the non-agricultural villages built regard to housing and household transformation from a “made-in- upon these house sites that lower registration further highlight Dafen’s China” model towards a holistic and the threshold of the entire Pearl importance as a model in stimulating multilevel manufacturing system and River Delta. These villages provide the creative industry. When Dafen the diversification of the community space for small- and medium- introduced gallery space, offered reflects a shift towards a more sized enterprises as well as low- residences and scholarships to sustainable development. This model skilled workers. The lower cost young artists, and improved public chosen by Dafen not only makes housing enhances the region’s space, it created a community the area the most distinctive among competitiveness within the global and encouraged original creation Shenzhen’s numerous urban villages, industrial chain. over factory reproduction. Having it also presents a reference for evolved from being a painting-related the redevelopment of other urban From “Made in China” manufacturer, to an actual artist, villages in China. Dafen has been able to diversify. It to “Created in China” has become a “special cultural zone” At the end of the last century, in the era of post-SEZ. 1. These visual tropes of high art and the coastal SEZs have become factory sweatshops are discussed by Winnie Wong in reference to a New less significant as the once unique Dafen is paradigmatic not only York Times slideshow featuring Dafen’s economic experiment has been because of its fast and complete workers posing with famous art transformation from a rural village to promoted throughout the country. pieces. See Wong 2008. In search for a more sustainable an industrial village. It has also finally development model beyond the become an urban community. In the border economy, Shenzhen has urban reformation process, Dafen References attempted to develop its “cultural” has partly retained its productive Keane, Michael. 2007. “Media, culture and industries. Challenged by relentlessly nature as an oil painting industry social change in Asia.” In Created in rising rents, the oil painting industry base. By combining a supply created China: The Great New Leap Forward. required a prompt shift from a by industrialization with a demand London and New York: Routledge. narrowly focused, low-profit but stemming from internal urbanization, Jiang, Jun. 2006. “Informal China: A history of control and out-of-control.” Volume large-volume economic base. Having Dafen now possesses features that 2: 20, Amsterdam. undergone this identity crisis, Dafen’s are more in common with “villages” (such as New York’s SOHO) than ———. 2007. “Regenerating Shenzhen: oil painting industry has transformed Transformation of the SEZ in the the innumerable urban villages in into a creative industry. The village’s national strategy evolution.” Urban Shenzhen. The Dafen model suggests rediscovery of local production China 24: 12, Shanghai. and the establishment of an art- that there is potential within the ———. 2008. “Creative China.” Urban culture brand are driven by both the unique space produced by China’s China 33: 14, Shanghai. bottom-up informal development rural urbanization and informal ———. 2009. “Deep plowing the land and the posterior, top-down self- industrialization during the last reform: 30 years of system reform conscious design by city leaders. twenty years. The area has been marches inwards.” Urban China 36: 15, preserved as historical heritage and Shanghai. reinterpreted as a center for upstart ———. 2010a. “Urban China: Social Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright Dafen’s cultural development model creative industries. The cultural transformation and dynamic has been heavily promoted within mechanism of the agriculture identifiers—usually erased in urban the state and local governments. The civilization.” Urban China 40: 14, village reconstruction projects—are establishment of a series of cultural Shanghai.

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.45 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Image 3. Panorama of Dafen Village galleries. Photo by Underline Office and Yan Fei.

