CULTURE AND CONSERVATION; THE HUMAN D//MENS'ON ENYIRONMENTA t PTANNING 'N Edited by Ieffrey A.McNeely &Dovid Pitt qP CROOM HELM London o Sydney o Dover, New Hampshire UICN Bibliothèque CONTENTS O1985 The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural ResPurces Croom Helm Ltd, Provident House, Burrell Row, Beckenham, Kent BR3 IAT Croom Helm Australia Pty Ltd, First Floor, 139 King Street, Sydney, NS\ry 2001, Àust¡alia British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Culture and conservation: the human dimension WLrrJ v1t in environmental planning' Foreword 1. Nature conservation-Social aspects Pr e face IX I. McNeely, Jeffrey A' II. Pitt, David I,IKî Acknowledgements x1 639.9 QHT5 ISBN 0-7099-13214 ,3f 3 INTRODUCTION - Culture: A l"lissing Elenent in Conservation and DeveloPnent' C¡oom Helm,51 Washington Street, bY Jeffrey A- l4cNeelY and Dover, New Hampshire,03820 USA Davit PitÈ I Library of Congtess Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: SECTION ONE - RETHINKING CONCEPTS FOR INDIGENOUS PEOPLqS 1I Cultu¡e and conservation. CONSERVATION AND L. Environmental policy - Social aspects - Case studies' Peoples and Economic I. McNeely, Jeffrey A. II. Pitt, David C. III. Inter- Chapter I Tribal Nature and Natural DeveloPment: The Human Ecological national Union for Conservation of 13 Resou¡ces. Dimension, bY Robert Goodland HC79.E5C85 1984 333.7'1'091724 84-19986 rsBN 0-7099-13214 Chapter 2 Native Cultures and ProÈecÈed Areas¡ Management OPtions, by Leslie A. Brownrigg 33 Chapter 3 Conservation and Indigenous Peoples: A studY of Convergent Interests, bY James C. CLad 45 SECTION T!{O - IIIANAGEI'IENT FOR AND !'IITH PEOPLE 63 Chapter 4 The Lancaster Sound Regional StudY, bY Peter Jacobs 65 Chapter 5 Traditional Land-Use and Nature Conservation in llladagascar, Printed and bound in Great Britain bY JosePh AndriamamPianina 81 by Billing & Sons Limited, Vy'orcester 111 15 Chapter 6 Influence of Historical and Chapter Interactions between People and CulÈural Differences on Èhe actual Forests in East Kalimantan, of nature by A.P. Vayda, Carol J. pierce Ievel of conservation I beÈ\n¡een Ma jorca and Minorca CoIfer and Mohamad Brotokusumo 2LL by Miguel MoreY 9I Islands' people, I Chapter 16 Shona Totems and Wj.IdIife, by Chris Tobayiwa SECTION THREE - TRADITIONAL AND INDIGENOUS I and Peter Jackson 229 KNOI^¡LEDGE AND PRACTICE 10r ) Chapter 7 The Andean Native PeoPIes in the SECTION FIVE WHERE WE ARE GOING 237 ConservaÈion Planning Processt t ¿ by Hernán Torres 103 Chapt.er 17 Culture and Conservation: Some { Thoughts for the Future, Chapter 8 The Hema SysÈen of Range Reserves by C. de Klemn 239 in the Arabian Peninsula: Its Possibilities in Range Improvement :' Chapter 18 Ethnobotanics and Anthropology and Conservation Projects in the L as Tools for a CulÈural Omar Draz 109 Conservation StraÈegy, Near East, by J I by Enrique Leff 259 and Managemenf Chapter 9 The Conservation I of the Jebel Qara Region¡ bY Chapter 19 Cultural Ecology and,'Management" H.F. Lanprey L23 ! of Natural Resources or Knowing when not to Meddle, by p. Nowicki 269 ChapÈer I0 Socj.al Restraints on Resource Utilization: The Indian Chapter 20 Towards EÈhnoconservation, Experience, bY Madhav GadgiI 135 by David Pitt 283 Chapter Il TraditÍonal Marine Practices Chapter 21 The Image of Nature in the Urban in Indonesia and their Bearing on Environment, by F. Terrasson 297 Conservation, bY Nicholas V.C. Polunin 155 Chapter 12 Customary Land Tenure and Conservation in Papua New Guineat by Peter Eaton 18l Chapter 13 Traditional Marine Resource Management in the Pacific, by GarY A. Klee 193 SECTION FOUR - CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING BY THE PEOPLE 203 Chapter 14 People, Trees and Antelopes in the Indian Desert, bY K.S. Sankhala and Peter Jackson 205 IV v further research into the lifestyles, conservation and development practices of traditional communities and to develop a wide range of action programmes' PREFACE Peter Jacobs Harold Eidsvik Cha i r man Cha irman Commission on Environmental Commission on National Planning' IUCN. Parks and Protected Areas, IUCN VI lI So toral' Planning nation. it is often is of the-*ít gr if piuñ"i"g sanctions that ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ferent fields- comments and assistance over the long haul while this volume was being prepared. x x1 l Introduct, ion CULTURE: THE MISSING ELEMENT IN CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT By Jeffrey A. McNeely and David Pitt InÈernational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 1196 Gland, Switzerlan THE PURPOSE OF THE BOOK This book is an attempt to argue for an alternative or additional culÈural, social dimension in environ- mental planning and management. Put simply, many of the ideas and values held by ordinary people in Èhe different cultures around Èhe world often have a long history coming from Èimes and places where humans lived in close harmony with their local en- vironment,. This perspective is a kind of conser- vaÈion from below, an attempt to build on indigenous and traditional knowledge and practice and to ensure the maximurn amount of Iocal