———. 2010b. “From agricultural China to urban China: The civilization’s foundations, historical heritage and reform impetus of China’s urbanization.” In Shanghai New Town, edited by Harry Den Hartog. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers. Southeast University Architecture Design and Research Institute, Shenzhen Branch (SUIADR). 2006. “The environmental renovation of Dafen Oil Painting Village.” Landscape Architecture 4: 66–67. Wong, Won Yin Winnie. 2008. “Framed authors: Photography and conceptual art from Dafen Village.” Yishu: Journal of Contemporary Chinese Art 7(4):

land into urban land. Old farming 10 million migrant workers and 5 to adapt to the new city easily. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : AImage Guide 1. to VIC South distribution China’s Informal clusters Settlements, in Shenzhen edited 2007. by StudyStefan by Al, Shenzhen Hong Kong Planning University Bureau. Press, Reprinted HKU, with permission by 2014.47 ProQuest theEbook Shenzhen Central, Planning http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Bureau. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. However, there is a downside to the What results in the spatial boundary land laws and regular planning urban villages. Due to the cramped of the VICs is a confluence of social jurisdiction, urban villagers have no living conditions and dense urban cohesion and urban blight, which regulated planning and fixed land-use fabric without compliance to building is similar to the early immigrant patterns to organize human activities regulations, sanitation and safety settlements of New York, Paris, and and block layouts. Buildings grow standards are much worse than London a hundred years ago. Unlike haphazardly with small variations those found elsewhere in the city. previous city formations, the VICs based on a three-to-six-story This “freedom” of socio-economic were previously rural lands that had village house vernacular typology. adaptability also brings its fair share been corporatized by villagers for A surprising amount of informal of crime and illegal activities such as urban habitation and production (see public space prevails in these dense

prostitution and drugs. Image 2). Falling outside of municipal village agglomerations, not unlike the Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

VillagesImage in the 2.City Futian : A Guide CBD to under South construction, China’s Informal built Settlements, around existing edited byurban Stefan villages Al, Hong in the Kong 1990s. University Photo Press, by Laurence HKU, Liauw 2014.from ProQuest an exhibition Ebook by Central, the Shenzhen http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. government in 2010. 48 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. narrow streets and micro-piazzas cityscape. There are three general in various locations. Owned by of Venice. Villagers build basic forms types of urban villages: hyperdense village cooperative shareholding of dwelling upwards and inwards. inner city villages (built-up areas companies, hundreds of these These buildings are famously known exceeding 70 percent), transformed VICs in major cities are colonized as “handshake buildings.” They are medium-density villages from older by migrant workers, students, and named as such because the buildings villages, and less dense urban fringe villagers. All varieties of social and almost touch each other and are villages (built-up areas less than 30 commercial services are provided sometimes less than one meter percent). Within Shenzhen, a lot within these VICs (such as education, apart. As rural populations migrate to of the urban villages belong to the medical services, retail services, cities in search of work, VICs in cities first type and are gradually being leisure, and religious activities), and such as Shenzhen and Guangzhou displaced from the inner city to the these activities help turn them into welcome new farmers while the city’s outskirts due to development self-sustainable communities. They original villagers are leaving: “Hello pressure and land use transformation are able to support neighboring Farmers, Goodbye Citizens.” in the last ten years. During the early communities as well and have 1980s and 1990s, most of the original become vibrant melting pots of Instant Urbanization: urban villages located around places urban migrants that make up the of work, factories, and farmland workforce of major Chinese cities. Diversity and (Shenzhen’s first urban villages had Demolition already appeared before the 1970s). As an alternative to demolition, Later generation of urban villages urban villages can also be upgraded China’s urban population currently emerged within rapidly urbanizing and renovated. Various means of constitutes over 51 percent of the districts, reflecting a different renovation can be achieved by non- total population. The Pearl River demographic shift towards a younger generic typologies, redesign and Delta typifies the effects of rapid and service-oriented society. This employment reprogramming, as urbanization and urban migration on demonstrates the flexibility of the well as infrastructure investment Chinese cities such as Guangzhou, village morphology as an urban and partial redevelopment. These Shenzhen, and Dongguan where organization and typology that can measures help improve the urban villages proliferate across the

adapt to changing functional needs environments of the urban villages Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.49 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.Image 3. Nail house in VIC. Photo by Jian Jun. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. and transform them into sustainable of industrialized economies and timeline of one generation. Urban micro-economies and social modernization of cities. Problems villages encapsulate this societal ecologies, as well as cultural sites for such as agglomeration, urban infill, transformation and become actors spatial practice. For the three general deficient infrastructure, population in the process. Relocation of village villages types mentioned above, growth, migrant workers, and residents requires huge financial high-density city center villages hygiene problems have all badly compensation from the government benefit from partial redevelopment, affected development. But effective for the loss of land rights, and these medium-density older villages need measures such as post-industrial compensations have created “new redesigning, while low-density adaptive reuse, preservation, village billionaires.” Local government fringe villages require complete sanitation infrastructure, affordable intervention and “official surveys” reprogramming to avoid extinction. tenement housing, creative industries often result in enforced “renovation” This shows that different means can and urban diversity have been put while land prices keep setting records. be used to renovate or regenerate forward to help bring transformation. What does redevelopment make various urban village types. way for? For whom redevelopment Extensive (unpublished internal is planned? Where do the migrant Urbanization of the Pearl River research) surveys done by the workers go and live after the VICs Delta has been the fastest and of the Shenzhen Planning Bureau in have been demolished? Can they find largest scale witnessed in history, 2005 revealed widely different work there? Villages are no longer which converted large tracts of rural living conditions of various urban farmlands and have become places land into urban land. Urban villages villages in the Futian District. This for work, living, and urban services; are caught somewhere between shows that, unlike what has been they have become social condensers this transition in China’s society, widely reported, urban villages are within the increasingly generic cities bringing the best (and worst) from not generic in their livability and of Chinese urbanization. Reported each domain. Urbanization and building fabric. Some are actually in cases of villagers’ resistance and “nail the creation of cities are results of a worse state with poor sanitation, houses” (or the last building standing modernization and industrialization infrastructure, and public amenities. on the site) (see Image 3) in Gangxia of China. With the rise of “scientific Successful urban villages have the and Dachong in Shenzhen, or Liede planning” as a professional discipline capacity to serve diverse populations and Xian in Guangzhou, highlight and policy in the late nineteenth including migrant workers, students, VICs as a vital source for land and century, demolition-redevelopment white-collar workers, shopkeepers, human capital in the PRD cities. Lost was used as a primary tool for and farmers. Many are decent places heritage and identity is often cited erasing “undesirable” elements such that offer affordable, vibrant, and as a reason for preserving the urban as urban villages in the name of mixed-use environments. These form villages. Some villages in Guangzhou progress, health, and safety. Urban essential urban design features that are over 700 years old, while those in slums in industrial cities requiring all cities need. The Shenzhen case Shenzhen have a history of fewer than renovation or redevelopment and shows that not all urban villages 30 years. Yet, their rural heritage also the need to accommodate migrant are in the same conditions; neither deserves to be preserved. Economics workers are not new problems. In do they face the same problems. is a catalyst for development, but nineteenth-century Europe and early They require different solutions the high relocation settlement costs twentieth-century America, mass for renewal, regeneration, and may hinder renovation. In 2005, the migration of workers from smaller renovation to provide more livable Shenzhen government demolished cities to modern metropolises also and affordable places, so as to be Yunong Village in Futian by dynamite, saw rapid urbanization, which China integrated with the city around making it the largest demolition by experiences today. Urban ghettoes in them. explosion in China (see Image 4). major cities have been created by the With this first explosion, the tone was densification of migrant populations. It is rare for a city like Shenzhen to set for official “urban renovation” to Urban historians Peter Hall and go along with the “real estate boom”

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright have transformed from a rural area Lewis Mumford have both written (in the 1970s) to an industrial area [sic] in southern Chinese cities. extensively on the overcrowding (during the 1980s–2000 period), Recent demolition of Dachong Village and unsanitary conditions in London and then to finally become a service in Nanshan District (2011) involved and New York due to the pressure economy (in the 2000s) within the compensation exceeding 100 million