direclion in environ- mental and conservational matters. There has always been something of a love-hate relationship between man and nature. Man lived off naturers bounty, but nature also held dangers which could threaten man's very survival. Through the years, man adapted to this situation, evolving social systems, technology and customs which allowed him to live i.n a ?ort of þa_lance with his environ- Vnl*^ ment, to make a comfortable accomnodation to natural constraints¡ because so-called "primitive people" who are in balance with their environment are able to Iive so well on so Iittle, human life at the Stone Age level has been called "the original affluent society" (Sahlins , L972). The people who continue their existence at t,raditional levels today are "ecosystem people" who Iive wit.hin the limits established by their local environments (Dasmann, L972) . Once agriculture began to evolve some 10,000 years ê9or nants relationship with the land began to change at an accelerating rate; the ecosystem of Homo sapiens expanded as man began to control the forces of nature for the benefit of his expanding I Introduction Introduction population. The most favourable areas soon began Iogical controls. One mechanism is Èhe establish_ to- support civilizaÈions which converEed natural ment of proÈected areas. Iandscãpes into agricultural landscape-s; wild species of Plants and animals which were adapÈed to the nost fertile soils became extinct, or had to THE IDEA OF PROTECTED AREAS adapt to less favourable habitats. I But even with the coming of agriculturer Ehere I narly in the industrial revoluÈion, a few individ- was a rich diversity of locáI cultural adaptations to local conditions and wide areas of natural veg- etation remained, esPecially in the uplands which sometimes served as a "buffer zone" beÈween civiliz- ations. These wildernesses continued to support populations of traditionat ecosystem people who maintained their cultural, Iinguistic and ecological Wyoming in L872, the protected area movement grew distinctness frorn the Iowland agricultural civiliz- steadily and has now exÈended over the entire globe. ations. While Èhe area of wilderness was reduced, The International Union for Conservation world of ñature it was still extensive and much of the natural and Natural Re.so.urces (IUCN) has provided an was still protected from the most disruptive human rrofficial'r definition of artnational pa'rk" influences by cuItural,/ecological factors such as l97I) r and in 1959 a 1Hãrroy, warfare resolution of the unitèd taboos Preventing over-exploiÈation' tribal Nations Economic cil charged IUCN which kept wide areas as wilderness "buffer zones" with t.he task of taining aí up-to- between groups, land ownership by ancestors rather date list of the parks- and eluiv_ than individuals, and many others (Amaru IV, 1980). alent reserves. tesponse has been It was the industrial revolut.ion which finally generated to cou inirerenÈ in Èhe changed things on a global scale. What was once a rfY diverse collection of local ecosystems or river- \ basin civilizations becarne a much less diverse and ,ts more closely int.erlinked system which covered the ñ entire world. EcosysÈen people became "biosphere people", who drew their supPort not from any one local ecosystem but from the entire capital of the worldrs Iiving matter (Dasmann, L972r. A simplified exanple will illusÈrate the point: oil from Saudi Arabia fuels the machines and makes the fertilizers and pesticides which allow marginal Iand in west Africa to grow a crop of cocgÂ- for Switzerland Eo make inÈo chocolaÈe which it fly! on American-made airplanes to Singapore for clistri- bution in southeast Asia¡ the profit made by the \.rest African farmer allows him to purchase a Japanese motorcycle, Ethiopian coffeer ôDd Thai rice. The dorninance of this all-encompassing eco- systern has placed the hu¡nan species in a position THE hIORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY to destroy many living resources and Èo disrupt Èhe natural ecological processes which susÈain all life. But protected areas are only part of the story. It whereas species and ecosystems \,ùere conserved in is also necessary to have wider progranmes for sinpler tines by the low level of technologyr cul- action. An important step was taken in 1980, with tural conÈrols on over-exploitation, and manrs rela- the publication of the WorId servation a tive ecological humbleness, other, more explicit, (IUCN, 1980). This document defin conserva on conservation mechanisms have beco¡ne necessary as AS "the management of human use of the biosphere so man's technology allows him to exceed natural eco- tha t it nay yield the great,est sustainable benefit 2 3 Introduct ion Introduct ion and decision-making processes; c) seek continuous support of these local- people in shaping and irnplementing conser- vation strategies, programmes and plans, in order to consj.derably increase present conservation potentials for achieving the goals of the WorId Conservation Strategyi and d) foster further research into traditional tributions to social and economic development, pro- Iifestyles and human ecology.