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. 50 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. RMB for 168 families, and relocation form of “necessary evil” in rapidly created demand for redeveloping of 70,000 non-permanent residents urbanizing cities, as they stand as a rural and village land in China. in 1,500 buildings to make way for unique form of sustainable urbanism Provision of “public housing” in the a new technology park. In many that helps fill the void created world’s largest socialist economy similar cases, individual, social, and by China’s social housing policy. was suddenly overturned; due to human capital sacrifices are made The government has been slow the sudden policy shift in 1998, for the overall urban prosperity in providing affordable housing as government-provided social housing and economic gain. The changes are Chinese cities struggle to balance dropped from close to 100 percent reflected in China’s widening wealth urban development, affordable to less than 10 percent. Since then, gap of urban populations in cities, housing stock, and human capital. housing prices have skyrocketed where migrating and indigenous Affordable housing and sustainable (over 500 percent in Shenzhen), rural populations coexist. Instant communities in cities have become making housing unaffordable for many relocation of villagers, resulting in a challenging priority for the central people. The high housing costs will instant wealth for a few, forms for a government since danwei ( 單位 ) also become a time bomb for social new city-in-the-making process of housing was abolished in 1998 due stability, especially in the volatile PRD gentrification. to housing market reforms. Prior to cities, if no alternative forms of social 1978, housing was centralized and housing are available. Recognizing this Affordable Housing: allocated, and until 1998 subsidized problem, China’s Central Government public rental housing was provided has announced plans to build 36 Social Alternatives by the danwei work-units as a form million units of affordable housing Government policies to regulate of employee benefits. Although during the 12th Five-Year Plan by and demolish urban villages in the government-built public rental 2015, and construction of 10 million recent years have met with strong housing still existed in limited units had started in 2011–12. There local resistance because of the forms (subsequently discontinued are three categories of affordable important social and economic in Shenzhen) at the time, it was housing: economic housing units roles the villages play to safeguard the semi-private market (danwei limited to 60 square meters, which the rights of marginalized migrant housing sales and economic housing will be sold at discounts in the communities to live and work within sales) and “commodity housing” by market; low-rent housing units less

cities. VICs have become a benign the private sector developers that than 50 square meters that will be Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A ImageGuide to4. SouthDemolition China’s of Informal Yunong Settlements, Village in Shenzhen edited by byStefan explosion Al, Hong in Kong2005. University Photo by Press, Laurence HKU, Liauw captured from a 2014.51 ProQuest Ebookpublic Central,exhibition http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. video at the Shenzhen Pavilion, 2010 Shanghai Expo (original author unknown). Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. leased to low-income users; and Social costs of demolition and disruption to productivity due to price-capped housing units limited relocation cannot be measured in the relocation of migrant workers to 90 square meters that will aim RMB or square meter, but by urban away from urban villages would also at middle-income families. Although cohesiveness, productivity, societal have drastic effects on these cities more alternatives are provided, harmony, and cultural diversity. In socially, economically, and ultimately these housing units still cannot many such cases, the social costs politically. According to China’s provide for the marginalized migrant outweigh tangible costs of urban Ministry of Housing and Urban and workers who prefer to live in urban development (see David Harvey’s Rural Development (MOHURD), in villages, as many cannot afford even “The Right to the City” and “Social 2011, resettlement and renovation subsidized social housing. In 2006, Justice and the City” position, which of urban villages (slums) would land use per capita in China was claims that cities cannot remain account for 40 percent of the 133 square meters on average, “objective” in the face of urban 10 million social housing units. compared to the standards within poverty and social ills; Harvey argues The government had promised urban villages of less than 1 square that capitalism annihilates space to to complete the renovation by meter per capita. To resettle and ensure its own reproduction). The 2012. Construction of new and house all the migrant workers physical environments of our cities affordable housing units is unable to in Shenzhen’s 320 urban villages, have become battlegrounds for late keep up with the expanding urban according to normative space capitalism, rather than custodians population. Therefore, urban villages standards, would need 93 million of civilization and humanity. are still regarded as alternative social square meters and would cost the Reflected in the recent riots and affordable housing by the workers. Shenzhen government over one suicides in the PRD factory towns, They are waiting for new solutions trillion RMB. The economics of VIC expensive accommodation and in urban regeneration that are redevelopment and social housing rising labor costs have resulted in more sustainable and less socially alternatives seem related and yet poor social harmony and divided disruptive. Here lies the opportunity disassociated due to unresolvable the communities in which 5 million for upgrading urban villages as differences in land ownership, migrant workers are serving 10 livable communities and for finding

private interests, and affordability. million residents in Shenzhen. Any innovations for redevelopment Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.Image ProQuest 5. Kowloon Ebook Walled Central, City http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. in Hong Kong. Photo by Stevage. Wikipedia. 52 Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Image 6. Global slums regeneration in New York, Rio de Janeiro, Mumbai and Shanghai. Sources: New York: Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KatzGentrificationLES.JPG; Rio: Photo by Morar Carioca program; Mumbai: Photo by Srinivas

Kuruganti, http://srinivaskuruganti.photoshelter.com/image/I0000cX19jPh3z0g; Shanghai: Photo by Laurence Liauw. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.53 ProQuest EbookImage Central, 7. Songgang http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Village. Regeneration study by Laurence Liauw and the Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. that will offer migrant populations any alternative to demolition? What infrastructure and paving have affordable accommodation within kind of regeneration can be made been upgraded. The area has been socially inclusive communities. possible? How can the regeneration revitalized with upscale art galleries, of urban villages continue to act as a retail stores, and entertainment When one looks at the history sustainable and economically viable facilities for tourists, yet many of the of China’s housing policy and form of social and environmental original residents have remained in typologies over time, one can find continuity? Are there any alternatives the district. These cases illustrate recurring patterns of occupation and such as preservation, renovation, how inner city slum transformations community—from ancient villages, rehabilitation, conversion, adaptive can result in livable sustainable farming communities, traditional reuse, partial demolition, and communities through good urban courtyard compounds, to socialist redevelopment for VIC continuity design and the right mix of communes, danwei xiaoqu ( 單位 in the future? Shenzhen’s economy (re)programming and public 小區 ) housing estates, VICs, and and demographics are changing; investment (see Image 6). contemporary gated megablocks. All redevelopment decisions need of these have typological and social not be driven simply by real estate A Tale of Four Villages in characteristics that are common to and tax revenues. One can find everyday patterns of collective living successful cases, both recent and Shenzhen in China. VICs within this lineage still historical, of economically viable The following four village archetypes have a historical and social role. As urban regeneration in China and tell different stories of VICs and a new collective housing typology, other countries. In the developed reflect on Shenzhen in the making. they have become a resource and a countries, well-known cases such commodity for the city, as well as a as the Marais district in Paris, East Village 1–Decay/Songgang habitat to new migrant communities. End in London, and the Lower In persistent Chinese typologies that East Side in New York, all originally Songgang is classified as a “town” dominated cities in the past, there accommodated migrants in dense within Shenzhen and is located are embodied cultural habits and unhygienic settlements. After years near Dongguan. It has a population spatial practices that resist political of slow regeneration, they are now of about 700,000 and its history and economic changes. Chinese vibrant, diverse, and desirable places of development is under 20 years. vernacular tendencies that transcend for living, work, and play. There Residents are almost exclusively economic levels, such as communal are also similar successful cases migrant workers, with fewer than living in compounds, are at the of regeneration of urban slums 25,000 permanent hukou holders. A heart of Chinese culture and spatial in developing countries. Dharavi classic PRD factory town (Al 2012) type (see de Certeau 1984, which in Mumbai is one of the world’s formed instantly around industrial studies how people individualize largest urban slums sustained by production and infrastructure mass culture and everyday objects complex socio-economic networks. expansion. Numerous urban villages in order to make them their own). It continues to grow in population, are scattered around the factories A maturing city such as Shenzhen is despite being in the middle of the located along the No. 107 Highway, often forced to replace vernacular city and a place for producing export which connects Shenzhen with urban villages with new, imported goods that are worth over US$650 Guangzhou. Many of these villages typologies. For example, in Hong million per year. In Brazil, the “Morar have no sanitation infrastructure Kong, the most extreme urban Carioca Favela Regeneration Project” and are surrounded by “rubbish village ever built—the Kowloon in Rio de Janeiro is an innovative mountains” of industrial waste. The Walled City (KWC) with 35,000 program of government investment half-occupied buildings are in a state inhabitants on a 2.5-hectare site in upgrading infrastructure, public of decay and the environment is (see Image 5)—was ruthlessly facilities, and affordable housing very polluted. Most of the original demolished in 1992, and Nga Tsin inside the favela slums. Shanghai residents left the village long ago. Wai Village (the last urban walled has its own version of bottom-up

Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright There is no farming in the area village) was demolished in 2010, regeneration in Tianzifang District in anymore, but overgrowth of both after 600 years of existence. which the vernacular nongtang ( 弄 vegetation abounds and animals Government planners need to ask 堂 ) alleyways and row houses have run wild in the alleys. As industrial themselves the following: Is there been preserved, while sanitation production and exports in the Pearl

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.55 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.Image 9. Gangxia Village, next to Futian CBD, under demolition, 2010. Photo by Laurence Liauw. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. River Delta have decreased since packed, with a floor area ratio of 3.5. development (see Image 9). One the 2009 financial crisis, there has Over 150,000 residents live in about could have proposed regeneration been an exodus of factory workers. 10,000 units on a 162,000-square measures instead of outright Millions of workers have returned to meter site. It is not always easy to demolition of western Ganxia, their home villages since 2009. This provide accommodation for the which would include: upgrading the “hollowing out” process of cities residents. In 1980, Gangxia Village village to provide affordable housing has left some urban villages virtually was still a traditional rural village. and new consumer industries, deserted; they have become “ghost Its building density was low in the reprogramming functions within the towns.” The only resolution offered Futian District and the village had village, adding tourist attractions and by the Songgang government is to mainly been an agricultural area urban amenities such as retail and attract new investment for factories, until the 1990s. Each private house education, and improving access by or demolish the villages to make had a large courtyard in the front CBD occupants. These regeneration way for residential development. This surrounded by farmland. After measures could have balanced the case study illustrates the fragility of the Futian CBD Masterplan had pressure of demolition by making migrant labor communities whose been approved in the early 1990s, the village more integrated within growth depends much on global the district was urbanized almost its surrounding community while economic cycles. Although the living overnight. This area now houses the improving the quality of life for its standards are low in these villages, government headquarters, metro existing residents. there is no real root cause for the stations, civic buildings, and a cluster workers to regard them as “home.” of commercial towers including Village 3–Employment/Dafen An urban study on post-industrial a new Shenzhen Stock Exchange typologies led by this essay’s author building. Gangxia in the past Dafen Village is probably the most was conducted in 2009 at the accommodated migrant workers famous urban village in China, due Chinese University of Hong Kong. and locals who worked not only in to its unique inhabitants who are Results from this study show that factories, but also in urban service mostly artist-painters. Located in new adaptive typologies that reflect industries such as restaurants, the Longgang District of Shenzhen’s changing uses and economic cycles hotels, wholesales, and logistics. industrial heartland, Dafen had could offer a fabric-based approach White-collar workers at one point humble beginnings in the 1980s to urban village regeneration (see constituted over 40 percent of the when there were just 300 residents. Image 7). According to the proposal, urban village population in Ganxia. Through reproduction of oil 40 percent of the Songgang District The real estate boom in Shenzhen paintings, Dafen Village managed to can be preserved with a mix of in the 2000s was translated into transform itself into a billion RMB affordable housing, new industries, skyrocketing land prices in urban enterprise and the oil paintings have and infrastructure and environmental areas and the demand for housing also put Dafen on the global tourist upgrading. Residents and workers rapidly increased. Because of its map. Dafen Village has become all can remain in the district, with prime location within the new at once a factory, a spectacle, a minimum disruption and low CBD, urban villagers could no landmark, and an economic engine. social costs associated with total longer afford housing inside Ganxia It produces 60 percent of the demolition, while new industries can Village. In 2006, the shareholding world’s oil paintings and its growth be motivated to migrate here so as company claimed that the Ganxia is a case of bottom-up, informal to regenerate the local economy and VIC was in need of “renovation.” urbanism through the collaboration sustain migrant populations. This, in reality, means demolition and of the migrant workers and local reconstruction (with 52 percent of galleries. This “factory” has become Village 2–Demolition/ the land retained by Gangxia Village a “dream factory” (Liauw, 2010) and a “museum of work” through Gangxia shareholders and the remaining 48 percent to be sold to property “art in the age of mechanical (re)

Gangxia Village is located in developers). Residents began to production” (Benjamin 1936). Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright Shenzhen’s central business district relocate from 2008 to 2011, when With more than 800 galleries and (CBD), adjacent to the new city the Ganxia Western village (48%) 10,000 artists in Dafen’s 0.4 sq. government headquarters (see Image was demolished to make way for km area, it has become part of the 8). Buildings in Gangxia are tightly a new “mixed-use commercial” Chinese export machine. In Dafen,

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.57 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663.Image 11. Da Vincci Plaza in Dafen Village. Photo by Laurence Liauw. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. art has been transformed into a ancestral halls, fish farms, and paddy higher land use density and change creative industry powerhouse, as fields colonized the fertile Futian of land uses. This change of use and Shenzhen itself became a UNESCO District. Since the 1990s, the village negotiated density is an approach City of Design in 2008. The Dafen has grown to maximum densities. It that many urban villages can employ inhabitants have transformed the is surprising that Huanggang Village to resist pressure for demolition village into something beyond mere has preserved its heritage (the older because of rising land prices. New physical form and purpose, despite Jilong Village, half in ruins, still sits and higher density plots on the having built a “Da Vincci Plaza” and inside the village) and renovated village’s perimeter can be integrated the Dafen Museum (see Images 10 parts of the village. There are a with the surrounding commercial and 11). Now Dafen is a “cultural variety of public spaces, amenities, developments and such integration institution” (and other creative Chinese gardens, parks, auditoriums, can generate income to pay for industry hubs such as Tianmian visitor centers, and ancestral halls renovation of the inner urban Village), sustaining itself through new (see Image 12). Space standards of village. It is a phased and economical content production, rather than streets in Huanggang are decent approach to urban village upgrading, merely providing accommodation and buildings appear clean with which maintains self-sustainability as for workers. Dafen painters have modernized sewage systems. A a core principle of village life, even transformed their village houses variety of inexpensive shops, social within city centers. for non-domestic use and helped services, markets, and quality establish a self-sustained community eateries line the village’s central The above four cases show the of painters, teachers, art dealers, streets, providing public amenities diverse fates and choices of students and families. Although to the surrounding areas. The livable Shenzhen’s urban villagers: (1) Dafen’s painting reproduction mix of (renovated) old and new move away from the Pearl River business seems to have produced coexists with Huanggang’s urban Delta; (2) relocate within the city a new economic model for urban regeneration. There are redeveloped with compensation; (3) create villages, proposals for improving its commercial buildings in the main new employment opportunities environment for the residents and streets of Futian. Huanggang even within the VICs; (4) stay and make neighbors also provide clues for has its own non-typical high-rise urban villages more livable through future development. To begin with, hotels and administration buildings. urban regeneration. Four workable retail and skilled workshops could After the Futian border-crossing was strategies for renovation and be established in Dafen to stimulate opened in 2007, the nearby CBD regeneration have been suggested new creative industries beyond and Shenzhen Convention Center here for the four VICs; they painting. Facilities in Dafen need to were completed with a booming could be applied to other urban be upgraded to accommodate more residential market. Huanggang villages in similar conditions. For mixed uses. Affordable housing for Village was under threat for total Songgang, a change in typology was artists, accessible public spaces, and redevelopment in 2010. Having recommended to help transform the urban infrastructure connectivity, are avoided demolition, it is now one of village. For Ganxia, reprogramming also needed. The ultimate potential the few remaining living testaments and affordability would help make for Dafen remains as a tourist in Shenzhen where a renovated it more accessible. For Dafen, destination, but issues of urban inner city village provides livable integrating existing villages with sustainability must be addressed so space and becomes a resource mixed uses would help sustain that Dafen will not become a ghetto for citizens who may need more diversified creative industries. For for painters and can develop into an affordable housing and everyday Huanggang, higher-density plot inclusive creative community. services or goods. Huanggang’s social development and restoration of the and environmental sustainability inner village would help transform Village 4–Regeneration/ shows that migrant worker the village into an affordable Huanggang communities and resident villagers place within the city center. These

do not need to be marginalized away decisions for renovation are not Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright Huanggang Village is located close to from the city center. Modernization only up to resident landlords of the the Shenzhen-Hong Kong border. Its of Huanggang shows how its villagers villages, but are also dependent on history goes back to the pre-PRC can take control of the urbanization the redevelopment policies of local period when Hakka farmers with process with negotiated plots of municipal governments and property

cannot be ignored. Increasing living improvement. Coexistence and escape from authoritarianism and Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.59 ProQuest Ebook ImageCentral, 12. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Huanggang Village Ancestral Hall and perimeter redevelopments by villagers. Photo by Laurence Liauw. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. repression. Urban villages could be official planning regulations. As not only serve as resistance to late characterized as heterotopias since with other dominant heterotopias capitalist city development; they also they are in the same time-place and (such as the Kowloon Walled City), offer an affordable and sustainable are internalized, alternative worlds they are often subject to enforced model of vernacular urbanism that of sub-standard living spaces and erasure by external economic or is uniquely Chinese. Urban Villages environments of hope and humanity. political interests and bureaucratic are accidental, informal, popular, and Village residents coalesce spatially mindsets. But urban villages, viable for millions of people that and habitually through social and when sustained through quality will make up future cities in China’s urban ecologies that confound regeneration and renovation, do urban dream.

“The truest moment in any urban village is that everyone who has made the leap here—man or woman, elder or child, is arduously struggling for a better tomorrow.” 「城中村裡最真切的落點，是每一個躍動在這裡的身影─男女老少都在為明天艱辛地努力著。」 — Zuo Li, at a photo exhibition, OCT B10 Gallery, 2012 (on the site of a former urban village)

References

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Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright , edited by J. R. Logan. Oxford: Blackwell. Catalogue. Shanghai: Shanghai Expo. Planning and Geo-information Foucault, Michel. 1984. “Of other spaces.” Ma, Hang. 2008. “Villages in Shenzhen: Management, Utrecht University. ITC Heterotopias lecture in 1967. In Typical economic phenomena dissertation No.205 / ISBN 978–90- Architecture/Mouvement/Continuité. of rural urbanization in China.” 6226–295-1.

Villages in the City : A Guide to South China’s Informal Settlements, edited by Stefan Al, Hong Kong University Press, HKU, 2014.61 ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/otis-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1784663. Created from otis-ebooks on 2018-01-17 14:40:07. Copyright © 2014. Hong Kong University Press, HKU. All rights reserved. rights All HKU. Press, University Kong Hong 2014. © Copyright